How to use this book 4 9Ce In and out 50

9Ce Combatting pandemics 52

Biology
9A Genetics and evolution 90 Biology STEM Projects

9Aa Monsters and myth 5

90 Clear writing 53

9Aa Environmental variation 6

901 Project 1: Animal smuggling 54

9Ab Inherited variation 8

902 Project 2: Enzyme investigation 55

9Ab Probability (WS) 10

903 Project 3: Teeth 56

9Ac DNA 12
9Ac Genetic counselling (STEM) 14
9Ad Genes and extinction 16
Chemistry
9Ae Natural selection 18 9E Making materials
9Ae Recreating animals 20 9Ea Materials of the future 57
9Ea About ceramics 58
9B Plant growth 9Eb Polymers 60
9Ba On a farm 21 9Eb Peer review (WS) 62
9Ba Reactions in plants 22 9Ec Composite materials 64
9Bb Plant adaptations 24 9Ec Materials for cars (STEM) 66
9Bc Plant products 26 9Ed Problems with materials 68
9Bd Growing crops 28 9Ee Recycling materials 70
9Be Protecting wild plants (STEM) 30 9Ee Material failures? 72
9Be Farming problems 32
9Be Bias and validity (WS) 34 9F Reactivity
9Be Organic farming 36 9Fa Demolition 73
9Fa Types of explosion 74
9C Transition to further study- Biology 9Fb Reactivity 76
9Ca Threat from disease 37 9Fc Energy and reactions 78
9Ca Diseases 38 9Fc Percentage change (WS) 80
9Ca Veterinary science (STEM) 40 9Fd Displacement 82
9Cb Control systems 42 9Fe Extracting metals 84
9Cc Treating diseases 44 9Fe Materials management (STEM) 86
9Cc Median and quartiles (WS) 46 9Fe Alfred Nobel 88
9Cd Ecology 48
9G Transition to further study- Chemistry 9K Transition to further study- Physics

9Ga Art and chemistry 89 9Ka Physicists 141

9Ga Ions 90 9Ka Differences 142
9Ga Weather control (STEM) 92 9Kb Fields 144
9Gb Energy transfers 94 9Kc Cause and effect 146
9Gc Rates of reaction 96 9Kd Links between variables 148
9Gd Chemical equations 98 9Kd Information from graphs (WS) 150
9Gd Standard form (WS) 100 9Ke Models 152
9Ge Equilibria 102 9Ke Computer game design (STEM) 154
9Ge Frescos 104 9Ke Physics research 156

9H Chemistry STEM Projects 9L Physics STEM projects

9H Being objective 105 9L Working as a team 157

9H1 Project 1: Carbon capture 106 9L1 Project 1: Ears and eyes 158
9H2 Project 2: Electrolysis investigation 107 9L2 Project 2: Going faster 159
9H3 Project 3: Nanoparticles 108 9L3 Project 3: Speed limits 160

Glossary 161
Physics
91 Forces and motion Periodic table 169

91a Moving things 109 STEM skills 171

91a Forces and movement 110
Index 172
91a Energy for movement 112
91b Operating ships (STEM) 114
91c Speed 116
91c Equations and graphs (WS) 118
91d Turning forces 120
91e More machines 122
91e Supplying the energy 124

9J Force fields and electromagnets

9Ja Mission to Mars 125

9Ja Force fields 126
9Jb Static electricity 128
9Jc Current electricity 130
9Jc Working with electricity (STEM) 132
9Jd Resistance 134
9Jd Rounding numbers (WS) 136
9Je Electromagnets 138
9Je Humans in space 140
HOW TO USE

You should be able to answer the question

at the top of the page by the time you
have finished the page.
The monster pumpkins .,_photo A did not get that
big by chance. The plants were carefully kx>ked after
and Wven all the resources they needed, i ncluding
additiooal ligh t, water, warmth and mineral satts.
An organism's surrouncings are its environment.
In all envirorwnents there are environmental factOI'S
that can change the Ofganism. There are abiotic
factors or physical environmental factors (e.g.
temperature, the amount of l ight). There are also
biotic factors , which are the activities ot other
organisms (e.g. competition, predation, i nfectious
disease).

a Suggest What abiotiC factors allowed the

pu""klns In pha.o A to grow so big.

II al Describe two physical environmental factors

In your environment a1 the moment. Fact boxes contain fascinating facts for
bl Apart from physical factors, what other
enll'f'Onmental factors are *' yr:AX environment? you to think about.
The features of an OtQanism are its c haracteris tic s.
The ciflereoces between the characteristics of ayanisms
are known as variation. Environ mental variation is
variation caused by an organism1s environment al Describe the environmental
II variation shown In photos B.
In hll'tlans, examples of envirorwnental variation indude CandO.
scars and hairstyles. Scars are made by physical
environmental factors. such as fire or sharp objects. bl Suggest what environmental
The Key words for the page are in bold.
factor has caused the variation
Hai'stytes follow fashion, which is an environmental
factor caused by other people in your environment
., each case. You can look up the meaning of these
words in the Glossary, on pages 161-168.

Continuous and
discontinuous
Pumpkins. such as the ones shown in photo
A, can have a large spread of different sizes.
from very small to enormous. and everything
If you are having trouble finding information _.. between. Variation that can have any value
between two poi nts is continuous variation .
Variation that can only have a val ue from a limit ed
about something, use the Index, on set of possible values is dis continuous variation.

pages 172-173. a l kientlfy a •ype of environmental

variation In phOto E.

bl Sta:e wh!Mher this iS continuous or

Gscondruoua. Explah your reasoning.
Explah Whether each example of
varla•lon tn p hotos B. C and 0 ts
continuous Of discontinuous.

Classification
Classification is sorting orgooisms ilto fJ'OUps. The
smallest group an organism is classified into is its species.
Members of the same species can reproWce with ooe
MOther and their offspring wil also be able to reproduce.
Sometmes envirorwnental variation makes classification
d i fficutt. In 2003 some ancient h uman bones were
d i scovered on Flores Island _.. lndooesia. The bones w«e
from adults who w«e just over 1 m tall -much shorter than
Questions are spread throughout the page so human adLits today. Some scientists think that the bones
were from our oYm species ot human but that a shortage of
you can answer them as you go along. a mineral caned iodine in the diet meant that the people did
not grow very tal. Other scientists think that these people
were from a different species, which is now exmct.

A plant growing on a seashore has piM ftowers at

•he top of a stem. which has pairs of oval leaves
along rts 10 em ~gth. On a nearby Island there
are similar plants bot they are over 50 em tall and
have dark p.xple flowers. Scientists took seeds
from p lants In ~h area~ and grew them In the
laboratory. They all grew to look the same.
I can ••• boxes help you to reflect on what you a l What does this tell you about the plants from the
.woareas?
have learned. Consider each statement carefully •o
bl Use this exa.,..:.le explain hOw environmental
variation can make It difficult to Identify plant
and think about how well this applies to you.
 MONSTERS
PDF

A story says that the bones in photo A are from a

terrible fire-breathing dragon that roamed Poland
long ago. The creature was slain by Krak, a
shoemaker's apprentice who later became king.
The city of Krakow was built in his honour.

The bones are obviously not from a dragon.

They are probably from a whale and a mammoth.
Myths often originate from people finding the bones
of extinct creatures, which they cannot explain.
The idea of one-eyed giants (Cyclops) from Ancient
Greek mythology probably came from the discovery
of mammoth or elephant skulls, which have a large
central hole for the animal's trunk.

In 1676, Robert Plot (a university professor) was given

part of an enormous thighbone. He concluded that
it was from a giant human. It was actually a dinosaur
bone but no one knew about dinosaurs at the time.
Later, William Buckland (1784-1856) carefully
studied a set of huge bones. In a scientific paper
published in 1824, he hypothesised that the bones
came from a large extinct reptile. Its species name
is now Megalosaurus bucklandii, in his honour, and
it was the first dinosaur described in a science
journal. However, many scientists at the time were
not convinced by Buckland's hypothesis because he
PPT was quite eccentric. He sometimes gave lectures to 11 al What does 'extinct' mean?
his students on horseback.
bl Suggest a way in which extinction
happens.
C I a model of Megalosaurus bucklandii and a human
a I What variation is there between
II t he two species in photo C?
bl How can variation be caused?
Give two ways.

II What is a species?

a What genus is Buckland's dinosaur in?

DNA is a substance found in cells.

II Where in the cell is it found?
 ENVIRONMENT.
UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT
WHAT CAUSES ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION?

The monster pumpkins in photo A did not get that

big by chance. The plants were carefully looked after
and given all the resources they needed, including
additional light, water, warmth and mineral salts.
An organism's surroundings are its environment.
In all environments there are environmental factors
that can change the organism. There are abiotic
factors or physical environmental factors (e.g.
temperature, the amount of light). There are also
biotic factors, which are the activities of other
organisms (e.g. competition, predation, infectious
disease).

Suggest what abiotic factors allowed the

II pumpkins in photo A to grow so big.

a I Describe two physical environmental factors

II in your environment at the moment.

b IApart from physical factors, what other

environmental factors are in your environment?

The features of an organism are its characteristics.

