CHAPTER 1 The Singularity of China SOCIETIES AND NATIONS tendo thik ofthenshes as eternal. They also cherish a tale of her org. A special feature of Chinese chization shat seems to have no begining It ‘appears in story es as a coavetonl uaoa-state saa a permanent nanral phasomenon late tal of tae Yeove Emperor revered by mnay Chinese as te legendary founding nis China seems aes to exist. When the Yelow Emperor appears in wth, Chinese ciation hs fen into chaos. Competing princes harass each eter and the people, yet an enfecbled ‘ir fst natin order. Levyng on ery, the new bro paces the reakn and is aclaned as enpexor ‘The Yelow Emperor has gone dove a history as a founding her: yet athe foundig ath, bes restablshing not ccatig. an emp. China predated hin: sides into the istrical ‘consciousness as an established state reqtng ony restoration, not creation. This paradox of Chines history recurs wit the ancient sage Confcis again bes seen a the founder” ofa tae although he stressed that he had iovected ating that he was merely tying to enigoate the pines of harmony wich had once existed i the golden age bt had bee ota CConfacins's own era of plical chaos. Reflecting on the paradox of Chinas orgs, the nineteen cent msionary an trav the Abbé Régis-Evarite Hu, observed: (Chinese chain riinates in an antigay 2 remote that we wll cadeavor to discovers commenceneat. There are uo waces ofthe sate ciakacy among he people. This ie a ‘very pec fct respecting China. We are accstomed in the istry of aon to fad some well defined pont of depart, andthe historic docamets, tations, and monet "har ems to us generally para us ofl, sknost tap by sep, the progress of ciation tobe present at is bth, to watch s development our mance aa ‘case, fe subsequent decay and fa Du ts aot tha withthe Chinese. They seem to have been alvay ining inthe same stage of adrancemert asin the preseat day; andthe daa aig are sucha to coafim that opinion ‘Whon Chinese wit charac fst evoked, diag the Shans Dynasty i the Secon malemum B.C. ecient Faypt was a the height os lory. The seat ty states of lsscal ‘Gecsce had act yet emerged. and Rome was mdlensia away. Yer the dect descendant of the Shaag wring systems slused by well over aillon people today. Chinese today can ‘understand iscripsons writen inthe age of Confcis; contemporary Chinese books and conversations ave eiched by centures-o aphorisms cing ancient bates and court ines "Al the seme tina, Chinese story feared many pesods of cil Was, itoregnm, sd chaos Aller each calapse, the Chinese state econstued sala by Some mutble a of cance, Ateach age, a new uniting fgwe emerged, folowing eeseaialy the procedeat ofthe Yelow Empeor to subd rival and reuiéy China (and somes eae its bound). ‘The faous opeting of The Romance ofthe Three Kingdoms, a fouteent-entay epic novel weasued by centres of Chinese Gackting Mio, who i sat have pored overt ost cbessively in bis yout), evokes hs conious ryt “The erpite long ved, st ute; long ted, rast dvd. Ts tas ever been"? Each pod of inet was viewed as an ‘besraon. Fach sew dynasty cached back tthe previous dynasty’ praciples of governance inorder to reestablish conan. The fandamewa precepts of Chinese cane ended, tested by the strain of peso clay “Before the sna even of Chinese wicaon i 221 B.C, there had boon a len of dynes re hat sraduly stead as th feudal subdisonsevaved Bom atone independence. The cuinaon was to and aha ceanwes of tamed recorded ia history asthe Waning States period (475-221 B.C). Its Ewopeon equvalear Weald be the ineepmam ‘tween the Treaty of Wephals in 168 andthe end ofthe Second World War, when a maliiciy of Emopesn sates sas srozlng for preeminence within the femewerk ofthe Dalene of power. Aer 221 B.C. China maintained the ideal fence and ay but flowed the practice offacturg, then renting. a cjlessometines ating several nde years, ‘When he sae acewed, wars berseen the various componcats were fought savagely. Mao oace claimed thatthe population of Cina decined frm Sty milion to en millon diag he so-called Tiree Kingdoms period (A.D. 220-80), andthe conflict among the contenng groups between the two world wars of te tweatth century was extremely bloody as wel Alits imate exes, the Chinese calral spe etched over a coninentsl are mich kage then sny Furopem slat, ned about these of continental Europe. Chinese ngage snd ular, and he Emperor's polkical wn. expanded to every known tai: from the steppslands and pine forests inthe north shang into Siberia, tothe uopical ungles and tevaced rice farms in th sath fom th eat coast wi ts canals, ports, and Shing villages, tothe suk deserts of Central Asta andthe ce-capped peak ofthe Himalayan ote. The exteat and ‘aro eth etry bolstered the Snse that China ass World wa sa It supperted a conception ofthe Emperor as a gue of universal consequence presdng over ara of “A ve emen”On China Henry KissingerOn China Henry Kissinger‘Table of Contents Tile Page Convio P Doseation Poeface (CHAPTER 1 The Singlity of Cina (CHAPTER 2- The Kowtow Question andthe Opin War (CHAPTER 3 From Presineoce to Decne CHAPTER 4 Mao's Contamons Revlon (CHAPTER 5 Tras Dipemacy andthe Korean War (CHAPTER 6- Chins Conon: Doth Siwerpowece CHAPTER 7- A Decade of Crises CHAPTER 8 The Road to Reconciliation (CHAPTER 9 - Resumption of Relsions Fst Encounters wth Mao nd Zhou (CHAPTER 10 - Tae Qua Alince: Conversations with Mao CHAPTER 11 The Fad ofthe Mao Era CHAPTER 12 - The Indestructible Deng (CHAPTER 13 - “Touching the Tier « Butocks" The Tied Vistas War CHAPTER 1 -Reaem andthe Advert of Nommalcy CHAPTER 15 -Temasmen (CHAPTER 16 - What Kind of Refer? Denes Southern Tour ‘CHAPTER 17 A Roller Coaster Ride Toward Another Reconcliion The Fane (CHAPTER 18 - The New MetinALSO BY HENRY KISSINGER. A World Restored: Mettemich, Castlereagh, ‘and tho Problams of Peace: 1812-22 ‘Mucloar Weapons and Foreign Policy ‘The Necessity for Choice: Prospects of American Foreign Policy The Troubled Partmership: A Reappraisal ofthe Adanti AMhance American Foreign Policy White House Years Years of Upheaval Diplomacy Years of Renewal Does America Naed a Forsign Policy? Toward a Diplomacy for he ?!st Century Ending tha Vietnam War: A History of America's Involvement n and Extrication from the Vietnam War Crisis: The Anatomy of Two Major Foreien Policy Crises‘tated by te Peng ip Praga Gu (US) a5 Hc Stet Ne Yk ee Yok 001, USA» Pagan Crp (Ca 9 nen Ave Et ue 10, Tne, Ona Cat? 15a so of "Panos Pras Cuan)" Prag Bk Lt 5 Sea London CAR BL Eagan Prag nnd 25S Sp’ s even Din 2a (avec of Penge Sos i) Peng Bon ela 20. cube ond Canter, irs, Anta rao Pena Sts Gp Py Le)» Peg tase Lis Community Cee Pus Pa Se Des 10 01 vind Peg Gop 2). 7 “Sposa ov hcid O2 New Zend aon of Paste Sen Zand) Pega Bots otha) L41 SheSten Reste nt 198 Soa ee eeu Boas Rpteed Oe 0 San Lon WODR RL, Es Fi pea 1b Ta Pein Pus omer Pan Gee (USA Cooysh © Hnn A Kisi 201 lei amet ne Bing of Pa“ Oia by Fim Te rf rb Sen Tz tte yb Mn Copyright © da Mid 200. a by prion ing Pegi amen ‘ean rp (US oe 1. Chia Fei ngs? Chine Fon ee 2st cay tpi Dey ee MAPBY RFFREYL WARD ‘ete morn mr rattan ah Itt aden oh i fin chet lsc cher sey pst fren eae ht ce ae pn ut uss erate cel ean dos ots pny roth Web ss ee ‘See sigh rae cpa cd shove ao pt ft public ay bee, edn croton em tamed ey frm bya coe Sec (Pistcspung vig ote sept ses prmenen foh n coph svar sn one pa ee ‘Tease wing ett of hs kv not cv yr ttt pein ot puis push by: Phang oy au oii an oo ‘pieces or eco hoy epg aera To ipa fe th es apeTO ANNETTE AND OSCAR DE LA RENTA(CHINA AND ITS NEIGHBORS oan shane Te Tatdamaten OKiemaen 500 see of Tipet Pacific OceanPreface FORTY YEARS AGO almost the day, President Richard Niton cid me the hone of sending me to Beng to reestablish contact witha country cera to the story of Asia wth whic America had ad wo hgh level contac for over tnt yous. The Amarican mote fo the epening ss to put before ou people awison of pace wansceadng the Waal ofthe Vien Wer and the ominous visas cf the Cold War. Chia. though techricalyon ay ofthe Soviet Usion, eas ia quest of manewesng room to resis a trctenedatack fom Moscow. Inthe interval Thve been to China more tha fit times. Lice many vistors ove the cenes,Thave come to acne the Chinese people thei exchrance, tet subtlety, te any sense, andthe ular they represent Atthe seme tina, allay eI have wlecte on th bing of peace, lige Som an Amezian perspective have had he aood hick of bea able to ‘pursue these ro srands of hnkossimtaacousy a a Seale afi as a cae of messages and as a scholar “This book sa effort based in parton conversations wth Chinese leaders, to expan the concep way the Chinese thik about problems of peace and war and international oder, sds celatogbip to the moe pragmatic, case-by-case American approach Difeent histres and cules produce occasional divergetconshsioes, 'do act aay age with the Chinese perspec, noe wil every seader. Bur itis accessary to waderstand since China wil play such a big role inthe world thar is emarsog inthe tear Sestcearay. Since my fist vst, Chins as become an economic superpower ae a major factor in shaping the global polial order. The United States hs prevaed inthe Cold War. The ‘elaoaship between China andthe United Slates has become acetal lemeat in the ues for world peace and global well bing ight American presidents and four generations of Chines leaders hve managed is decate relationship aan asteishigly consistent manner, considariag the erence in staan ois. Both ses have refused to permit historic legacies or difereat conceptions of domestic order to interrpt tet esenialy cooperative eaionship Teas been a complex journey, fer both societies beeve they vepeset ure vabies American exception i izsonary It holds tht the Utd Slates has an oblgntoa to spread ins aes to evry par ofthe word. China's exceponaism is cura. China doesnot proseytz: doesnot claim that ts contemporary instintons are clevast ouside Chin. But