The differences between the characteristics of organisms
are known as variation. Environmental variation is
al Describe the environmental
variation caused by an organism's environment.
II variation shown in photos 8 ,
In humans, examples of environmental variation include C and D.
scars and hairstyles. Scars are made by physical
environmental factors, such as fire or sharp objects. bl Suggest what environmental
factor has caused the variation
Hairstyles follow fashion, which is an environmental
in each case.
factor caused by other people in your environment.
 PPT
Continuous and
discontinuous
Pumpkins, such as the ones shown in photo
A, can have a large spread of different sizes,
from very small to enormous, and everything
in between. Variation that can have any value
between two points is continuous variation.
Variation that can only have a value from a limited
set of possible values is discontinuous variation.

a !Identify a type of environmental

II variation in photo E.

b I State whether this is continuous or

discontinuous. Explain your reasoning.

Explain whether each example of

II variation in photos B, C and D is
continuous or discontinuous.

Classification
Classification is sorting organisms into groups. The
smallest group an organism is classified into is its species.
Members of the same species can reproduce with one
another and their offspring will also be able to reproduce.
Sometimes environmental variation makes classification
difficult. In 2003 some ancient human bones were
discovered on Flores Island in Indonesia. The bones were
from adults who were just over 1 m tall - much shorter than
human adults today. Some scientists think that the bones
were from our own species of human but that a shortage of
a mineral called iodine in the diet meant that the people did
not grow very tall. Other scientists think that these people
were from a different species, which is now extinct.

A plant growing on a seashore has pink flowers at

II the top of a stem, which has pairs of oval leaves
along its 10 em length. On a nearby island there
are similar plants but they are over 50 em tall and
have dark purple flowers. Scientists took seeds
from plants in both areas and grew them in the
laboratory. They all grew to look the same.
PPT
I can ...
a I What does this tell you about the plants from the • identify different types of environmental
two areas? variation and explain their causes
bj Use this example to explain how environmental • explain how environmental variation can
variation can make it difficult to ident ify plant cause problems with classification.
species.
7
 INHERITED
UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

Offspring get a mixture

of characteristics from their
parents. We say they inherit these
characteristics. The variation in these
characteristics is inherited variation.
Examples include human eye colour,
dimpled chins and blood groups.

Give three examples of inherited

II variation in dragon fruit (photo A).

a I Look at photo B. From which

II parent has the child wearing
glasses inherited her myopia?

b I Give another characteristic that

the children have inherited from
one parent.
What is the difference between
II environmental and inherited variation?

The instructions for inherited characteristics are stored in genetic information (which is found
in the genes inside the nuclei of cells). In sexual reproduction, two gametes (one male and
one female) fuse during fertilisation to produce a zygote. Since
the zygote contains genetic information from two parents, the
offspring will have some characteristics of each parent.
Every gamete contains slightly different genetic information; no
two gametes are identical. For example, in people with dimpled
chins, some of their gametes carry the instructions for a dimpled
chin and some of their gametes may not. Since all gametes are
different, brothers and sisters do not look exactly the same.

II List the brothers in photo C.

Where in a gamete is genetic

II information stored?

List three of your characteristics

II caused by genetic information.
Inherited variation can also be continuous or discontinuous. Different blood groups in Scotland
One example of discontinuous inherited variation is blood group. 3000
Every person has one of four different blood groups, referred to as
2500
A, B, AB or 0. Other examples of discontinuous inherited variation Q)
'C..
include having a dimpled chin and shoe size. al2000

Examples of continuous inherited variation include human height and -c..

0
(jj 1500
skin colour. However, like many characteristics, these can also be affected .0
E
by environmental factors. For example, tall parents are likely to produce ~ 1000
tall children but children can only grow tall if they eat a healthy diet.

Explain why foot length is an example of continuous variation

II but shoe size is discontinuous. A B AB 0
Blood group

a What factors affect how tall people grow?

D I Data about discontinuous
Suggest a variation in tomatoes caused by both genetic variation can be plotted on a bar
II information and environmental factors. Explain your reasoning. chart, with gaps between the bars.

The measurements for a characteristic that shows

continuous variation can be put into groups (as
shown on the x-axis in graph F). Plotting a bar chart
of this grouped data usually gives a 'bell shape'. We
can make this more obvious if we join the tops of the
bars with a smooth curve. This shape is known as a
normal distribution (and is the shape we often see
in characteristics that show continuous variation).
Variation in height of Year 9 students
120

100 normal distribution

IJl
c
.gJ 80
::::J
XLS
-iii
0
....
Q)
.0
DOC
E
::::J
z

a I State whether variation in each of

II the characteristics below is inherited,
environmental or both, and whether F I Data about continuous variation can be put
each is continuous or discontinuous. into groups and then plotted on a bar chart
Present your answer as a table. without gaps between the bars.
natural skin
eye colour colour
having a hair
scar length
naturally
curly hair
PPT
blood speaking dimpled wearing a height
I can ...
group Arabic chin watch • identify different types of inherited variation
• explain how sexual reproduction causes
bl Suggest one characteristic you would inherited variation
expect to show a normal distribution.
• identify a normal distribution.
9
 PPT

HOW DO WE USE STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY?

Statistics is collecting, analysing and presenting data. We use statistics when we:
collect data (e.g. using samples to Are you interested in dinosaurs?
estimate values)
• draw conclusions (e.g. finding
correlations using scatter graphs or • Interested
calculating averages) Somewhat interested
Cannot say either way
• present findings (e.g. drawing graphs)
• Somewhat uninterested
• make predictions. 10% • Uninterested

II What sort of chart is chart A?

The results from the survey in
II chart A have been converted
into percentages. What is a
percentage?
25%
A 113867 people in Japan were asked how interested they were
in dinosaurs. The findings could be used to decide whether to use
dinosaurs in an advert.

Using statistics
Clothing manufacturers collect measurements from people. They then draw conclusions by calculating
averages and drawing graphs. For example, a company could use graph B to predict how many shirts
with a certain sleeve length they are going to sell. Different sleeve lengths needed by men in a sample

You could also use graph B to work out how likely it is 60

In a normal distribution
that a shopper would need 95 em long sleeves. You can y
curve, the mean is the
50
see that there is a much greater chance of a shopper same as the mode (most
common value in a set of
needing a 90 em sleeve than a 95 em sleeve. The c:
40
Q) values) and the median
chance of something happening is called its probability.
-E
0
....
Q)
30
(middle value in a set of
values).

II What is probability?
.0
E
::l
z 20

Look at graph B. Is a shopper picked

II at random more likely to need 84 em
10

sleeves or 94 em sleeves?
80 85 90 95 100
Men's formal shirt sleeve length (em)

Probabilities are often shown as percentages. This is how often a particular outcome occurs in every
100 times something happens. If you flipped a coin 100 times, and it landed on one side 52 times, the
probability of it landing on this side was 52/100 or 52%. Th is is the experimental probability. We can
XLS show probability on a scale, such as diagram C. The probability of an impossible event is 0%. The
probability of an event that is certain to happen is 100%.
 discovering a getting one of the sides the Sun rising
live dinosaur on a coin flip tomorrow
percentage 0% 50% 100%
fraction o/. y. y. :y. y,
decimal 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

C I a probability scale impossible

more unlikely even chance more likely certain

Probabilities can be given as decimals.

Method
A I Throw two dice 100 times and each time
add the two numbers to get a score.
B I Record the number of times you get each
score in a tally chart.
C I Calculate the experimental probability of getting
each of the 11 different possible numbers.
To change a percentage to a decimal, write it
as a fraction over 100 and then divide.
For example, 52% = 52/100 = 0.52.
Probabilities can also be shown as fractions.
For example, with the six-sided dice there is a 1/6
probability of rolling a '1' and a 5/6 probability of
rolling 'not 1'.

PARIS
If there is a 76% chance
Partly Cloudy of rain, it means that if
you had that period of
:!: 22.
time 100 times over, on
76 occasions it would rain
Probability and inheritance
Some diseases and conditions are caused by the
genetic information in our cells. People with one of
these conditions may want to know the theoretical
probability of passing it on to their children. An
example is achondroplasia ('ack-on-drO-p/ay-
zee-a'). People with achondroplasia do not grow
very tall (up to about 130 em).
• If neither parent has achondroplasia, the
theoretical probability of their child having it
is 0.003%.

Carry out the instructions in the Method. • If one parent has achondroplasia, the
II Give your answers as percentages and theoretical probability of a child having it is
decimals. 50%.
What is the theoretical probability, • If both parents have achondroplasia, the
II as a decimal, that a child will have theoretical probability of a child having it is
achondroplasia if one parent has it? 75%.
What is the theoretical probability of
II throwing a number less than three
with one dice? Give your answer as a
fraction, a decimal and a percentage.
I can ...
• explain what probability is
• calculate probabilities and display them in
different forms.
11
 UK NC, CEE

PPT

HOW IS GENETIC INFORMATION STORED?

On 28 February 1953, two men

interrupted people eating lunch
in Cambridge. One of them
announced: 'We have discovered
the secret of life.' Their names
were James Watson and Francis
Crick. They had just made a
cardboard model of a substance
called DNA.
'
Watson and Crick used their
own and other scientists' data to
build their model. They showed
thei r first attempt to Rosalind
Franklin, who told them it
was wrong.
Along with Maurice Wilkins, VDO
Rosalind Franklin had been taking
photos of DNA using X-rays.
Photo B is one of her photos, which Wilkins showed to Watson at the
start of 1953. Although it looks like a blurry X, Watson knew that only
spiral molecules could form this pattern. With this information, Watson
and Crick finished their model. They published a paper about it in a
journal called Nature on 25 April 1953. Wilkins and Franklin published
their work in the same edition. Afterwards, Franklin worked on other
things but Wilkins spent some years testing Watson and Crick's
hypothesis, and making small corrections to their model.

Suggest how Watson and Crick were able to find other

II scientists' data.

II Draw a table to show what each scientist in photo A did to

help discover the structure of DNA.
B I Rosalind Franklin's X-ray
photo. Cross shapes are
Chromosomes made by spiral molecules.
DNA is found in structures called chromosomes
inside the nuclei of cells. Each chromosome
contains one enormously long DNA molecule.
Genetic information is stored in sections of a DNA

----
molecule, called genes.
Genes control inherited characteristics.
A few characteristics (such as the
ABO blood group) are controlled by
one gene. Most characteristics are
controlled by many genes.

II Give two examples of

characteristics controlled
by genes.

Most of your cells contain 23 pairs

of chromosomes (46 in all). Both
chromosomes in a pair contain the
same genes and are the same size, apart from
the sex chromosomes. Girls have two X sex
chromosomes, which are the same size. Boys have
one X and one much smaller Y sex chromosome.
,.I\ ,, 7> )l
2 3
~(
4
Jl
5

Unlike body cells, gametes only contain

~
(( ...,J (( ,..
~

'
,
.,
23 chromosomes. When two gametes fuse, the
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
resulting zygote has 46 chromosomes, as shown in
J I"-
,.
diagram E. After a zygote has formed, cell division ;e.
13 14 15 16
•
17 18
occurs over and over again, forming a ball of cells.
Each of these cells contains identical copies of the .~
.,. ..
~~
same 46 chromosomes. 19 20 21 22 XJY

D I chromosome pairs (x 3000)

a What sex is the person whose chromosomes

are shown in photo D? Explain your reasoning.

How many chromosomes does the nucleus of

fertilisation
l cell division
II each of these cells contain:
a Isperm cell b Iheart muscle cell
c Iegg-making cell d Izygote?
a I Look at photo C. Two different genes have
II been stained so that they glow. How many
copies of each gene are there?
bl Explain why there are this number of copies.
II Draw a diagram to show how DNA, chromosomes,
genetic information and genes are linked.

The zygote contains

46 chromosomes -
23 from the sperm cell
and 23 from the egg cell.
E I A zygote contains the chromosomes carried
in both the egg cell and the sperm cell.
PPT
I can ...
• outline how the structure of DNA was discovered
• explain the importance of DNA
• describe the relationship between chromosomes,
DNA, genes, genetic information and nuclei. 13
 V normal sequence
W TAC CAC GTA GAC TGA GGA CTC CTC
X TAC CAC GTA GAC TGA GGA CAC CTC "--- changed sequence t hat can
Y TAC CAC GTA GAC TGA GGA TTC CTC cause a d isorder
Z TAC CAC GTA GAC TGA GGA CTC CTC

Give the total number of chromosomes

found in a normal body cell.

Look at diagram A. Explain which

sequences produce faulty haemoglobin.
 Suggest why genetic tests on babies are
becoming more common.

Suggest why couples who want to start a

family may see a genetic counsellor.

A test report reads: "The patient has one

copy of the E4 variant of the APOE gene. The
probability of developing Alzheimer's disease
before the age of 85 is 20% (compared with
13% for the general population). " How would
you explain this simply to the patient?

Photo D shows the results of a genetic test to look at a person's chromosomes.

1 Use your knowledge of chromosomes to identify what is unusual about the
person.
2 This person does not suffer any problems. However, a woman with
chromosomes like this has a 10% chance of having a baby with Down's
syndrome. There is no increased risk of a baby with Down's syndrome if the
man has these chromosomes.
•
a Find out the effects of
\I :a
Down's syndrome.
.,. ,.,
I •
,.
b You are the genetic &~
counsellor for the person
with the chromosomes
shown in photo D. The
person tells you they want
. • ..
.
·" ,..
..
X
..'
fl •
..

"
.6
..
to start a family. Write
down what you would say.
d
"
••. •.. D X
'
D I Chromosomes can appear as X-shapes
as well as 1-shapes.
 GENES AND
UKNC

PPT

HOW CAN GENETIC INFORMATION CAUSE EXTINCTION?

Around 65 million years ago, 75% of the Earth's

species became extinct, including the dinosaurs.
Many scientists think that a giant meteorite hit the
Earth, throwing so much dust into the atmosphere
that it blocked out the sunlight. Evidence for this
includes the remains of a 180 km wide crater near
Mexico, which was formed at this time.

al State one physical environmental factor

II that the meteorite changed in habitats
on Earth.

b I Explain the effect this may have had on

animal populations.

PPT The adaptations of an organism are due to its genes. Changes in an ecosystem
can affect species in an area because they may no longer be so well adapted to
the new conditions. The organisms can become endangered or even extinct.

PPT This includes changes in abiotic

factors, such as rainfall. It also
includes changes in biotic
factors, such as competition
from other organisms, disease
and human activities (e.g.
hunting, clearing habitats,
using poisons). B I Thylacines were killed in Tasmania to
protect sheep. The last one died in 1936.

Competition
Grey squirrels were brought to the UK from the USA in the 1870s and now
the red squirrels that are native to the UK are rare. One inherited variation
between the species is that greys store more fat in their bodies. So, if there
is little food during a long winter, greys are more likely to survive. Greys are
better adapted than reds.
In woodland, greys and reds are in competition for food. Greys can digest
unripe acorns but reds cannot. So, greys eat the acorns before the reds,
meaning the reds get less food. When food is limited, more of the better-fed
greys survive and reproduce. Grey squirrel populations then increase faster,
leaving even less food for reds. XLS
 Grey squirrels also carry squirrel pox. This disease does
not affect greys but it kills reds.
eyes on side of head for
good all-round vision,
to spot predators
grey squirrel
red squirrel
How are squirrels adapted for:
II a Iclimbing trees
b Ibalancing on branches?
a I Why might a squirrel population
II decrease during a long winter?
bl How are grey squirrels better
adapted to long winters than
reds?

c I Explain how genes are

responsible for this.

Why have red squirrels

II disappeared from most of the UK?

Conifer trees have smaller

long, bushy tail for long, strong hind sharp claws for II seeds and thinner, more flexible
balance legs for leaping gripping tree trunks branches than trees with
broad leaves. Suggest why red
D I Red and grey squirrels share many adaptations but greys squirrels may be better adapted
are bigger than reds. to conifer forests than greys.

Preserving
biodiversity
We lose the opportunity to make use of species that
become extinct. Extinctions also upset ecosystems
and change food webs. So, we need to preserve the
biodiversity (number of different species) on Earth.
Ways of doing this include banning the hunting
of certain animals, setting up nature reserves and
starting breeding programmes. We can also store
parts of organisms (e.g. seeds, gametes) that can
be used to produce the organisms again if they
VDO become extinct. These materials are stored at low
temperatures in gene banks.

Red squirrels died out in some parts of the UK in the 1980s.

II There are plans to reintroduce them. What could be done to
help the reintroduced red squirrels to survive? PPT
I can ...
II Suggest one reason for saving the silversword plant.
• explain how organisms
Predict an effect of global warming on the population of become endangered or extinct
II polar bears. Explain your reasoning. • explain how adaptations affect
the survival of organisms
Explain how a gene bank can allow a plant species to
II survive if it becomes extinct in the wild.
• explain some ways of
preserving biodiversity.
17
 CEE

NATU
PPT

WHAT IS DARWIN'S THEORY OF EVOLUTION?

Photo A shows inherited variation in peppered

moths. The speckle pattern varies and some
moths have genes that make them black.

II What causes inherited variation?

In the 1850s most peppered moths around

Manchester in the UK were pale. By 1895,
98% of them were black. During this time
many factories were built. These produced
huge amounts of soot, turning buildings and
t rees black. Birds could easily spot the pale
moths on the blackened buildings and trees,
and so more pale ones were eaten. The black
moths were harder to spot and so more of
them survived and reproduced, and their
numbers increased.
al Explain why black peppered
This is an example of natural selection caused by a II moths survived better around
change in the environment. The environment is 'selecting' Manchester than pale ones at the
end of the 19th century.
certain genetic variations in characteristics, which are
passed on to the next generation. bl Use the term 'genes' to explain
why the number of black moths
Salty seas gradually increased.

a I Manchester now has many fewer

The shoreline in photo B is not made of sand ... but the
bones of millions of fish. The Salton Sea in California was
II factories. Predict how the number
of black moths has changed.
originally full of fresh water, but got more and more salty.
This caused most of the fish species to die out. bl Use the idea of natural selection
to explain your prediction .
B I The Salton Sea formed between 1905 and 1907 when a river
flooded a low-lying area. The sea is 25% more salty than the
Pacific Ocean, which has killed most of the fish.