tis the bee cf the Midcle Kingdom raion, which formal graded all other tes as various levels of tibutaies based on tc apposition te Chinese cla and poical fom; note ‘words, kind of ural univers A primary focus ofthis books the ineracton between Chinese and Amica leaders sae the People’s Repub of China was founded in 1949, Both in and ou of government. [have ‘kept records of my conversations wit four generations of Chinese leaders and have dawn on tem asa primary source wig ths book "This book coud at have been writen without the dedicated and able assistance of acsoistes and offends who permed me to sxpose oo thea fo el Schuyler Schouten was indispensable. He came os atetion ih years ago wes Professor loa Gade of Yale recommended him as one of is ablest stadt. When I started this project I asked him to take a two-month eave fom his fm He dso, and inthe process became so involved hat he saw the effort trough tits ed yea ae. Scnec undertook ‘much ofthe busi esearch, He helped wit he Wansaion of Cinese tess and even move with pence the ipicatns of Some ofthe user ones. He Wes indefatigable dariag the ‘ding and peocicadng pace. have never hada beter research associate and very rarely one as good. thins ben my good forte ove Stephanie mger-Most work wth me fora decade across the gamit of my actives, She was what n baseball they would call he essai ity player She di esearch md some eins, and was the princpl ison wih De pusher She checked al the eadaates. She helped coordate the pig and aver heated to ch ‘wea deadinesapproacaed Her racial contibuion was seiaorcedby bec chara and plotsatc sa. lay Brans eed Mie House Tears tht years ago, He permitted me to impose on our fini to go ove the ene manuscript is ctrl and suc suggestions were merous and wise “Theresa Anuaten and Jody Wins typed the mamscrpt many tines over and spent may evenings and weekeadsbeping net deadlines. Thi good cheer, eflcency, and carp eve for deta were ia Stapleton Roy, former ambassador to Cina snd singshed China scholar; Winston Lord my associate ding the opening to China sn later ambassador to Chin sel Dick Vie, ‘ny evar executor, ead several chapters and made ish comments. Jn Vanden Heuvel provided hf research oa several chnpters. ‘Publishing with The Penguin Press was a happy experience. Am Godoff was aways avalsbe, ever inst aver barassne and fin to be with. Brace Giords, Non Lacs, and Tory Klose expety shepherded the book through he edt production process. Fred Chase copyedied the manuscript with care end eficiency. La Stickney was the book's eincipal edt. Young enough tobe ry prenddauseer, che was iano way itnieted bythe ae, She overcame er resrvalonsaboxt ay polical views aufceay tat cane to look forward to her occasional acerbic and abvays incisive commeat in the margins ofthe mamscript She was indefugabe, perceptive, and vast bei “To al thse people Tam inanensly sath ‘The goverment papers on which | drew have allbeen delassed for sme ine. I would le to thank ia panic the Woodrow Wison latmascnal Cente for Scholars Cold War Intestinal History Project for prison to use extended excepts fom the achive of decasied Rassian and Chinese docuens. The Cater Library hpi made avaible many of ‘th wanseipts of mootngs with Chinese leadors diag the Carter presidency, and the Reagan Libaxy provided mznerous useful documents om thee Ses ‘Needs to sa. the shortcomings ofthe book are ay ov. As avays over haf centr, my wife, Naney, proved her staunch moral an intelectua suppor amit the sotnde authors (or at est ths autor) generate around themselves whe, sing She ead most of the chapters and made uncle soporte uguestons ‘have doisted On Clina to Anats aad Oscar de la Reta. started th book ints bomen Pua Cana and fished there. Ts hospi has besa oly one fst of a Sendship that has added joy and dep tomy ie Heay A. Kissinger ‘New Yor, nary 2011Note on Chinese Spellings ‘THIS BOOK MAKES frequent reference to Chinese ames and terns. Wellnown stematvespelings exist for many Chinese word, based on two parcuy widespread methods of ‘wagering Chinese charactors tothe Roman aphbet the Wade-Cies method prevalent zough zach f the Weed wl he 1980s, and the pin method, adopted ail inthe ‘People's Republic of China ia 1979 and increasingly common ia Westar and chee Asia pulcaoas thereat. For te most par. this book employs payin speings. For example, the pinyin speling “Deng Xioping” i use rathe than the Wade Giles speng “Teng I sa-ping” Where ote, on pin splines renin iia ore Ge, they ae ated for he reader's convenience. For exemple, foc the name ofthe ancient tary theorist "Si Tn," the adoal speliog is wed cater thon the sewer pia speling “Sua ‘Occasionally inthe interes of aciesin consistency throughout the book's text, quoted references to names crafted in the Wade Giles format have been render inthe pinyin sling. Such changes sre thr noted a the endnotes. In each cas, the wer Chinese od remains the seme the dierence ss the method of ondeing the word the Reman ‘haba.Prologue TN OCTOBER 1962, Chinas revolonary leader Mao Zedong summoned his op milary and polial commanders to meet wth him in Bling. Two thousand mies tothe wes, inthe Iorbiding and sparsely populated teresa ofthe Hemalas, Chinese and ladan oops wore locked asada over the to coins” dspted border. The pute ose ver dient versions af ister: India chimed the floater demarcated ding Bris ule, China the ims of impel China. India had deployed is ups tothe edge cits conception ofthe border China bad surround the Inn positions. Attempts to negotiate a temtcri setement ha foundered ‘Mao had decided to break thesalemate. He eacked fr back inthe classical Chinese ado tht e was therwse nthe process of dsmaating China and Ina, Mao tod bis ‘commanders, had previously fought ‘one and aha” wars. Being cold eras operational lessons fom each. The fst war had occured over 1.300 years caer, ding the Tang Dynasty (18-907), when China cspstched troops to sappert an Indian kingdom against am ileinate and ageressve rival After Chin's intervention, te tv coupes bad enjoyed ceaies of ‘owsshng regions and economic exctange. The lesson eared from the ances campaign, as Mao described it, was tht China and nda were not doomed to perpetual eit. They could enjoy along period of peace again, but to do so, China had to se forse to “knock India back Yo the negotiating able” The “hal war," in Mao's ind, had taken place seven Inunod years ate, when te Mongol mee Temnulane sacked Dal. (Mao reasoud tt doce Moagoa ard lina were thea par of te sone poltial eat, tie was a “ha” Sino-ladan ‘var Tulane bad won a sigan ctor, bt once ia Tn sary had killed over 100,000 prisoners. This tine, Mao enjoined his Chinese forces tobe "restrained and principled "No one in Mao's andionco—te Conant Party leadership of a evaiionary “New China” prockning its tel to tenake the ucmationl eda and abosh Chinas on eal ‘past—scems to have questioned the elevance ofthese ancient precedents t Chin's cueatsuatesic imperaives. Plaaing for an atack coated oa the bass fe paipes Mao had clined Werks later the ofensive proceeded much as he deserbed Chin executed a susea, devastating blow onthe Indian postions and then retreated othe previous ine of cont, von going ofr as to eta the cxptred Ian heavy weapoar Ingo other coum ist concvabl that a modern leader Woald inate a major azioal uaderaking by ivokingseatescpraiples from a mileanan-ldeveat—nor that he could confide expect his colleagues to understand the sigicance of hs ssion. Yet Cina f sen No otber courry can cam so fog a continous chao, or such an inate ink to ‘ts ancien past and casia principles of strategy and staesmensip. ‘Other sociies, the United States nce have claimed waversel appicabay forthe vaes and nsintions. Sl. none equals China in prssing—and persuading is niaoes to _capiasee—in such an elevated conception ofits werld ol for so loag and inthe face of so many historical iisndes. From the emergence cf China as anid state ia the the ceoray BC. nil the colapseof the Qing Dysty 1912, Chinn tod a the center of an East Asian neraniona system of rematkable chrabily. The Chinese Emperor was conceived of and ecopsized by mst sigan sites) 2s the piace of wavesal pica hiarhy, wth al edhe tts’ rulers theoatialy serving as vassals. Chinese language, cle, and poial ‘nstnmins were te haus of za, such ha even epoaa al nd fosign conquerors adopted tham to varying degrees asa sin ofthe ovm estima (flea as afrst tp to ‘being subsumed witin China). “The traonal cosmology ended despite catastrophes nd ceases ong paiods of paical decay Even when Cina was weak or divided, ts cena) comune the ouctone ‘repoualleptiacy. asprats, bots Chinese ad fori. vied to wa or conquer then ued fom th Chines capal witout chaleagiag the basic premise thar it was the ceater cf the to uarstend Chin's eaten diplomscy ots ee) Bst-centay weld le mast begin ven atthe costo Some potential eversemlcaon-ih abasic apprecation af teCHAPTER 1 The Singularity of China SOCIETIES AND NATIONS tendo thik ofthenshes as eternal. They also cherish a tale of her org. A special feature of Chinese chization shat seems to have no begining It ‘appears in story es as a coavetonl uaoa-state saa a permanent nanral phasomenon late tal of tae Yeove Emperor revered by mnay Chinese as te legendary founding nis China seems aes to exist. When the Yelow Emperor appears in wth, Chinese ciation hs fen into chaos. Competing princes harass each eter and the people, yet an enfecbled ‘ir fst natin order. Levyng on ery, the new bro paces the reakn and is aclaned as enpexor ‘The Yelow Emperor has gone dove a history as a founding her: yet athe foundig ath, bes restablshing not ccatig. an emp. China predated hin: sides into the istrical ‘consciousness as an established state reqtng ony restoration, not creation. This paradox of Chines history recurs wit the ancient sage Confcis again bes seen a the founder” ofa tae although he