The only fish still living in the Salton
Sea are of a species called tilapia.
They are usually found in fresh or
slightly salty water. If tilapia from a
freshwater lake are put into water
from the Salton Sea, they die. The
tilapia in the Salton Sea have become
better adapted to more salty water.
This gradual change in an adaptation
is due to natural selection. When
the Salton Sea started getting salty,
~
by chance some tilapia had genetic Q)
.0
variations that allowed them to cope E
:::1
better with the salt. More of these fish z
survived than those that could not
cope so well with the salt. So, more
of the 'salt-tolerant' fish reproduced,
and the next generation of tilapia
therefore contained more of the 'salt-
tolerant' fish. As the sea got saltier,
this process happened over and over
again. Today all the Salton Sea tilapia
fish can cope with very salty water.
Evolution
A change over time in the characteristics of organisms is known as evolution. Charles Darwin
(1809-1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) both developed a hypothesis that natural
selection causes evolution. This is now usually called 'Darwin's theory of evolution'.
Darwin's theory says that as natural selection
occurs, a population can evolve into a new species.
Many scientists now think that some dinosaurs
evolved into birds over millions and millions of years.
D I Microraptor was a dinosaur with feathers and four wings.
Microraptor fossils are 125-120 million years old.
Numbers of tilapia best adapted for different
amounts of salt in the water
I-+-+-+-H 1. The graph shows the number of fish 14--jf-+--J-r'--'----'--...J.......J...--'---l.---'---'~
1-+-t-+-H in the water after it had become a little 1+-t-+-+1 2. By chance,
-H-+-t-H bit salty. Most of the fish were best some of the
1-+-t-+-H adapted for these conditions. fish were best
1--tt++t::t~t+t+~~t=l:~aa;PI=t:t++t:::t::tl adapted
1 to
even more
,.-+--1-+-H-+-+1 salty water.
Some tilapia
~1-+-+++-+1 When the sea
thrive best in
-+-f\-+-+++-+1 became more
less salty water, H---l-tl-1-+-
-+-1-\t--H-+-+1 salty, it was
others are better H---H-1-+-
adapted to more I'""'F'H+---1-+-
-+-1---1\-+++-+1 these fish
-+-H\-H-+-+1 that were more
salty water. If
-+-1---+-'~+-+1 likely to survive
there is enough ~H-1-+­
-+-1-++-+"i--+1 and reproduce.
food, they will
all survive.
411
less salty
Saltiness of the sea
more salty
..
C I Environmental change often causes natural selection.
a al What characteristic has been 'naturally selected' in
fish in the Salton Sea?
bl How has this selection occurred?
IJ al What is a hypothesis?
bl How does a hypothesis
VDO become a theory?
II What is evolution?
Explain how natural selection can
II produce a new species if two
populations of the same organism
become separated. (Hint: Think
about the definition of a species.)
PPT
I can ...
• recall that individuals in a
population vary genetically
• explain how natural selection
works on these variations. .-------'
19
 RECR
large size (larger objects
CAN WE BRING EXTINCT energy to their surroundings
quickly, keeping them warmer)
ANIMALS BACK TO LIFE?
Woolly mammoths became extinct about 4000
years ago, probably due to hunting by humans
and the Earth getting warmer. We know that they
were hunted because spear marks have been
found in mammoth remains. We also know that
the Earth started getting warmer about 10 000
years ago. Scientists think that as this happened
the plants that mammoths ate could only be
found further and further north, and so the
mammoths' habitat got smaller and smaller.

What environmental variat ion has been

Many scientists think that woolly mammoths and
elephants evolved from one species, about 6 million
years ago. Elephants evolved to cope with hot
conditions (such as having large ears to cool their
blood) and mammoths evolved to cope with the cold.
DNA can be found in frozen mammoth remains.
Some scientists think we could use this to recreate a II
mammoth, using a process called cloning. This could
help us to better understand how current global
warming might affect endangered species. However,
a 'cloned mammoth' may not behave in a natural
way, so the experiment may not be valid. It is unlikely
we could clone dinosaurs because their DNA w ill
have decomposed after 65 million years.
II found in mammoth remains?
Give two examples of inherited variation
II between elephants and mammoths.
Woolly mammoths had 58 chromosomes.
II al What long molecule do chromosomes
contain?
bl How many chromosomes would a
mammoth sperm cell have?
c I What sect ions of chromosomes contain
instructions for a cell?
al Explain how mammoths were adapted to
II t heir habitat.
bl How might their adaptations have limited
t hem to only living in certain areas of the
world?
Suggest how mammot hs may have evolved
t heir hair, when the species they evolved
from had very little hair.
~------------------------------------~
 PDF

Farmers use criteria to decide whether it is

worthwhile to farm in a certain way. Criteria are
a set of standards used to judge things. Some
criteria that a farmer may use are:
the amount of profit
the harm done to the environment
the effect on family life.
1Jiiiiii1 World wheat production
The costs of growing crops include seeds,
*' World wheat usage
780" t - - - - - - - - - - '
machinery, fertiliser, pesticides, diesel and wages
for workers. A farmer then needs to know how 760
Ul
much the crop can be sold for. The values of Q)

crops go up and down, so the farmer may not be

2 740
.9

XLS sure how much the crop will be worth when it is g 720
ready to be sold. :§.. 700
c:
0
Some farmers try to avoid harming the t5::I 680
environment by using very few chemicals. This l660
is known as organic farming. Organic foods are iii
~ 640
often expensive to produce and so cost more in ;:
"0 620
the shops.
~ 600

B I world wheat production and usage

a I What process do wheat plants use to make

II their own food?
b I Suggest the name of a carbohydrate that
wheat plants store in their seeds.
c I Explain the effect of a lot of cloudy weather
during a year on the amount of wheat that is
harvested.

Look at graph B. Suggest one year in which the

II price of wheat was high. Explain your reasoning .

II Why do farmers use fertilisers on their crops?

Explain why the farmer in photo C needs to plant

II mustard to protect his potatoes.
 UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

WHAT CHEMICAL REACTIONS HAPPEN IN PLANTS?

The Greek scientist Aristotle (384-322

BCE) thought that roots sucked up soil
for plants to eat. Belgian scientist Jan
Baptista van Helmont (1580-1644) did the
experiment in diagram A and showed that
this was not correct.

How do van Helmont's results provide evidence

II to disprove Aristotle's theory?
small willow tree
(mass = 2.27 kg)

Some people suggested that the extra mass of

II the tree came from the water that he added. Was
this a sensible suggestion? Explain your answer.

Today we know that plants make their own food using

carbon dioxide and water. These are the reactants (raw
materials) for photosynthesis. The products are a sugar,
called glucose, and oxygen. We can show what happens
using word and symbol equations. regularly

PPT carbon dioxide + water ---+ glucose + oxygen mass of pot + dry soil mass of pot+ dry soil
= 90.72 kg = 90.66 kg
6C02 + 6H2 0 ---+ C 6 H 120 6 + 602

Light is needed to make photosynthesis happen. A substance called

chlorophyll, found inside chloroplasts in many plant cells, captures the
energy transferred by light. This energy then becomes stored in the glucose.
Photosynthesis can occur at different rates (speeds). With less light,
or a shortage of a raw material, photosynthesis is slower. A variable
that slows down the rate is a limiting factor.

II List the reactants in photosynthesis.

II Where in a plant cell does photosynthesis occur?

II Why do plants in a field only photosynthesise during the day?

Draw a flow chart to show how energy from the Sun becomes
II stored in a plant.
The faster Canadian pondweed photosynthesises, the more
XLS II oxygen bubbles it produces. Explain how three different
limiting factors can prevent the number of bubbles increasing.
Aerobic respiration II What is the test for carbon dioxide?
Every living cell in a plant needs a supply of glucose for
Graph C shows the levels of oxygen
energy. Energy is needed to help the plant grow and to
make new substances. The chemical energy stored in the
II and carbon dioxide in the water
around a pondweed plant.
glucose is released by aerobic respiration (which is the

II
How the concentrations of two gases
opposite of photosynthesis): dissolved in water vary over 18 hours
in a beaker containing pondweed
glucose+ oxygen---+ carbon dioxide + water(+ energy)
(/)
C6H120 6 + 602---+ 6C02 + 6H 20 (+energy) c:: X
.Q (/) '
The energy released from glucose is transferred to "§ ~ '
-ro
molecules of ATP, which store energy for a cell until it is ~0)
go
needed. 0
(.)

Photosynthesis only happens when there is light but

05:00 A B C D
respiration happens a// the time. During the day, a plant Time of day
produces more oxygen from photosynthesis than it needs
for respiration and so oxygen is given off. a I Which letter {A- D) do you think
represents a time of 23:00?
Glucose is carried to all parts
bl Which line shows the oxygen
of a plant in the form of sugars
concentration, X or Y?
dissolved in water. Phloem
vessels, which are made c I Explain why line X goes up
between letters B and D.
from chains of living phloem
cells, carry the sugar solution.
This is how roots get glucose
for respiration. They also
need oxygen, which they get
from the soil. If soil becomes
flooded or waterlogged , roots
cannot get enough oxygen
and so the plant can die.

xylem }
vein
phloem

Why do root cells need

PPT
oxygen? I can ...
• explain what happens when plants photosynthesise and respire
Why is flooding of fields a
Ill problem for growing crops? • explain how the rate of photosynthesis can be affected.
23
UK NC, iLS, CEE

PLANT
PPT

HOW ARE PLANTS ADAPTED FOR GETTING WHAT THEY NEED?

Roots hold plants in place and absorb water (containing

dissolved mineral salts). Plants need chemical
elements from mineral salts to stay healthy.
For example:
trigger
• nitrogen from nitrate salts is needed to hairs
make proteins
• magnesium is needed to make chlorophyll
• plant root cells need potassium to be able to absorb
water properly.
The other elements that plants need are carbon, oxygen
and hydrogen. These are all supplied by water from the
ground and carbon dioxide and oxygen from the air.

Water
Roots are adapted to their function by being
branched and spread out, helping them to get
water from a large volume of soil. They also have
root hair cells to give them a large surface area
a I Suggest why a Venus flytrap hair
so they can quickly absorb water. II needs to be touched more t han once.

bl State the source of potassium for a

Venus flytrap.

c I Why might it die without t his source?

Once absorbed, water passes to

xylem vessels in the centre of the
root. These long tubes are formed
when chains of xylem cells
become hollow, as they die. The
tubes carry water and dissolved
mineral salts to the leaves.
Water is needed for
many reasons, such as
photosynthesis, keeping leaves
cool, and filling up cells to keep
them expanded and firm. If there
is too little water, the cells sag
and the plant droops - it wilts.
 II Describe the route that water takes
from the soil to a leaf.
How are the following cells
II adapted for their functions:
a I xylem cells b Iroot hair cells?
Carbon dioxide
Stomata are small holes in a leaf that are
opened and closed by guard cells. Stomata
are shut at night and open when it is light.
Gases, such as carbon dioxide, enter and
leave the leaf by diffusion through open
stomata. Leaves are thin, so the carbon
dioxide does not have to diffuse very far into
a leaf before getting to cells. Plants also lose
water and oxygen through stomata. This
swapping of different gases is gas exchange.
Diffusion is faster at higher temperatures and
so gas exchange is faster (including loss of
water). Diffusion is also faster when there is a
greater difference between the concentration
of a gas inside and outside of a leaf.
VDO
Light
The leaves of many plants are broad (wide) and have
a large surface area for t rapping light. They are often
arranged on a plant so that the upper leaves do not
shade the lower ones too much.
Inside a leaf, there are different layers of tissue.
Epidermis cells produce a waxy layer (cuticle) to
stop the leaves losing too much water. Palisade
cells are adapted to their function by containing
lots of chloroplasts (where photosynthesis occurs).
The chloroplasts move nearer to the surface of the leaf
in dim light. They move in the opposite direction in bright
light to stop them being damaged.
.... ~water
vapour
oxygen
D I inside a leaf
In which cells, in diagram D, will no
II photosynthesis occur?
II Why do you think stomata shut at night?
II What cells control gas exchange?
Describe how a leaf is adapted to allow
II palisade cells to get all the resources they
need.
PPT
I can ...
• describe how leaves, roots and stems are adapted
for their functions
• explain how substances enter and leave plants.
25
 UK NC, CEE

PLANT
PPT

WHY DO PLANTS MAKE LIPIDS, CARBOHYDRATES AND PROTEINS?

Most life on Earth depends on photosynthetic organisms. oo

0 00
They help maintain the balance of carbon dioxide and _____. 0000
oxygen in the atmosphere, and they produce substances
that other organisms use for energy and growth. All the
o0 o
glucose starch
substances found in a plant depend on the glucose from
(monomers) (a polymer)
photosynthesis for their production.
A I The monomer used to make starch is
Carbohydrates glucose. PPT
The glucose molecules made in photosynthesis can be linked
together to form a polymer called starch. This molecule
stays in the chloroplasts until photosynthesis stops. The
starch is then broken down into small sugar molecules and
transported to phloem vessels (see page 23), in which they
are carried to other parts of the plant.

When is starch broken down in chloroplasts, during

II the day or night? Explain your reasoning.

In some plants, these sugars are converted back into starch

in storage organs, such as potatoes, or seeds. The sugars
are also used to make another polymer called cellulose, What would happen if you added
which is used to make plant cell walls.
II iodine solution to potato chips?
Explain your reasoning.
PPT You can test for starch by using iodine solution. This turns
Explain the results of the test
the starch a blue-black colour, as shown in photo B.
II shown in photo B.
Lipids
Plants make many different lipids. These are a group of
II Why do seeds need starch?

insoluble substances that include fats and oils.

The cuticle of a plant leaf contains lipids to make it
waterproof. Plants also use lipids to make parts of cells, for
example cell membranes. Fats and oils are often found in
plant seeds, where they are used as energy stores. They can
also be found in the flesh of some fruits, such as avocado, to
encourage animals to eat the fruits and so disperse the seeds.

What substance must plants produce in order to

II make lipids?

II Give one use that humans have for plant lipids.

 Proteins
Proteins are another a type of polymer.
They are long chains of molecules called
amino acids (of which there are many
different kinds). However, to make amino
nitrate~
+j.. )( ----+
acids a plant needs a good supply of
nitrogen from mineral salts called nitrates.
Proteins have many functions. All enzymes glucose
++
different amino acids

are proteins, such as those needed for

D I proteins are chains of amino acids
photosynthesis and respiration. Seeds
also contain a store of protein to supply
amino acids to make new proteins as a
seedling starts to grow.
II Give two uses for each of lipids, carbohydrates and
proteins in plants.

Seeds
a Why do plants not grow well if there is a lack of
nitrates in the soil?

Seeds contain a store of all the resources that a new seedling will
need to grow, until its leaves can open and start to photosynthesise.
Diagram E shows what happens during germination.
2 The entry of water 3 The enzymes
allows molecules to digest the starch
move around so to glucose.
that reactions can Enzymes work
occur. It also faster if it is
triggers the warmer.
release of

1 Water
4 The glucose
enters the
PPT
seed
coat enters. embryo,
What are the enzymes
food store
Oxygen
also enters.
allowing
it to respire II in diagram E made out
and grow.
containing of?
starch embryo
VDO E I processes that occur during germination
List three substances
you would expect to
find in a seed and
You can test for the
explain the function of
glucose produced in a
each.
seed using Benedict's
reagent. This is a blue
solution, which turns
orange and red when
heated with glucose.
I can ...
• explain how and why
Ill Explain whether
the samples in plants make different PPT
substances
photo F contain
glucose. • explain the importance
of nitrates.
27
 GROWING
UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT
HOW DO FARMERS MAKE SURE THEIR CROPS GROW WELL?

Farmers want to get as much useful product

(yield) from their crops and land as possible.
Forests are cut down to make farmland.
Hedgerows are removed to create more
space for big machines. Machines can
plant and harvest crops faster than humans.
Greenhouses can also be used to make sure
that plants have the best conditions for growth
and protect crops from changes in abiotic
factors (e.g. temperature, wind, rain).

Fertilisers
Fertilisers contain mineral salts that help plant
growth, such as potassium, phosphates and
nitrates. Farmers use cheap artificial fertilisers
and natural ones such as manure (animal
waste). Microorganisms, called decomposers,
break down manure and release the mineral
salts, but this can take a long time.

Describe the effect of too little

II phosphate.
a I Write down two other mineral salts
II that plants need.
b I Why do plants need these?

Pesticides
Pesticides kill pests (organisms that damage
In low-income countries, families grow their
crops). Insecticides kill insect pests. II own crops. Explain the effect an increase in
Fungicides kill fungi that cause plant diseases. the fol lowing will have on their food supply.
Herbicides (weedkillers) kill weeds, which al number of people in a family
compete with the crop plants for water, light
VDO and mineral salts. The size of a crop and its yield
bl number of pests

are reduced by competition from weed growth.

Modern herbicides are selective; they kill weed
a al Suggest why a farmer might want to use
a selective herbicide.

plants with broad leaves but not crop plants bl Suggest why farmers in low-income
with narrow leaves (such as wheat). countries may not use selective
herbicides.
Varieties
A variety is a group of plants that have been bred
to have certain characteristics. Some differences
between varieties are not easy to see. For
example, the modern wheat variety in photo C is
much less likely to get a disease called 'rust ' than
the old variety.
Different varieties are sometimes bred with
each other to produce offspring that hopefully
have the characteristics of both breeds. This is
cross-breeding and is one way of creating a
new variety.

al Why would the apples in photo D not

II be sold in shops?
bl What could be done to make a
red-fleshed apple that could be sold?

Look at photo C. Suggest two reasons

II why the 1950s variety of wheat is not
grown today.

New varieties are also created using selective breeding. This is

when only plants with certain characteristics are used to breed.
For example, a breeder may want to produce a variety of wheat that is
short, so the wind is less likely to blow it over. Two short parent plants
are bred. Then only the shortest offspring are selected and used to
breed the next generation. In the next generation only the shortest
plants are selected and bred. This process is repeated and repeated,
and over many generations a new variety of short wheat is produced.