stressed that he had iovected ating that he was merely tying to enigoate the pines of harmony wich had once existed i the golden age bt had bee ota CConfacins's own era of plical chaos. Reflecting on the paradox of Chinas orgs, the nineteen cent msionary an trav the Abbé Régis-Evarite Hu, observed: (Chinese chain riinates in an antigay 2 remote that we wll cadeavor to discovers commenceneat. There are uo waces ofthe sate ciakacy among he people. This ie a ‘very pec fct respecting China. We are accstomed in the istry of aon to fad some well defined pont of depart, andthe historic docamets, tations, and monet "har ems to us generally para us ofl, sknost tap by sep, the progress of ciation tobe present at is bth, to watch s development our mance aa ‘case, fe subsequent decay and fa Du ts aot tha withthe Chinese. They seem to have been alvay ining inthe same stage of adrancemert asin the preseat day; andthe daa aig are sucha to coafim that opinion ‘Whon Chinese wit charac fst evoked, diag the Shans Dynasty i the Secon malemum B.C. ecient Faypt was a the height os lory. The seat ty states of lsscal ‘Gecsce had act yet emerged. and Rome was mdlensia away. Yer the dect descendant of the Shaag wring systems slused by well over aillon people today. Chinese today can ‘understand iscripsons writen inthe age of Confcis; contemporary Chinese books and conversations ave eiched by centures-o aphorisms cing ancient bates and court ines "Al the seme tina, Chinese story feared many pesods of cil Was, itoregnm, sd chaos Aller each calapse, the Chinese state econstued sala by Some mutble a of cance, Ateach age, a new uniting fgwe emerged, folowing eeseaialy the procedeat ofthe Yelow Empeor to subd rival and reuiéy China (and somes eae its bound). ‘The faous opeting of The Romance ofthe Three Kingdoms, a fouteent-entay epic novel weasued by centres of Chinese Gackting Mio, who i sat have pored overt ost cbessively in bis yout), evokes hs conious ryt “The erpite long ved, st ute; long ted, rast dvd. Ts tas ever been"? Each pod of inet was viewed as an ‘besraon. Fach sew dynasty cached back tthe previous dynasty’ praciples of governance inorder to reestablish conan. The fandamewa precepts of Chinese cane ended, tested by the strain of peso clay “Before the sna even of Chinese wicaon i 221 B.C, there had boon a len of dynes re hat sraduly stead as th feudal subdisonsevaved Bom atone independence. The cuinaon was to and aha ceanwes of tamed recorded ia history asthe Waning States period (475-221 B.C). Its Ewopeon equvalear Weald be the ineepmam ‘tween the Treaty of Wephals in 168 andthe end ofthe Second World War, when a maliiciy of Emopesn sates sas srozlng for preeminence within the femewerk ofthe Dalene of power. Aer 221 B.C. China maintained the ideal fence and ay but flowed the practice offacturg, then renting. a cjlessometines ating several nde years, ‘When he sae acewed, wars berseen the various componcats were fought savagely. Mao oace claimed thatthe population of Cina decined frm Sty milion to en millon diag he so-called Tiree Kingdoms period (A.D. 220-80), andthe conflict among the contenng groups between the two world wars of te tweatth century was extremely bloody as wel Alits imate exes, the Chinese calral spe etched over a coninentsl are mich kage then sny Furopem slat, ned about these of continental Europe. Chinese ngage snd ular, and he Emperor's polkical wn. expanded to every known tai: from the steppslands and pine forests inthe north shang into Siberia, tothe uopical ungles and tevaced rice farms in th sath fom th eat coast wi ts canals, ports, and Shing villages, tothe suk deserts of Central Asta andthe ce-capped peak ofthe Himalayan ote. The exteat and ‘aro eth etry bolstered the Snse that China ass World wa sa It supperted a conception ofthe Emperor as a gue of universal consequence presdng over ara of “A ve emen”The Era of Chinese Preeminence ‘Though nan millenia of Chinese ciation China was never oiiged to deal with oer cous or ciation that were comparable tot sale and sopistcation Inia was Jenova to the Chinese, a5 Mao ltr note, but for ach cf story was ded ino separats kingdoms. The two chizaons exchanged goods and Buddhist iafuanes ala the Sik Road but were sentir waled ff fom casal contac bythe akposzupenetable Himalayas and the Tibetan Pleas. The masive and fering deserts of Central Asa separated (Cina om the Near Easter cles of Persia and Babsloia and even move Kom the Reman Engaze. Trade caravans undertook sete! journeys, but China as a soci dot engage socses cf comparable sale and achievement. Though China and Japan shared a mumber cf core cual and pola nsimas,anthar was prepare to ecopaize the other's "pei ther soon was to cra contact for centuries ata ime. Europe was even father ay in what the Chinese considered the Wester Oceans, by defition inaccessible to (Cinese cae nd pitably incapable of acquiring t—as the Emperce told a Beis emoy i 1793. ‘The terior lias of he Chinese Emp topped atthe water's edge. As cal asthe Song Dynasty (960-1278), China ld the wold in ical technology: is ets coud have ‘cme the empire into an era of conquest and exploration: Yet Cina acquired no overseas colonies and showed rately ile interest inthe cousies beyond its coast Tt developed ao atone fr vertrag aboed to coast he barbarians to Conucin rapes cx Buds vets. Whea the congueriag Mongols conmacleored the Song est ands experienced ‘opting, they mouated tro ateuptedanesion of Japan. Both were ted back by inclement weather~the iamitaze (or “Drie Wind) of Japanese loe® Yet whea the Moogsl Dynasty colapsed, the expeditions, thous tecicaly feasble, were never again tempted. No Chinese fader ever ncalted a ational for why China weld want to conte the Japanese arclipelazo ‘Buti the cary years ofthe Ming Dynasty, between 1405 and 1433, China lmnched one fhisior’s most remarkable and mysterons aval eaerpeses: Admiral Zheng He se out in Aeets f technological uparalleled "ease slips” to destinations a far as Java, nda, the Fom of ica, andthe Strat of Formuz_ tthe tine of Zhens voyages, th Exropean age of ‘exploration hadnt yet begin China's fet possessed what would have seemed sn unbvdgeableeclnlogical advantage in these, sepbistiation, and mamber fs vessels, tdvanfed ‘the Spanish Armada (ch was sl 180 years awa). "istorassil debate the actual purpose of these missions. Zhen He was a snr ue inthe age of exploration: a Chinese Mast ewnch conscripted ino imperil service a a child, ‘he ts no obvious historical precede At each slop on his oureys, he formal proceed the magncence of China's new Enero, bestowed lavish fs onthe rs be encountered, sad itd tam to wavelia pessoa or Send envoys to China. Thre they were oscknowledge thor place ia the Sinoceaic wold order by pafoeming the sual kostow” to acknowladae ‘he Empercr’'s superioy. Yer beyond decaing Chin's arestass and issuing tations to potatos ua. Zheng He displayed no teaitoal ambition, He brought back ony eis, or “ate; he claimed no colonies er resources for China beyond the metaphysical bounty of extending the bts of Al der Heaven, At most he canbe sito have create favorable conditions for Chinese marcas, Ueough a kad of early exercise of Chinese “sft power” ‘hcag He's expedons stopped abroptyin 1433, coacdent with he recurrence of tress along China's nohees and toner. The next Emperor ordered the feet dsmaned andthe records of Zheng He's voyages destroyed. The expeditions were never repeated. Thowp Chinese traces coatined o ply the routes Zheng He sled, Chins naval bis faded —s0 ‘auch so atthe Ning ues esponse to the subsequent menace of pzuc ef China's Souloast coast as 10 altompt forced ization ofthe coastal population ten nes land Cina’s ‘aval istry was ds abioge ta faded to swing techricaly capable cf dominance, Chia ceived wehutarly Som th eld of naval exploration jas as Wester terest was begining to take bod ‘China's splendid soaion muted a pic Chinas sl parcepion, Chines etes gow accustomed othe notin that Cina was wsique—ac ust "a eat chien” amo oters, ‘bat chain as. A Bech trasatr tein 1850: ‘Aneligent European, accustomed to sefloct oa the state of «miner of counties exjoving vst of diizent advantages, en laboring each undies pecuor isdvatages, coud, by afew wel dreced questions, and om very ide data, orm a tolerablycomoct ation othe sate of «peopl het unkown ohn: but would be a reat exert suppose ‘hat ths isthe eae withthe Chinese Ther excision of foreimes and coninement 0 ther own country bas, by depring them of ll opportnics of making comparisons, sth, cSreunscsbed tht idzas thay are ts otal able oe themsehes om the dominion ef esos, ed judge evra by nes of purely Close coaveaton* (China ne, of couse, ferent sociies round its periphery in Korea, Vets, Then, Burma, bot in the Chinese perception, China was considered the center ofthe worl the "Mile Kingdom,” ed oe socias were assessed as gradations Kom t As he Chinese sit shost fleser Sates hat anbibed Chinese cue and pail Wut to China's ealnass -consttied the ancl order ofthe miverse. The borders between China end the surcunding peoples were not so mnch polical and tenioril demarcation as curl difereniatons. The ‘atward radiance of Chinese culture thoughout Bast Asia led the Ameccan political scent Lucian Pye to comment famously hat, inthe modern age, Chin renansa“iization pretending to be enaton tte? ‘The preteasionsuadeog is wadkonal Chinese wold order endared wel ino the modern era. As lt as 1863, Chiza’s Emperce Giimsea manber of a fercign” Mancis Dynasty that had conquered Chinato ceatres eal) dispatched a leter informing Abrabam Lincoln of China's coumitment to good relations wth the Unite States. Te Emperor based his commuication onthe grendloquetassrance thet, "[hjevng, with reverence, received the commission fm Heaven tore the uiverse. we cepa both the wide expire [China] and he ‘atsde cous 2 coasting ove Fin, without any sincion I Whan the