Describe how wild

II carrots would have
been selectively bred
to produce the variety
we grow today.
a Farms in the UK
today produce 35%
more food per m2
than they did in 1973.
Explain how.
I can ...
• describe how pests and
human populations alter the
food supply
PPT
• explain ways in which farmers
boost food production
• explain some ways in which
plant varieties are created.
29
How can farming harm wild plants?

What is an endemic species?

Why are endemic plants most at risk from

human activities?
IUCN Red List categories

-···
•••
A
W UST
REo·

Threatened: Critically endangered

Endangered

Vulnerable

Near threat ened

Least concern
Spec ies are classified according
to population size, rate of decline
in population, area of distribution
and fragmentation of population.

Suggest how a plant

ecologist might identify a
plant in a particular area.

Explain why a report for a

government organisation
may be written differently
than one for local farmers.

As a group, consider an area where human

activities are expanding into natural areas.
1 Describe how a plant ecologist would carry
out an ecological audit to find out if the area
should be given Key Biodiversity Area (KBA)
status.
2 Design a layout for a clear, structured report
to be written about the audit. Include how you
would present the evidence and the criteria
for deciding whether to recommend KBA
status or not.
 FARMING
UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

WHAT PROBLEMS CAN FARMING CAUSE?

Clearing land (to make space for crops or

machinery) destroys habitats, reducing the
populations of organisms.

Fertilisers
Fertilisers can wash into rivers and lakes. The
very rich supply of nutrients (eutrophication)
causes fast growth of algae and plants, wh ich
block out light causing a lot of them to die.
As decomposer bacteria break down the dead
material, they use up the oxygen in the water,
causing fish to die (as shown in photo B).
Animal waste fertilisers (e.g. manure) may also
contain harmful microorganisms.
Pesticides
Insecticides can kill helpful insects that eat pests or
pollinate plants. Some insecticides are persistent (do
not break down in the environment). Predators in a food
chain may eat many animals containing small amounts
of insecticide meaning that the top predator gets a large
amount of the substance, which may harm it.
In 2014, the EU banned the use of some 'neonicotinoid'
insecticides on flowering crops. These insecticides
made the plants poisonous for most of the growing
season. The ban was based on evidence that the
insecticide made nectar and pollen poisonous to bees.
Selective herbicides only kill plants that have broad
leaves and so a crop , like wheat, is not affected.
However, many plants in hedges have broad leaves
and are killed.

C I Animal waste fertilisers (e.g. manure) can also cause

eutrophication, and may contain harmful microorgansims.
They also smell!

Explain why an increase in bacteria in a

II lake can reduce the populations of fish.

Why do extra nitrates in lakes cause

II algae and plants to grow quickly?

Draw a flow chart to explain why the

II fish in photo B have died.
 II a I Draw out a food web of the
following: Sparrowhawks eat
sparrows and dormice. Wheat is
eaten by caterpillars and aphids.
Caterpillars feed on hazel trees,
as do dormice. Sparrows feed
on aphids and caterpillars.
bl This food web is from a
hedge next to a wheat field.
What would happen to the
populations of the organisms if a
farmer sprayed the wheat with:
i I a general insecticide
ii I a selective herbicide?
Varieties
Farmers often plant the same variety of crop. Since all the
plants are identical, if one gets a disease then all the others
will. A new disease can wipe out the whole crop.
Planting a single crop variety over a large area reduces PPT
biodiversity. The food webs become smaller, and if a
disaster hits the area it takes much longer to recover than
if the area was very biodiverse.
In 19th century Ireland, most people survived by
II growing and eating one variety of potato (called
lumper). Between 1845 and 1852 more than a million
people starved. Suggest why.

Suggest why neonicotinoids A huge area of land is planted with wheat for many
II were banned for use on rapeseed II years. The farmer wants to grow rapeseed instead.
crops but not on wheat. Explain why the rapeseed may not give a good yield.

COMBUSTION ~ carbon dioxide (C0 2) + - - - - RESPIRATION

~ intheair •

PHOTOS~NTHESIS
I
RESPIRATION 1 RESPIRATION
I

(e.g. trees)
l.:.:.
Some plants ~ carbon compounds
in plants
FEEDING
carbon compounds
in animals I
are burnt. ; In certain conditions ; ~ •
Plants remove carbon dioxide from the 1 plant and animal ,. - - - -
I remains become I Most dead plants,
atmosphere when they photosynthesise. 1 fossil fuels.
1
: dead animals and
1 animal droppings are
Carbon is 'stored' in trees but the carbon broken down by

JL_ '
1
in crops is soon released back into the : decomposers (e.g.
1 fungi). Decomposers
atmosphere, when the crops are used for
T also respire.
food or fuel. Due to the destruction of forests 1-iJiiiiii-iiill• • l coal :nd oil oil and
and burning of fossil fuels, the amount of power station - - - . . - L . - - - - natural gas
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been
E I The carbon cycle shows the processes by which carbon
increasing for the last 200 years, which is dioxide is removed from and released into the atmosphere.
thought to be causing global warming.
We need to conserve habitats so that species do not die out and
so that future generations can enjoy them. To do this, we may
need to change the way we farm, build towns and produce energy. I can ...
Developing the things we need, without destroying habitats is • use models, for example food
called sustainable development. webs and the carbon cycle,
to explain changes in an
PPT
Explain two ways in which a farmer could grow crops ecosystem
II more sustainably. • recognise the advantages and
disadvantages of different
Draw a table to show the advantages and disadvantages
II of clearing land, insecticides, herbicides and fertilisers.
farming methods.
33
 UKNC, iLS, CEE BIAS AND
9Be VALIDITY PPT

WHAT ARE BIAS AND VALIDITY?

XLS Bias is a shift away from a true meaning or value.
Sometimes it is done on purpose and sometimes
by mistake.

Intentional bias
Herbicide-tolerant (or HT) soybean is a variety that is not
killed by a selective herbicide called glyphosate, which
kills common weeds (such as milkweed). Milkweed
plants are important for monarch butterflies, as they
lay their eggs on them. The bars on graph B show the
numbers of monarch butterflies that migrated from the
USA to Mexico each winter. Some scientists think that
increased planting of HT soybean means that farmers
are getting rid of more milkweed, reducing butterfly
numbers. Others blame the reduction of butterflies on
deforestation in Mexico and new weather patterns.
Sometimes people do not
present all the data from
investigations and only
choose data that support
their ideas. Graph C shows
how data could be selected
from graph B to show bias.

al What is graph C
II trying to get you
to believe?
0
CD
Ol
r-... co
Ol Ol
.... .....
Ol
Ol
Ol
Ol
0
0
0
--
0
0
N
0
0
("')
0
0
~
0
L!)
0
0
<D
0
0
r-... co
0
0
0
0
Ol
0
0 -- -- -- --
0
0 0
N
0
("')

0
bl Explain how this
Ol
--
Ol
-- N N N N N N
Year
N N N N N N N N graph is biased.
c I Suggest who
might create a
graph like this.
Explain your
reasoning.

Which figures
II would you use from
graph B to show a
continual decrease
in monarch
butterflies?

1997 1999 2001 2003

Year
 What someone says or writes is 'balanced' if the points in
favour and the points against something are considered D I advantages and disadvantages of growing HT
soybean
equally. Bias occurs when the points selected do not
give the full picture. Cartoon E shows how information Advantages Disadvantages
from table D could be used in a biased way.
easier management expensive
of weeds
fewer glyphosate with time, weeds unaffected
sprayings needed by glyphosate become more
than with other common meaning that other
herbicides herbicides may be needed
glyphosate is not HT soybean may grow as
persistent a weed in other crops and
could be difficult to control

Why is what the person is saying in

II cartoon E biased?

Write a biased paragraph to encourage

II farmers to plant HT soybean.

Accidental bias Scientists used a computer to

Bias can be caused by systematic error, when
readings are all shifted away from the true values by
the same amount. For example, a thermometer with
an incorrectly printed scale may always read 1 oc
higher than the correct temperature.
Sampling can also cause accidental bias. Samples
must be taken at random and should not be chosen.
Otherwise, scientists might only take samples from
interesting areas or areas that are likely to give the data
that they expect. The estimated numbers of monarch
butterflies in graph B were calculated from samples. The
scientists used a computer program to randomly choose
the sample areas in which to count the butterflies.
II randomly choose trees to sample in
a Mexican forest. They then counted
monarch butterflies on the trunks of
the trees, in the parts they could reach.
Why could this sampling cause bias?
"Graph 8 clearly shows that as more
II HT soybean has been planted, the
number of monarch butterflies in
Mexico in winter has decreased."
Explain why this is not a valid
conclusion. (Hint: think about what a
percentage tells you.)

Validity
Something is valid if it does what it is supposed to do.
PPT A fair test is valid because only the effects of the
I can ...
independent variable are measured. Results are valid
if they correctly measure what was supposed to be • identify bias
measured. A valid conclusion for an investigation is • explain different sources of bias
drawn using only the results of the investigation. • explain whether something is valid.
35
 ORGANIC
IS ORGANIC FARMING BETTER THAN INTENSIVE FARMING?
In organic farming, only natural fertilisers, such as
manure, are used. And only small amounts of naturally
occurring substances can be used as pesticides, for
example sulfur or copper sulfate.
Organic farmers do not plant the same crops in the
same place every year, but rotate (change) their crops.
They make sure that one crop in the rotation is a plant
that adds nitrates to the soil, such as clover. They
also use organisms to reduce the numbers of pest
organisms- this is known as biological control.

Some people prefer to eat organic foods. This

B I Hoverfly larvae are used to control aphids.
Powdery mildew affects photosynt hesis in
II plants.
al Describe what happens in photosynthesis.
bl Explain what effect powdery mildew would
have on photosynthesis.
c I Explain how this would affect a farmer's yield.
Small amounts of magnesium mineral salts
II are needed to make chlorophyll.
al What is chlorophyll?
bl Describe how magnesium salts travel from
the soil into the leaves.
c I Explain how roots and stems are adapted
to t his function.
may be because they think they are healthier
than conventionally farmed foods. There is little
evidence for this though. Some people do not
like the idea of artificial substances being on
or in plants they eat. Others think that artificial
pesticides and fertilisers cause too much
environmental damage.
Studies have shown that organic farms do have
a greater biodiversity than conventional farms.
However, organic farms take up much more
space to provide the same amount of food.
Organic foods can also be very expensive.

Name a helpful insect and explain why it is

II helpful to farmers.
 THR
PPT

HOW HAS LIFE EXPECTANCY CHANGED?

In England and Wales in the 1840s, the median (average) age of death was 46 but today it is
83 years old. Many factors have made this change possible.

One major factor has been understanding how hygiene

prevents diseases. Hygiene means keeping things clean,
such as keeping drinking water separate from sewage
that contains human faeces. Sewage contains
pathogens, which are microorganisms that cause
diseases such as cholera and typhoid. cesspit
Diet has generally improved since the 1840s, which street
means people are healthier and stronger and can fight off
diseases better. Immunisation, particularly in childhood,
helps protect people throughout their lives against
particular diseases.

It is estimated that in 1940s and 1950s, a disease called

polio paralysed or killed about half a million people
worldwide every year. The virus that causes polio attacks
the nervous system, which stops signals being sent along
certain nerves to muscles. Thanks to an international
immunisation programme there are only a few hundred
cases each year in the world today. Medicines also developed greatly in the 20th century,
including the introduction of antibiotics that help
people recover from bacterial diseases.

The main causes of death in richer countries are now

from diseases caused by changes inside the body
rather than from infections.

A poor diet can cause deficiency

II diseases. Define the term deficiency
disease, giving an example.

II Name two groups of microorganisms.

Explain why damage to nerves can affect

II muscles.

Explain what is meant in the text w here it

II says that polio affected an estimated
half a million people.

Medicines taken by mouth are absorbed

II into the blood and enter cells by diffusion.
Explain how diffusion happens.
 iLS, CEE

PPT
HOW ARE VIRUSES LINKED TO DISEASE?

A disease is something that makes you ill. Diseases have many causes, as shown in table A.

A I types of diseases, some examples and their causes

Type of disease Example Cause

infectious or athlete's foot, cholera,
communicable disease influenza (flu), malaria,
pneumonia, polio, Ebola,
chickenpox
deficiency disease anaemia, kwashiorkor, night
blindness, rickets, scurvy
genetic or inherited sickle cell disease,
disease/disorder haemophilia
lifestyle disease lung cancer, cardiovascular
disease
autoimmune disease type 1 diabetes
microorganism (e.g. bacterium, fungus, protoctist, virus) that gets
into the body and changes how it works
lack of a nutrient that the body needs for healthy growth and
development (the lack of different nutrients causes different diseases)
a fault in the DNA (genet ic material) in a cell that changes how the
cell works
factors in the way we live increase the risk of getting these diseases,
e.g . smoking tobacco, eating unhealthily, too little exercise
when the body's immune system attacks and damages cells in the body

Diseases caused by pathogens are called

communicable or infe ctious diseases, because
the pathogen that causes the disease can be
passed from person to person . Other types
of d isease cannot be passed from person
to person, and so are non-communicable
diseases.

a I Give one example of a

II non-communicable disease.

b I Explain why your example is

non-communicable.

II Explain how you could become

infected with cholera. (Hint: look at
page 37 to help you.)
The obvious effects of a disease are its symptoms.
For example, the symptoms of some infectious
diseases are a raised temperature and/or a rash .

Look at photo C . What are the

II symptoms of chickenpox?

C IThis child has chickenpox, which is a disease caused

by a virus.
 Immunity
Your body uses different types of white blood
cell to kill pathogens that get inside you.
Phagocytes can ingest microorganisms (they
surround and digest them), as shown in photo D.

Lymphocytes make antibodies, which are

proteins that stick to microorganisms. The
antibodies make it easier for microorganisms
to be ingested. Antibodies can also make
microorganisms stick together or burst open.

Lymphocytes make new, specific antibodies to

attach to each different sort of pathogen that
infects you. This takes time, which is why you get
ill before you get better again.

After an infection some lymphocytes (memory cells) remain

E I Lymphocytes are white blood cells that make specific ready to produce the antibodies that attach to that pathogen.
antibodies to attach to each different type of microorgansm that
So, the next time that microorganism gets inside you, the correct
they find.
antibodies are produced very quickly and in much greater
numbers. That is why you only get many infectious diseases
microorganism - .
once (e.g. measles). You become immune to the disease.
lymp~ Vaccines contain parts of the surface coating of a
microorganism. Lymphocytes then create antibodies against
these parts, and memory cells are formed. So, you become
PPT
immune to the disease without having the disease.
When a lymphocyte The antibodies are made specifically to fit into the
encounters a outside of that particular microorganism. Each type of
microorganism has a different surface an so needs a
microorganism, it starts
a I List three things antibodies can do to
to make antibodies different type of antibody.
II microorganisms.
b I Explain why people are often ill before getting
better when infected by a new pathogen.

Antibodies are said to be 'specific' for a certain

II microorganism. State what this means.

What does it mean if you are immune to a

II disease?

Explain why viruses are not classed as living

II organisms.

a Explain how vaccinations stops the spread of a

disease in a community.

PPT
I can ...
• give examples of different kinds of diseases and describe
how they are caused
• describe the ways in which white blood cells destroy
microorganisms in the body, and explain how this can
lead to immunity.
39
State two pieces of evidence that supported
the idea that the people and birds had the same
disease.

Suggest one way in which the virus spread to

the USA from Africa.
 Dose (mg of antibiotic/
kg of animal) (hours)
8 166.0
rhesus maca 8 8.0
squirrel monkey

a I Explain why Dr McNamara did not prescribe

antibiotics to treat animals affected by West
Nile virus.
b I Suggest one way to stop the spread of the
West Nile virus in a zoo.

Look at table D.
a I Calculate the dose for a 20 kg squirrel
monkey.
b I Explain why a squirrel monkey will need
more doses over time than a cat.

Table E gives some information about an antibiotic called ceftiofu r.

To be effective, the Species Dose Half-life

concentration of (m (hours)
ceftiofur in a ball alpaca 6.6 45
python must American black duck 6.6 32
be above ball python 10 64
2.5 mg/ kg. After goat 15 37
the first dose,
calculate the
number of days
until another dose is needed.

2 Design a model to teach vet students about half-lives. Write a list of

apparatus and instructions for a teacher, using information from table Efor
examples.
 CONTROL
PPT
HOW ARE THE BODY'S RESPONSES CONTROLLED?

A virus causes the childhood infection chickenpox. After the

infection has cleared up, some of the viruses remain inside nerve
cells. Many years later the viruses may leave the nerve cells and
cause a disease called shingles.

Nervous system
The nervous system is the organ system that helps us to sense
changes in our surroundings and inside our bodies. It also allows
our bodies to respond rapidly to those changes. The organs of the
central nervous system (CNS) are the brain and spinal cord.
The CNS is linked to the rest of the body by organs called nerves.
All these organs contain nerve tissue formed from nerve cells.

Changes that we sense are called stimuli. Stimuli are detected by

receptor cells in sense organs, such as the eyes, ears and skin.

When a stimulus is detected, a receptor cell produces electrical

signals. These signals are called impulses and travel along
nerves, usually to the brain via the spinal cord. The brain
processes the information from receptor cells and sends electrical
impulses back out along other nerves to effectors, such as
muscles and glands. Muscle cells respond to these impulses by
contracting . Cells in some glands respond by releasing hormones
DOC
into the blood.

Name as many organs, t issues and

II cells in the human nervous system as
you can.

Describe the functions of the organs,

II tissues and cells that you named in
question 1.