ter was dspatched, China had akeads lost tio wars ith the Western powers, which were bas taking ‘at spores ofnteest in Chinese tniory. The Emperor seems t have weated these caasopbes a nla to otber barbarian vasions that were evecoms, athe end, by China's exchrance and superior cure. "Formos of istry, there was, fact, nothing parody fencifabout Chinese cls, With each generation, the Hi Chinese had expanded mn ter xg base nthe Yelow [River vals, gradual daning acghborog eects ito various sages of apprcnanation of Chinese pares. Chinese sieatic and technological acievemets equaled, and frequeathy ‘atsipped, those of ter Western European, Taian, and Arab counterparts "Not onl was the scale of Chins tradionally fr beyond that ofthe European tse in popultion and in teitry ni the Inds Revolution, China was fr sicher. Ute by avast system of canal connecting the great ves and population centers, China was foe ceaes the Wedd s uot product esoaeny and moet popoustedng area. Dut since was large ‘ff ficient, oer regions had nly peripheral comprebenson of vanes and ts wea, In fat, China prodhced greater share of total worl GDP than any Westen socey in Spoon of ha ast tent cenres AS ate as 1820, prodaced over 30 percent ef Weed GDP—en mount exceeds the GDP of Wester, wope, Fasten Fuope, and the United Sates combined = ‘Westem observers encountering Chita inthe early modem era were stuned bys Wilt and mates prosperity. Wring in 1736, the French Jest Jean-Baptiste Do Halde stnmed up the awestrck reactions of Wester visors to Chia ‘The ches pec to each province, and hefty of conveying merchandise, by means of vers ad canal, have rendered the domestic ade ofthe empite sways very fowshng ‘The lend rade of Chin 0 pea that he commorce ofall Ewope‘s no! wo be compared threw the provinces bea Hee So many kingdoms, ich courmicte 1 anch there especie productions ‘Thay years ater, the French political economist Frangis Quesnay went even father [No one can dey that this stats the most bean the worl, te most densely popasted, andthe most ours kingdom known, Such an empire as that of China ua to ‘what ll Ewope would be the ater were unied vader a singe sovereign China aded with foreigners and occasional adopted ideas and imeatons fm abroad. But more often the Chinese believed thatthe most vahable possessions and intefecia schicwomonts wer tobe ound within China Trade with China Was So pized tha twas with only paral exagseration Dat Chose oes dasstbdit acto ednary economic axchene hore tte te Chine’ oneetineConfuc Almost ll anpives were created by force, but one canbe sustained by & Universal vue to last, zed to apse force at obgution Otherwise, the ences ofthe rls willbe cshusted in maiainig th domsnace atthe expense ofthis ably to shape the fume, whichis the uinate tsk of sttesmanship. Empices pars #repeession ges Way to consenms Sot as with China. The methods by stich it was mifed, and periodcaly avertamed nd remied aexin,wee occasional bral. Chinese history winesed is share of senior ‘ebloas and dase reas. Vet China osed is lel suv far less to the pnsincals meted out by s Emperors ant the commit of aes fostered amoaa ts population ‘adits goveramant of scholar-fical. ‘Notte least exceptional aspect of Chinese clue that these vals were essen secur in ature AV the tne when Bodksm appeared in Indian cure stesing contemplation sad incr peace, and menothisn was proclaimed bythe Fevish—and, ler, Cleistin and nlc prophets wath an evocation ofa We after deth, Cina produced no eesjous themes the West sense at al. The Chinese never geeratd ath of coaniccreston, Thi unverse was creted bythe Chinese themes, whose vale, even bea declared of wiverse applicability, were conceived of as Chinese in on "The predominant values of Canes society were dived from the prescriptions cf on sae posophor kaon to poste as Kong Foi (or “CoaficasintheLatized version). Contac ($51-479 B.C.) Wve ate end of the so-called Spring and Auman period (770-476 B.C), atime of polical upheaval that edt he brutal sugges ofthe Warning States petiod (475-221 B.C) The ring Hose of Zhou wasin decine,wnable to exerts authori over rebelions princes competing for polical power. Greed and violence went unchecked, ‘Al Under Heaven was again in seray Like Machiawell,Confcin was an inertia his cous, hoping tobe cetaned as an achisor to one othe pines then contending for suvival. But ule Machiavel, Concns was ‘concered mere wt te cutsation of socal arony han withthe machinations of power. His themes were the principles of compassionate rue, the perfomance of comet ial, and ‘he neulcaton of Bal pity. Perhaps becanseheofeed hs prospective euplovers 20 shot-fem route to wealh of poses, Coafiss ded without acon his gol he newer fou a rice to iplemea bis amine, nd China coatined is aide torarépolical colapee aad wart ‘But Conficns's teachings, recorded by his disciples, savived. Whea te blodleting ended and China again stood une, te Han Dynasty (206 B C--A.D. 220) adopted Confacian ‘oust san ofc tate phdosophy. Compe into a cenral collection of Conf’ sayings the Analects) and subsequet books of lesmed commer, the Conicsn eanca would robe fat sommihing aki to Chita ible and as Constnoa combined. Experi ia thes texts became the ceaal qualia for sericea Chinn's impel bwreaneacy—a riesthood of trary scholar-ofil selected by nationwide competitive examinations and charged wit maintain hamony in the Empeors vast reins. ‘Coafuss'sansirt the chuos of his ra was the "Way" ofthe just and harmowious soit, which he taut lad once bean teazed before a dst! Chinese golden age ‘Ma's etal pul tsk wast re-cret ths proper onder akeay on te verge of Big on. Sprint was atc aot so mach revelation oc Heaton bt pata ‘recovery of ogoten principles of se restraint. The goal was recication, not progress. Learning was the key to advancemeat ia Confucian society. Thus Conic aug tht (love of kindaess, wihout a love to eam, fins ise obscured by fooshness Love ofknowiedse, thou love to lam, Sods sf cbse by loose speculation Love af hones ‘without a ove to ear find itself obscured by harm candow. Love of sraigiforwardness, without lve to lear, fads ise cbscured by misdirected judgment. Love of daring, ‘without a love to lear find self obscured by insubordination. And love for rengh of crate, without love to lem, Sind sl cbscure by inactabaty St Confacas preached a hierarchical social reed the Fundamental duty was to “Know thy place "Tots adereats the Confocan order fered he insiation of crvice in prs of seater harmo Unie the prophets of monotheistic ebsjoas, Confashs preached no teleology of history pois mud to personal redompsion. Fis palosopy sought the redemption ofthe stat through ghteous indvoal bebe. Orentd toward tis weld hs hnking aimed a code of social conduct. aot asoadanp to the aft Al the pinnacle ofthe Chinese order stood th Emperor, 2figre wih 0 parasite Western experieace. He combine the pra a wells the secur cams ofthe social nde. ‘The Chinese Enperee wes both «poli ler and a metaphysical coocept ln bis pobical ole the Eperoe was conceived as mankind's supreme sovereign —the Emperor of Huy, steadg atop a word poltical rach tht miored Chinas bererchcel Condi social eee. Chinese protecl insted on recognising his ovedordebip via the konto the act of ‘complete prosraton, wth the forebea touching the ground thre ies on each prostaton “The Emporer’'s second motplysical role Was his sas a the “Son of Heaven the symbate intermedia between Heaven, Earth, sl meni. Ths role also imped moral ‘Sbgaon on the Emperor's par. Through maze conduct, peiomance of cere sal, and occasoaal stem punishes, te Emperor was perceived asthe inchpa ofthe "Great “arnooy” ofl thing eeat and sal Fthe Emperor stayed from te pat of virtue, A Under Heaven would allnto chaos. Even para catastropes mig spit dsharmony bad eset the universe. Tho exist diasty would be scea to hav lost the “Mandate of Heaven” by which possessed the sight to gover rebeions would reak out nd anew das ‘prould restore the Great Hanmoen of the universe 12Concepts of International Relations: Impartiality or Equality? Just as tare ae no eat cathedas a China, thre are no Bloc Palaces, Aristocrat policl gandoes Bethe Duke ef Masdborugh, who bait Blain, dd ot come et being “Europe extered the modem age a weer of plsical versty—adependea pices ond dukes and cous, cies thr governed thenssves, tae Roma Cato Church, ch daimed aa _nshoriy outside of tate purview, and Protestant groups, which aspired to bung ther own se. overing chil societies. By contrast, when teatered the modem perio, China fad for well over one thousnd years fil formed imperial eaucracy rected by compte exsnation, permeating and regulating ll aspects ofthe economy ad society “The Chinese approach to wold order was thas vat decent oma te eye tet took ld athe West. Th modem Wester conception cfitemaoaal relations cmeged ithe sixteenth and seventeenth ceatres, wheathe medieval sractare of Furope dissolved into a group of states of approximately eq strengih, andthe Catholic Church spit nto vious enoninatons Balance -f power diplomacy was ssa choice than an ncaa No state Was Stren enough to apse wil no egon retained suet author 1 usan ‘versal. The concept of soversgnty and the Iga equaty of sates became th bass ofnteraioaal aw and diplomacy ‘China, by coniat,wae never eagtzed in stained contact wth moter country othe Bass of eaty forthe spl reason tht t ever encourtered societies f comparable cure oF ‘magainde. That the Chinese Empire should tower overs seogrepbical spore sas taken vital as naw of ate, an expression ofthe Mandate cf Heaven For Chinese Emptor the ‘mandate didnot necessary imply an adversarial relationship with aahbocns peoples: prefrably i act Lie the United States, China thoupt of ts as plang a special cle Butt never espoused the American ation of urversakan to spread its wales around the word Tt confined tee 0 controling the barbarians memento ts doorstep. It save for tary sles ce Korea to rcognize China's special stats, and net, conferred benefits uch as tading hs. As forthe remote barbers such as Emcopeans, about whom they knew lini, he Chinese msiained a ends, condescending, aloofness. They had Ite uteestin covering thew to Chinese way. The foundiag Enero of he Ming Dynasty expeseed this ‘sew in 1372: “Counties ofthe westem ocean ae riety called stant regions. They come [tos] across the cas. And tis fico fr them to calc the year and month fof aval] Regudess other camber, we teat them onthe price of] ‘those who come modestly ae seat of generously “S “The Chincee Emperors fet twas inpraccal to comtenpat tuecing cours tat are had even the misfornecfloctng at sacha grat dtance fom Cina lathe Cinese ‘version of exceptionalism, China dil nt exports eas butt others come to seek them. Negtboring peoples, the Chinese belived, bencied fom contact wth Chis and cilization so long a they acknowledge the zesty of the Chinese goverment Those who did not were barbarian. Subservnce to the Emperor and observance of perl sal was the core of ‘cure When the enpe was song, tis cual sphere expanded: All Under Heaven was a maaatonal end comprising the el Han Chinese major acd aamerouenoe-Hen Chinese etic coups. poll Chines seconds, freon envoys di at cme tothe empl cour to engage a negotiations or ates of sae: they “came to be Wensformed” by the Empern's cin induace. The Emperor did not hold “summit mectngs” with other heads of stats: iastead,andences with him repeseared the tender chess of mea rom afar.” who brought tbat: 19 ecopiz his overlordship. When the Chinese court deze to sea envoys abroad, they were not plas, bt" Heavealy Envoys” fom the Celestil Cou “The orzmization of the Chine goverment elcid the horarchicl approach world ede. Cla handles with tsbue paying states such as Korea, Thadand. and View ‘trough the Missy of Rial. ping that plomacy with these peoples was but on aspect of the age metaphysical as of administering the Great Hamony. Wi les Sscized ‘mounted testo the north and west, China came to ey on 2 "Court of Dependencies,” analogous oa colo efie, whose mission was to invest vassal princes wi ies and iti ‘peace onthe Boater ‘Only under the pressure of Westem acursoas inthe sinctenth cosmry id China establish something analogous to a forsign missy to manage diplomacy 2s an indepeadeat function of overeat, in 1861 afer the defeat nwo wars withthe Westem powers. Tt wae considered a temporary necessy, tobe abosed once the meta crs subsided. The new min ‘vas delberstely located ina od end undistansod blag pressouly used bythe Department af Koa Cos, to cone, ia the words ofthe leadiag Qa Dyasty statesman, Pine Gong the hidden meaning ha t cannot havea standing equalto that of other wadtional government fice, dns preserva the distin berseea China ad forion cous” uropean-sle ideas of intestate poltcs and diplomacy were not tinown in the Chinese expecince rater, they ested as akin of comtertration taking place within Chain tines of dsmy. But as by some unten av, these periods of division ended with the recat of Al Under Heaven, an the reaserton of Chinese cntaby by anew dynasty nits imperial cle, China fered swrounding freien peoples imparts, not equa t would weat tem innaadly and compassoastly ia properioa tothe ataiament of Chinese ‘cle and ther obserance of uals comnoting abmssonto Chins ‘What was most remarkable about the Chinese approach to international fs was less ts monumental formal pretension hans undeing ststepc seamen and longevity. Fr dig ‘most Chinese history, she mumerous lesser” peoples aloas Cin’ oa and sitios eaters Were cftea beter armed and more mobile tan the Chinese. To Chin's seth and west were seninomadi peoples—the Mancha, Mong, Usha, Tibetans, and eventual the expansionist Russian Expire—whose mourted cavalry could lunch ras across its exten ones on China's acaba earn wit weave inpuny. Retastor expeiions faced hospitable tain and extended supply Ines, To China's south and east were peoples who, though ‘onal suboiat inthe Cinesecosncogy.possesed sidicant martal vadkoas and aminal deities. The most tenacious of them, the Viewamese, had Sercly ested Chinese chins of superiority and could clam to have bested hina bate ‘China was a 20 postin to congural aft aighbors. ls population consisted many of fiemers bound to thes ancestal pls. Is mandarin elt earned ther postions not Hough splays of mara alc bur by way of mastery ofthe Coaician assis and efined ars suc as callrapy aad poetry. Indhihaly.aighboriag peoples coal pose formidable hess: vith any degree of wity, they woud be overvtelning. The fistori Oven Latiore wrote, “Baibaran invasion therefore hungover China asa pemanet reat... Any babaran nation ‘Hat could guar owesear and flanks atthe othe barbarians col set cut conden to svade China" China's vanted cats and material Weal woald tir oa sl and 0 ‘sn itaton for ivaion om al sides. “The Great Wal 0 prominent in Wester iconography of China, was 2 reection ofthis basic vuneabiy, hough racy successflshton ti Instead, Chinese statesmen refed on 2 ‘ich aa of plomtic and ecoaoes nsirenents o ea potently bose fnsigners eo telaonshis the Chinese coud manage. Th hihest epson Was less o congue (ough Cina easionally mouzed maj miary campaigns) thane deter iavason and preveat the formatoa of barbarian cokins. ‘Through trade incentives ad sill use of pola theater, China coated neighboring peoples ito observing the noms of Chinese centrality while projecting an image of awesome ‘majesty to deter potential invader om testing Chin's strength Is goal was not to conquer and subjugate the barbarism but to “rue [Herm] witha lose rein (jim). For those who would not obey, Chioa woud exlei diisons among then, famousy “using barbavans to check barbavins” and, when necessary, “sig barbara to atack barbavans."= Fer as a Ming ‘Dynssty ofc ote ofthe potty threatening tes on Chin's nrthenstern oer (fthe mbes ae divided among themsctves tay [i remaia] weak and [wl be] easy to old them a sbjecon:# the wes re separated they shun eachother and realy obey. ‘Wefavor one or oer [etic chieftains] and peri them o fight each other. hiss a principle of political ation wich asserts: “Wars beeen the ‘barbarians’ ave auspicious fer China ‘The goal ofthis system was essen defensive: to prevent the formation of coaions on Chin's borders. The principe of barbarian management became so ingrained in Chinese fil hough that when th Etopean "berbrins” ave on Chin's sores in frce athe tinetsuth coy, Chinese ofcils described thr challenge wih the sme pases use by thei dnasic predecessors they would "ue barbvans agit barbviane” wat they coud be soothed and subdued. And they app a tadhoal sat to anette nila attack. They ined other European comes in for the puapose of frst sinaating and then manip tc vay In pursuit ofthese sins, the Chinese cout was remarahly pragmatic about the meant employed. The Chinese bribed the barbarians, or sed Han demographic supe tote ‘thon: whea defeated they subuited to them. asin the bepnaing ofthe Yuan and Qing Domass, as apelude to Siscing them. The Chinese cou eeguady practiced what in cer contests would be considered appeasement, bei trough an elaborate iter of protocol that allowed the Chinese eltesto claim twas an assertion of beavoleatsaperioy. Thus a Han Dynasty master dese thee baits" with which he proposed to mana the mounted ong ubbes to China's northwestern Boa To give them elaborate clothes and carages inorder to comapt thc yes to sve then fine food inorder to comp thet mouth, to ive tem mmc an women in order covpt thes ear: to provide them With aft buss, groans and saves erder to coer the stomnach and a5 fr those who come to sutend, the empczar [should] show ‘hem favor by hoaodag them wth an imperil ecepion party ia which the emperor shold parscually save them wine and food so as to comupt the mind These are what may be calle the five bits npeiods of szength the diplomacy of te Mie Kingdom wat aa ideological atioealzaton fr imperil power. Dung peiods of decking, served to wack weakuess and helped Chins manipdate contending forces Tn compiisoa o more recent regional coutondes for power, Cina Wasa saisod cpze wth itd total ambion, Asa scholar diag the Han Dynasty (A.D. 28-220) pti “the emperor doesnot gover the barbarians. Those wo come to hin willact be ejected, and hose who leave wl ot be pursued The objective was acomplia, died pepe. tate than one drectiy under Chinese cont “The most emuakable expression of Cin findamontal pragmatism was ts veactios to conquerors. Whonfocin dys prevailed a bat, the Chinese remus te would for ‘ai Services and appeal to thi conquerors cae premise that so vast and wigue ald as they had jst oven could be ued oly by use of Chinese methods, Chinese laguage, and the essing Chinese breancracy. With each generation the conqueror wuld themselves increasing assnsted ito the order they had sought to dominate Eventual the om ‘home terse: —the lacing point fo tha invasions would come tobe eaatded 2s pt of China ssa They would themselves prs wadioal Cinse aonal teres “writh the peoject of concmest effectively eammed on its head 22Chinese Reatpotitik and Sun Tau’s Art of War “The Chinese have been srewd practioner of RecpoTink and students of sratesic doctrine distinctly ferent fom the rategy and epomsacy that found favor in the West. ‘orl istry tas taught Chinese leaders that ot evry probe has solon an that too peat an emphasis oa otal mestny over Speicevets could wset the hemos of he ‘verse. There were too meny potential enemies forth eae eer to five in tal secs f Chinas fate was reatvesecay, it also imple relative insecusiy—e ned to Fear the ranmar of over a dozen acishborng states with icantly dren bistvies and aspiatons. Rarely did Chinese statesmen sk the ctcome of a oafict ea a singe all-e-noting ask: elaborate mniiyear maneuvers were closer to th