Draw a flow chart to show the path

II that the impulses take from touch
receptors in the skin of the fingers to
the muscles that lift your hand as you
pick up a pen.
Hormonal system
Hormones are substances that act as chemical messengers in the body. They are
made in organs called glands, which release them into the blood plasma. Target
cells or target organs respond to hormones in the blood by changing what they
are doing. For example, the hormone adrenaline increases the pulse rate.
Sometimes a hormone from one gland causes the release of a different hormone
from another gland. For example, a hormone from the ovaries (oestrogen) causes
the pituitary gland to release a hormone that triggers ovulation.

gland : thyroid ~ ------ gland: pituitary

hormone: thyroxine 'f...l:....~ef..-. .~ hormone: growth hormone
target organs: many ~, -~~ target organs: many
response: controls normal response: controls normal
rate of many functions of growth of children
body e.g. respiration

gland: adrenal
hormone: adrenaline gland: pancreas
target organs: many hormone: insulin
including heart and lungs target cells: muscle and
response: increases liver cells
heart rate and response: cells take up
breathing rate glucose from blood

D Ithe positions of important glands, and some of the effects of the hormones they produce

Comparing systems
Having two different response systems means we can respond in
a State what is meant by a
hormone.
different ways to different stimuli. Name one target organ for
II adrenaline.
F I Comparison of nervous and hormonal systems Suggest two target cells for the

Nervous system Hormonal system

II hormone testosterone. Explain
your answer.
electrical impulses along nerves chemical messengers in blood
Identify two glands that might
short, rapid response to stimulus longer, slower response to stimulus II not be working properly in Sultan
impulses act only on the effector messengers can act on many target Kosen and Chandra Dangi, and
connected to the nerve organs at the same time suggest why the men are such
extreme heights.
You tread on something sharp. Suggest which control
II system is best for responding to this stimulus. Explain
your answer.
When we see something dangerous, we start to release PPT
II adrenaline. I can ...
a I Sketch a flow chart to show the pathways and organs
involved in this response.
• describe how the nervous system works
b I Explain how this response prepares the body for • describe how hormones affect the body.
r-----'
dealing w ith a dangerous situation.
43
 TR
HOW DO WE TREAT DIFFERENT TYPES OF DISEASE?
A drug is a substance that affects how the body works.
Medicines are drugs that are used to help treat or prevent
disease. To treat communicable diseases, we may use
antibiotics (to kill bacteria) or antivirals (to stop viruses
replicating). We also use vaccines to help stop us being ill
when particular pathogens infect us.
Other types of drugs treat some lifestyle diseases, such as
heart disease. Nutritional deficiency diseases may be treated
by adding nutrients to the diet.
II Explain why medicines are drugs.
Explain why a doctor gives a patient an
II antibiotic for an ear infection.
II Describe how scurvy can be treated.
PPT
A Ia common antiviral medicine
Genetic disorders are caused by genes. People are
born with these disorders and may need treatment
throughout their lives. Examples include sickle
cell anaemia and some types of growth hormone
deficiency (which causes lack of growth).
Autoimmune diseases are due to white blood cells
attacking parts of the body. Scientists are not sure
why this happens. In type 1 diabetes, for example,
the tissue that produces insulin is destroyed. This
results in high levels of glucose in the blood, which
can damage organs.
a I State the organs in which insulin
II and growth hormone are produced.
(Hint: Look at page 43.)
b I Explain why organ damage can be
caused by type 1 diabetes.
Transgenic
organisms
People whose bodies do not make hormones need
injections of those hormones. In the past, human
growth hormone was extracted from dead bodies,
and insulin was extracted from other animals (such as
cattle}. This is expensive and slow.
These protein hormones are now made
by genetically modified or genetically
high pressure steam inlet
engineered bacteria (their DNA has (for fermenter sterilisation) . . . =8:===~ . . _ steam outlet
been altered by scientists). The genes nutrient and acid/alkali inlet . . . =e===~
for the hormones are taken from
human chromosomes and put into
•~---· cold water outlet
the DNA of bacteria. The transgenic
bacteria then make the hormones. 1---- - - - - water jaclet
(Transgenic means they contain DNA
from more than one species.)
cold water inlet

Name the molecule on

II which genes are found.
stirring paddles

filtered air inlet ~ ::0===1

Scientists can remove
II genes from organisms. C I a fermenter
Explain how this can
create a genetically ~ = valves
filter haJVesting
modified organism that is outlet
not transgenic.

To produce a lot of hormone, the transgenic bacteria

are grown in large fermenters (diagram C). Fermenters
provide the best conditions for the bacteria to grow and
reproduce quickly, and produce a lot of the hormone. At
regular intervals, the fermenter is drained and the hormone
is extracted.

Aseptic precautions are needed - the fermenter and

anything that goes into it are sterilised (all microorganisms
are killed). This stops other microorganisms growing, which
might be harmful or reduce hormone production.

Oxygen and nutrients are added, including

carbohydrates for the bacteria to feed on. Stirrers
agitate the mixture so that the bacteria do not sink
to the bottom. This also mixes the nutrients and
oxygen and helps to keep the temperature even .

All enzymes (including those that make hormones)

work best at a certain temperature and pH, so
these factors are monitored. A water jacket cools
the fermenter to maintain the best temperature,
and acids or alkalis are added to keep the pH
constant.

II Describe how the fermenter is sterilised.

PPT
a I Give the reason why air is bubbled
II I can ...
into the fermenter.
b l Explain why this air needs to be • explain how large amounts of human hormones
filtered. can be produced quickly using genetically
modified bacteria.
45
 MEDIAN AND
9Cc QUARTILES PPT
WHAT DO THE MEDIAN AND QUARTILES OF A SET OF DATA TELL US?
Different people vary in their response to medicines. So, medicines are
tested in clinical trials. In these trials, scientists often analyse the data by Statins are _!_new wonder drug
dividing the people into groups. For example, a test group might be divided
into smaller groups based on resting pulse rate. A group might be split into
Statins in new health scare
half- those with pulse rates of 65 or more beats per minute (bpm), and
those with rates of less than 65 bpm. Scientists can then see if a drug has
different effects depending on someone's pulse rate.

To divide a group into half, you need to find the middle value when the values
are written in order. This is the median. We can also divide a dataset into
A I Many people with heart disease take statins to
help prevent heart attacks. Clinical trials have shown
quarters to identify the quartiles. Quartiles are the values that are one-quarter
that some people may be harmed by taking statins.
and three-quarters into the set of values. Diagram 8 shows an example.

1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9

I I I
lower median upper
B IThe median and quartiles in a set of
values. (Remember, the values must be
put in order first.)
~ interquartile range = UQ - LQ

y. Y2 y.
quartile value quartile

The interquartile range is the difference between the upper I w~ I

quartile (UQ) and lower quartile (LQ) values in a dataset. For the

I I
LQ Median UQ
example shown in diagram 8, it is:

7-3=4 smallest largest

value value

Using numbered steps: C I the interquartile range of a dataset PPT

II a I write out how to find the median of a dataset
b I write out how to find the lower quartile and
upper quartile of a dataset.
Variation in height of Year 9 students
a I Find the median value, and the lower and
II upper quartile values, in this dataset:
120
upper
28 13 4 25 21 14 6 19 35 17 22 34 11 16 8 <J) 100 quartile
c
Q)
"0
b I Calculate the interquartile range for the ::I 80
us
dataset in part a. 0
....
Q)
60
.0
Some variables, such as height, can take any value and so show E
z
::I
40
continuous variation. For a population, a continuous variable
plotted against numbers of organisms often forms a bell-shaped 20
curve. For example, the heights of most of the population are
0
close to the middle value, and few people are much taller or
shorter. This is called the normal distribution.

We can show the median and quartile values on a normal

distribution, as shown in graph D.
D I variation in height of students shows a normal distribution
The interquartile range ignores extreme values in a data set, and shows
If you looked at the two trees in E,
the range of the middle 50 per cent of the data. This is a more useful
measure for comparing the variation in two different groups, because
II on which tree would you see leaves
that are much shorter or longer
extreme values can bias a comparison if the ranges of all the data
than others? Explain your answer.
are compared. A small interquartile range shows that the individuals
in a population show
little variation, while a narrow interquartile range wide interquartile range
large interquartile range 15 15
means there is a lot of
rJ)
/'\
rJ)
Q) Q)
variation. >
10Q) 10 ro 10
....0 ....~0
....
~ Q)
.0
E 5 E 5
:::J :::J
z z
E IThe leaf lengths on
two trees of the same
species show different
0
2 3
J
4 5 6
i\
7 8 9 10
0 vf l 1\
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
normal distributions. Length of leaves on tree A (em) Length of leaves on tree B (em)

In medicine testing, data about features that might affect how well the drug works are collected.
The graph and chart in F show the results of a test to see how a statin affected the risk of heart
disease. Splitting the results into quartiles makes it easier to see how the drug worked well for
many people but not for everyone.

Changes in the risk of heart

F I The people in the
study were measured
Quartiles of people's ability
to absorb cholesterol
-
-:!2.
~
~
rJ)
·c
attack for different quartiles
of cholesterol absorption
top
~
for their normal ability to (.) -g +20 quartile
.!9 rJ)
ro
absorb cholesterol from -ro Q) lower upper
their diets. The data for Q)
t (3 +10 lowest middle middle
!5.. ro c
cholesterol absorption 0 Q) quartile quartile quartile
..c:
were split into quartiles
Q)
a