ye. Where the Wester eadion pared the deise clash forces emphashing feats of heroism, the Chinese ideal sessed subsets. ‘ndrocton, and the potent sccummlaon of eae advantage “This coumast i redecte inthe respective intlecsl genes favored by enc chizntioa. Chin's moe ending sane ie wer gi (proacanced roughly “way che,” and often known athe Westby avai ofts Japanese name, go. Tei qi transles as “a game of serounding pisces” times a concept of atepic encom. The board agi of rineteen-by-inetoen Snes, begins empty. Each player has 180 pieces, ox stones, this sposal, cach of equal wal withthe others. The players tke runs plciag stons at any post ca the board, buldag wp postions of sregth whale working to encle and cape the opponets stones. Mule cosets ake place smlmcousy ia lent fegoes of the board. The bance of forces ils Incremenaly with ach move, ae the players inplemeat erate plane and react to each other's initnes. At the end of a wel-paved game, the boards led by paral iatdockng azeas ‘of swength The mara of advantages ten sm. and othe unvained ee, Ue ident of the winners nt alvays modatly obvious (Chess n the other an i about total vitry. The pmpose ofthe mei checkmate, to pu the opposing king toa postion where cannot move without being destroyed. The vast ‘majority of mes endin oa victory achieved by alton o, more are, a dramatic, silo manenver. The oa ther possible outcome i daw, nearing the abandonment ofthe hope fo victory by both pais OO@0Ce @ C@0e @ 0 imine | aa.€ dO Qgoocee) O00 [ OUICOME OFA 1 Q/GAME BEIWHEN 10 EXPERT PLAYERS. BLACK HAS WONBY A SLIGHT MARGIN Source: David Lai, “Learning from the Stones 4 Go Approach to Mastering China’ Cor‘moves ito “empty” spaces en the board, rata miigaing the strateic potential os opponent’ paces. Chess prodacessingle-mindedness wi gi generates strategie lexi. ‘A siar contrast xis inthe cate of China's ditactive altar theory te foundaons were lid Ging a period of upheaval, when rales sugges betwen ral kingdoms decimated Cina's population. Reacting to tis saughter (and seeking to emerge vitriows fiom), Chinese thinkers developed trstapcDhought hat placed a pean on victory rough psychological advantage and preached the avoidance of erect coat “The somal ares this waon i nov to istry a5 Son Tau (or “Master Su), athr ofthe famed weatse The Av of War lain, no ones sre exactly who he was Since ancient ines, scholars have debate te ieatty of The Art of ars author and be date ofits composton. The book presets tse as a colecton of sayings by one Sun Wo, general ‘ae Wandaig etary adsor Bom he Sprig and Auta pesod of Chinese history (770-476 B.C), as recorded by is dsciples. Some Chinese a later Wester scholars have questioned wheter such a Master Sua existed o, fhe id, whether he was infact eesponsbe for The At of War's coments ‘Well over a thousand years afer its compositog the woe of epieranmatic observations on satay, iplomacy, ad war—siten in chsical Chines, bliray betwen pty and prose—remnias a ceatal text of mitary thought ts mazins found vid expression athe tweateth-cumary Chizese chil war at the hands of Sua Tr'ssmdeat Mao Zedong. andin the ‘Viena wars, a He Chi Miah and Vo Nguyen Giap employed Sun Tas principe of net attack and psychological combat against France and then the United States. (Sun Tuas ako achieved a second career of sors in the West with pope edtoas of Thereof War cecasg isn asa modem business management guru) Even today Sua Tas text roads with 2 ogres of nmadiac sist that places hin anon th aks ef the world's foremost testapc Wanker. One could agave tha the sega of his precepts Was importa sponsible for Amecicas urvatio ints Asin ware, ‘What stages Sun Tm Som Weston vrters onstrate the eambass onthe psycoloscal an pola coments over the pul maary The eat Eaxopean nary theists (Cativon Ciansevite and Antoine Jomin eat suategyas an actin ts owa ight, separate fom pois. Even Clausen’ famous ccm that wari te comimaton of pois by ‘the cans eps tat wih war he statesman eaters a nave a sinc phase ‘Sun Tau merges the two fields. Where Westem strategists reflect onthe meas to assemble superior power athe dcisve point, Sum Tau adesses the means of building dominant polical and psychological poston, such tha the outcome of a confit becomes 2 foregone conchison, Western trates test tick marin by vcore in ates, Sun Tzu tess by victories ‘vere bales have become unnecessary. Sun Tr text on war doesnot have the quality of exaaton of some European teste onthe sbjet or does appeal to personal ero Ts somber quays eect inthe porteatous opening of The tof War Waris A grove aftr ofthe state: ‘Heisaplace Of life and death,A matter To be pondered carefly32 ‘And because the consequences of war ae so wave, pence ithe value most to be cherished: Avalon Act never Mobitie his mon Out of anger A general must never Engage (in) battle Out of ite Buta nation destroyed Canmot 69 Pat back together again: A dead ma Cannot be Brought back 0 Ife. ‘So the enlightened rulerUs cautious. This isthe Bay To keep aration Atpeace “Are an army Intact ‘What should statesman be proeat about? For Sun Tru, victory is ot simply the tramp of ame forces. Instead, isthe achievement ofthe inate pica objectives thatthe ‘nds clash was nendelto secre Fa atte than chllniag the exams the Bld bates undermining en com's morale oe mancuveig i zo snore positon em ich escapes impossbe.Becanse war is a desperate and comple enterprise, sf knowledge crcl. Strategy resolves iseffinto a psychloscal contest Umate excellence Bes Notin inne Bran battle But in defeating the enemy Without ever fighting. The highest form of warfare sto atack (the enemys] Strategsisef Thonext, To attack fs} Alhances. Tre next, eamack Arnis; ‘The lowest form of war is To attack ities, Siogs warfare east resort.Defects the enemy Withou doing bale, Captures the city Withou ayng siege, Overtivowes the vomy state Without promacted wars aly, the commander would achieve a postion of sch dominance that he coud avoid bate entirely. Ores he well use ms to deliver a coup degre afer extensive analysis and logistical. diplomatic, and psychological preparstion. Tans Sun Tas comsel that ‘The victorious army Je victorious fat “Ard seoks battle later The defacted army Does batt fst ‘Ard cooks victory lator Becase attacks onan opponent's strategy and is ainces involve psychology and perception, Sin Tz places considerable eaphass on te wse of sbteage and misinformation “When able" he comsele Feign indi: Wen deploying oops Appear not tobe. When near, Appear far; Wher for Appear near “To th commander flowing Sun Tas precepts, a Victory acoved inet zough deception or marplsion is more humane (an suey more eco tha a wtp by suporioe fence. Thereof War advises the commander to induce bis oppoceat ino accomplishing the commander's own ams c fee hi ino a poston so impossible thar he opts to seas his ‘army or state unharmed.‘relative advantage. There are no isolated events. lence the task ofa satis less to sale eparculrSation tn to det ts eaticnship tothe contest ia whichit occurs, No parc constallaon ever ta; ay ptr {temporary and in esence vohing. The sate mst captre the rection of tht evoton snd wake serve bis ends, Sun Te ues the words for tha quay, x concept th no Gzct Wester coutespart Ia the tary conte. hi commots the Sates wend snd "poten encigy” of a developing stuaton, “he power ihereat a the parca anangemca of ctemeats and its developmental tendency"! The Ataf War, the word cometes the ever-changing confenation of forces as well asthe general read “To Sun Tay, the sata mastering as aia to Water Hing down, alomatall dig tho ies and easiest cose. A success commuandes was before chara headlong into bale. He sis vay from an enems sregth, he spends hs ine observing and cubivaing changes in th sratepclnscape. He sues the enemy's preparations and hs morale, Tnsbands resources and defies them cart, a plas on is opponents psichaogial weaknesses at st he pereaives th opportne ment 1 ike the eae at his weakest point. He then deploys is resources swifly an sudsealy, rushing down” along the path ofleast resistance, in an assertion of superiority that carefl ening and preparation fave rendered at acconpil! Ther of War atiulats a doce ls ef aerial conquest an of psychological donsance;# was the way the North Vetanmese fought Amie (hgh Hana ‘usualy tranted is psychological gains ito acta tenor conquests aswel). In general Chinese slatesmanship exits a tendency to view the entice stag kmdscape as part of ge whale good and ei, ae and fa, stength and weakness, pst sn fare sSlinterclared In comwast othe Wester approach of teas history as a process of modeeiy achieving a Sdes cf abso victois over evil and backewardeess, the tadionl Chinese ‘iw ofkistory emphasized a ejecal proces of decay and esis, n which ature andthe wodd canbe understood but ot completly ustred. The best that can be accomplished x to grow iat hamoay witht Seategy and satecrat become means of combative coesstence” wth opponeas. The goals to maneuver tham ino weakness wie balding up one som shox seaege postion ‘his ‘manewerag” approach, of course, the ideal and act aways th eaiy. Throughout tir history the Chinese have had tr share of ‘unsube” and bral coafcts, both at home sd ocesionsl abroad. Once these conficts erupted, such as dig the uncation of China wader the Qin Dynasty, the caches ofthe Thee Kingdoms period, the queing ofthe Taping [Rebelion andthe temieth-cermry ch wer, China wae subjected to wholesale lose of on aleve comparable tothe Euopeen odd wars. Te bloodiest couficte occured ae arent ‘of he breakdown ofthe interal Chinese sytem-—in oer words, a en aspect of teal adjustment ofa state for which domestic stability and protection aginst looming force ivasion ‘xe equal concen. For Chinas classical sages, the world could never be conquered wise rulers cou hope only to harmonize with its trends. Tere was no New World to popult, no redemption avai ‘matkind on disart shores. The promised land was China, andthe Chinese were already thee. The blessings ofthe Mile Kingdom's cure mist thocecalybe extended by China's super example, othe foreiners onthe expite’s perp. Buttere was ao por to be found in venting acros theses to convert “bealhens"to Chinese ways; the customs f the CColesial Dynasty were play beyond the ataiment ofthe fr barbarians “This may be the deeper meaning of Chin's abandoneat ofits aval aston. Lectin inthe 1820s on is phosopyofhitory the German philosopher Hegel described the Chinese tecadency to ee the huge Pacic Ocean to their eas asa barn wast. He noted that Chia by end large, did act vent tothe sas andinstead depended on ts reat landmass. The and Jinposed “an inte mnie of dependences,” whereas the sea propels people “beyond these mie cles of thought and action” Ths stretching ot ofthe sea beyond the imitations ‘of elnd is wang to the splendid police dies of Asc Sts, although they themschesbocder onthe sea—as fer example, Chia. For tem the sas only the Et. he ceasing of“To Sun Tru the suatgist mastering its aint water owing downhill. automatically nding the sist and caiest couse. A succes commander was before charpag headlong ‘azo bal. He sis vay tom an enc sregth; he spends Is tine obsoveg sl ulvaing changes ithe sstapc knascape. He sues the ences preparations an is morale, Insbands resources and dees them carefully, and plas ou bis oppoceats psychological wealnesses—taa ar asthe perceives the cpportae momeatto sue the eneay at is weakest post. He then deploys is resources sul a suddenly, rushing “dos” lon the path ofleast esstance, aan assert of sparc hat coll ea and preparation lave rondered ‘ft accompli Tie tof War anicates a dochne less of tenitecal conquest than of psychological dominance: twas the way the North Viemamese fought America (hough Hani ‘usualy washed: psychological gains to acta tnt conquests 25 wel). In general, Chinese satesmensip exibis a teadency to view the ene strategic lnscape as part ofa snl whole: good and evi ear and fa, stent and weakness, past nd fire lintel Ta convast tothe Wester apecach of Weaing sory as «process of moder acon a Series of esol Vso over ev and backwardness, the Wedionl Chinese ‘iw ofkistory emphasized a cyccal proces of decay and ecifcatin, n which mature ad the world canbe derstood bt ot completly mastered. The best that canbe accomplished is {to grow into hamony witht Stotegy and tnecraf become mean of combative coexistence” with opponents. The foals to maneuver them ino weakness we balding up one's ov hice seaege postion This "manewerine” approach, of cous, the deal and not alvays th ray. Throughout ter history the Chinese have fad ter share of “unsube” and bral coats, both t home ‘and occasionally abroad. Once thete conics erupted, ach as daring the wadicaion of Chia under tae Qia Dynasty, tae lashes of the Tizee Kingdoms period the quling of the Taiping “Rebello, andthe wenteth-century ch war, China was subjected to wholesale lose of ie ona level comparable to the European world was, The bloodiest conficts occurred asa ret ofthe breakdown ofthe inteenal Chinese system‘ other words, as an aspect of atenal adjustment ofa sats for which domeste sabity and protecton against looming forcon ivason se equal concerns. For China's clasical sages, te wodd could never be conquered: wise rs could hope cay to harmonize withits wends. There was no New Wedd to populate, 20 redemption awa ‘mankind on tnt shores. The pronase land was Chin, athe Chinese were akead there. The blessias ofthe Nile Kingdom's cule mat thoeelicaly be extended, by China's supesio example, othe foriners onthe empire's papery. Burthere was ao gory t be found ia veumring across the seas to coaver“betheas to Chinese ways: te customs of the Coles Dynasty were lily beyond the atsinment ofthe fr barbarians “This may be the deeper means of China’sabundoameat ets naval wad. Lectura th 1820s on his posopy of history the German posopr Hogeldescibd the Chinase teadency to seth huge Paciic Ocean tothe eas asa barren waste. He noted that China, by an re, dl at vert othe seas and instead depended on ts great landmass. The land ‘nposed “ante mme of dependences,” whereas the sea propeled people “beyond those Brited Cele of thought and scion” "Ths seta out ofthe Sea beyond the Bitasions fend is waning to the splendid pola eifes of svc States, although they themselves border onthe ses—as fer example, Chia. For tem the seas onl the t,he ceasing of the an they have ao postive relation to” The West bad et salto spread ts wade aad values throughout the wed In thi respect, Hegel argued, land-bownd China vic infact had once been te world's greatest val power as severed fom the general istorical development! ‘Wat hese ésinctvewadiions and niles habits of soperioey, China entered the modern age a singular kindof cmp: state clining uversl relevance forts cure and insions bt making few forts o prose, the weakest county nthe ork! bat one that was nerent to fori ade and echnoigica novation, 3 cre of easmopoanim “overseca by a politcal elite oblivious to the onset of the Western age of exploratioa: and a political unit of uaparalleled geographic extent that was waaware of the technological and historicalCHAPTER 2 ‘The Kowtow Question and the Opium War AT THE CLOSE ofthe cghecah cotry, China stood st th bit oft imperial greamess. Tho Qi Dynasty, established in 1644 by Manchu tessa no Cina Som the stint ‘nad mamed China ato a major mitary power. Fusiag Mancha and Moags mitary proves wth the cual and goverameatal prowess of the Han Chinese, it enbarked ona program cf tector expansion to te north and west, establishing a Chinese sphere offence deep into Mongo, Tbe, and modern-day Najag, China stood predominact in Asia itwas atleast ‘hosial ef ay ompse on earth! ‘Yetth sh poi of the Qiag Dynasty also tamed ato the ring pia ofts desta. For Chin's weath and expanse enacted the eation of Westen empizes and wading companies ‘operating fr onside the bom and conceptal appara ofthe adonal Chinese word order For the re tie ins story, China faced "barbarians" who no longer sought to displace the Chinese dimaty and chin the Mande of Heaven for thersches: instead, they proposed to replace the Sinocec system with an eis new vison of world order—wih fe rade ‘aller han wibte, resident embassies the Chinese capt and a system of lama exchange at dot fe o now: Chinese heads of sist a5 “boworable babar” pled Featy to te Emparoria Bling ‘Unbeknownst to Chinese eftes, these feria societies ad developed new instil and sciatic method that, forthe fist ne in centies—or pesbas evee—surpassed Chinas ov, ‘Steam povter,salways, and ew methods of manifctaing and capa formation enabled enormous advances in producthiy ithe West inbued with aconguering ele hat propeled ‘them into China's wadtional sere of dominance, he Wester powers considered Chinese clins of versal ovelrdship over Europe and Asia rise. They were detemsined to impose ‘on China ter ov stander of intemations conduct, by force necessry. The resin cononatin chlenged the basic Chinese cosmology and fet wounds il estering vera ‘centr eter in an age of estored Cinase eminence ‘Begining inthe seventent camry. Chinese antodes had aoted the increasing sanbers of Ewopean waders cae southeast China coast. They sa Het deca the “European fom other foreigners operating a the finges othe emp, save pethaps ther parculy glaring lack of Chinese extra ataimens. Inthe oil Chinese view, these "West ‘Sea barbarians” were classed se ibute envoy” or “barbsian merchants On are occasions, sate were pete to travel to Being, whore—if ante int the presice ofthe Emperor—they were expected to perfor the nal kontow:the act of proseatioa, with the frchead touching the ground tree tines. or forios representatives the poss of ctr iato China and outst the capital were sity czcamscebed. Acces to the Chinese market was linked oath cepted seascaal ‘wade at Gum (then known as Canton). Each winter foregn merchants were ecired o sal ome. They were not pert to vet farther ino China Regalos debberaey ed ‘hem at bay. Iwas unl o teach the Chinese language to thse barberens orto sel then books on Chinese history or cee. The comemutcations were to tke place tough special ceased local mecha “The notion of fee trade, resident erbaesis, and sovereign equl—by this point, the mina igh enjoyed by Europeans in amost every ater corer ofthe wrd—sereunbeard ‘f'n Cina. One tact exception hd been mde for Russi. ts rapid eastward expensin the Czas domains nw abulted Qing teitores in Xana, Mongofi, and Manas) placed ‘in aweiqn postion to izeatea China. The Qig Dynasty, a 1715, pemiited Moscow to establish a Passan Onhodoxmision a Baling: eveamaly tk oa the ole of a de facto cenbass, the oly foreign mission ofits Kind in Cina for over a cenry "The contacts extended to Western Earopcin waders, ted 2s they were, were Soon by the Qi a @ considerable indlaence. The Son of Heaven had, athe Chinese view, show his ‘enevlence by alin them to para a Chinese wade—partcuayintea. sk, laequer-ware, and ehabab, for wich the West Sea barbarians had developed a voracious appetite. “Europe was to far rom the Mile Kingdom ever to become Siniczed along Korea or Viewsese es. Teal, the Ewopeans accepted the rle of ppian ia the Chinese iar ender, a wich they were labeled as “barbarians” and thr trade as “eibute” But asthe Wester powers eesti esti atl eels eh unee aman‘The Macartney Mission ‘The assumptions ofthe Chinese wold erder were partculadyeeasie to Beinn he “ed-hare barbarians” ia some Chinese ecards). As the premiar Westem commercial and aaval power, Brin brifled at its assigned role inthe cosmology of the Mile Kingdom, hose ary, the Bris noted, sill pinay used bows and arrows and whose avy was practically socesisteat. Bsish traders resected he inceasing amount of squeeze” exacted by the designated Chinese merchants at Gaangabou, tough which Chinese region required that ll ‘Western trade be conducted. They sought acess to the rest ofthe Chinese market beyond the southeast coast, "The st major Bish atemp 0 remedy th stustion as he 1703-04 mission of Lord George Macey to Chia. It asthe most otble, best conceived end least "aritic™ “European fort to ake the prevailing fort of Sino Weste reations and to ache re ade ad dplomincrepresetation on ec terms. Fle completly “The Macarmey mision ssc to exssine ia some deta The dary ofthe exvoy dsates hos the Chinese percopio of 3 le aporated ia pracie—and the gu exiting between Wester and Chinese perceptions of diplomacy. Macartney was a dtingished pubic servant with years of ateatinal expeience and a keen seas of “Oretal” diplomacy. He vas a man of nolble cura acovemens, He had served thee years as envoy-extaceny to the court of Catene he Great in St Petrsbug, where he neotsed a wes of ety ‘and commerce. Upon his return, be publshed a well received vohune of observations on Rusin istry and calwre He had subsequently served as Governor of Macias. He was aswell equipped 2s any of his comtemporaios fo nausea new diplomacy acioss zaons “The as of the Macartney mission to China wou have seemed modesto any educated Briton othe ne—especialy compared wih the recently establsed Bish domision ove the ‘cikboeig Giant. nda. Home Secretary Henry Dundas tamed the Macarmey nsuctons as an tempt to achiew ‘afte communication wih a people, pesaps the mos singlr on the Globe "is principal ais were the estabskmeat of reciprocal embassies in Bejing and London and commercial acess to oer pnts along tbe Chinese coast. Oa te later point, Dundas ‘harzed Macarmey to da areation fo te “scomrasig” and arbiter” system f regulation al Guaazzhou that prevented Beish merchants Bom angina i the “ai competion of the Marke” (a coacept wth ao dec coumarin Coninian Chia) He was, Dundas stressed to dslazn any testorial anions ia China—aa assurance bound o be considered as an ‘ns by the vcs because it pled that Brita Had the opin to entra such ais = “The Bch goverment adeesed the Chinese cour on equel tems, which woud have sack the Bris ing arp as afording a non-Westem county en acoaica degce of dips, ile being mosted in Chin as subordinate nsclece. Deas instructed Macerta to taketh "eatbst oppor” to peess ypoa the Cinese cout that Kina Geore I saw ‘Macartey’s mission as “aa embassy othe most child a wel as most anieat and popucus Nato nthe Weddin order to observe ts celebrated instnions, and commuscas an ‘eceve the nets which ast eau fom an uxeserved and endl ietrcourse between that Coury ad tis own” Duna instructed Macartney to comply with al cexemoiels of tha Court, hich may not commit the honor of your Sovereen or lessen your own deity, 0 a to ender the saccess of your negoion "He should not, Dundas stressed, “Tet ny tiie punco standin the way ofthe important benets which may be obtained” by sucess in is mission‘Garct danoad-smded waswaties, Drs pred Copied Qiao ted approve the Chsee afm), ea porwas ofthe King an Queen pated Join Rejuols. Macartney even bxough a deflated hot balloa and plamod,wiout sucess, to have mambots o is mission By it over Being by way of demoasteston ‘The Macarmey mission accomplished none of ts specic objectives: the sap i parceptions was sine too wide. Macarey had intended o demonsuae the benefits indusiakzaton, ‘butte Emperor understood his afte ae ite, The Bish eaoy expected hs Chinese host to recognize that they bad been hopelesely ef behind by the progres of tctnaogial ‘cidzaton and to sel a pociarelaoahip vith Dain to rect ther balovardacss Infact, the Chinese ested the Bich ae on erogant and urinormed barbarian be seca special {or fem the Son ef Heaven Cina remind wedded toi agri ways, ith ts burgecning popultion making food prodbction moe wigca! than eve, and ts Confcian bureaucracy Jgnorat ofthe key elements ofindusaization-steam power, cet and capil, pate propery, and pubic edcaton “The est cord ate came as Macartney sa his eotrage made thee ay o Jeb the suamer capa nowthoast of Blin, wavelg yp the cous ia Chinese ya laden with raeros gis and deicaces bat amyng Chinese sis proching, “The Engksh Ambascador bringin rte othe Emperor of China” Macartney resolved n keeping th Duns's insctons, to make “ao complit fit, reserving myself to noice tia proper opportunity occurs. ~* As he approached Being, however, the ci mandaras charge with ahinsering ‘the mission opened asegotioa that pu the gap ia perceptions in sharper. The issue was whether Macarmeywoald kowtow tothe Emperr or wheter, ashe insted, he could ow the Beis castom of knecingon one kee “The Chinese side cpeaed the dscusios in a dicltous manner by remarking oa as Macaraey roca inhis dary, the diferent modes of dress that prevaled among défoeatasions > “The mandnsconchded that Chinese clothes wee, inthe end, superior, since the allowed the wearer to pefonn wt eater ease the genufleions and prostaion which were, hey seid customary to be made by al persons whenever the Emperce appeared in publ.” Would the Bris delegation aot nd ease to ice tse of ts cumbersome kace-buckles aad eyes eso per mee pence cry coy me tt pe me ype htc pins cen ck tomy own Sovercin.”! “The dacusios over the “kontow questo” conned intemitcly for several mote weeks, The mandi suggested thet Macartaey’s options were to kowtow oot home cenpty-handed: Macartney rested. Evenmally fas agreed tat Macarte coud olow the Earopean customs acd isl on onc ne, Ieproved to be te aly post Macartney wat (at least sto actual cond, the oficial Chinese repot stated that Macartney, overvened bythe Emperors awesome majesty, had pefomed the Kowtow ater al) “Allo ook place wit the mica Ramewerk of Chinese protocol lich showed Macartney the most coasiderate weatmon in fag and rejaciag his proposals. Eaveloped al encompassing protocol and assured tht each aspect had a cosnicallyordsned and unaerable purpose, Macartney found mse scacey able to begin bis negotiations. Meanwhile he ‘ote ith amie of sespect and inzase the eicincy of Chin's vast bureaucracy, assessing that “every eumstance concerning us and every Word that fas ms ou ips ise ‘reported and remembered"! ‘To Macarmey’s constematon the technological wonders cf Europe let a0 visible impression oa his handlers. When is party demoastated thet mouazed cannons, “our conductor pretend to thnk ly of them, and spoke tous a isch things were no novels in China" Fis lenses, char, and hot-air balloon were brshed aie with poltecondesceasion ‘A cath ed a half ae, the subassador was sl waiting for an andence wi the Empercr, the terval having been consumed by banquets, catrainnest and discussions about he _appropite protocol for porsble peril sacience. Fly, e was simmoned at four o'clock i the moring to “srg, handsome tea to awit the Emperor, who presealy appeared ‘with preat ceremony. borne in a palangnin. Macartney wondered at the magnificence of Chinese protocol. ia which “every fanctioa of the ceremony was performed with sach silence and‘personally serve wine to foreien envoys was specifically mentioned among the Han Dynasty's five baits for barbarian management}? ‘The sex day, Macarmey and party ateaded a coavocatoa to celebrate the Emperors binhday. Falls, the Emperor summeaed Macartaey this bex at a theater pesfoemzace. Now. Macarmey assumed, be could wansot th business afl embassy Istend, the Emparcr soba ith anther aif, a bos of precious stones and, Macrty secorded. "a smal bok, ‘writen and paated by his own and, which he desired me to preseat tote King. my maser, as atoken ois Biendsh, svg thar the box had been ea unde years i is family" ‘Now tha these tokens of imperial benevolence been bestowed, the Chinese oli suggested tha in view f the approaching cold winter, the time for Macartney's departure bad smrved. Macartaey protested thatthe to sides had yet ‘eter ato negation” on the tems in is oficial nstrurons he had “barely opeued lis commisso,” Irs Kiag George's wish, Macartey sessed. that he be allowed ores atthe Chinese court asa pemanet Bish ambassader “yin the momiag of October 3.1793, a mandarin awoke Macaracy and sammoned bin nfl ceremodal ess othe Forbidden Cay, where he was to receive the aster his pettion. Afr a wait of several hotrs, he was ushered up a sttcase toa slk-cowered cat, upon wich sa not the Emperor, uta ete mn the Ener to King George. The Chinese ‘ofcialskowoseed to the lene, leaving Macatcy to knee to he leter cn one knee. Fly, the imperil communication was waaspored back to Macaraey's chambers with fil ‘ceemony. Itproved to be one ofthe most human communication ine amas of Bish diplomacy. ‘The edict began by remarking on King George's respect ham” in sending abut mission to Cina: ‘You, O King, fee bevoad the cones of many seas, evertbeless, impaled by your humble dsr o partake ofthe banfts of or chain, you have dispatched amision respectily bearing your memorial, ‘The Emperor then dsmised every substantive request that Macartney had made, icing the proposal that Macartney be perited 0 resie in Being as lor: sto your eteay to send one of your nationals to be accredits to my Cees Cott ante bein contol of your courty’s trade with Chia hs requests contrary to all usage of ‘ay dynasty aed canact possibly be eatemaned .. He couldnt] be allowed ibe of moveazat acd the pdege of corespondng wth is ova count co that you would gaa soting by his esdence ia ow midst. ‘The proposal that China sends own ambassador to Leadon the ect coated, was even more absurd {Slepposing I set an Ambassador to reside in your couse, how could you possibly make fr hin the vequse arangemeas? Europe consis of many othr aaias besides your ‘vt each and all demanded tobe represented at our Court ow could we possibly consent? The hing ste praciable Perhaps the Exeter ascertained, King George had sent Macartey to ean the blessings of ization fom lina. Bu this, too, was ot ofthe question: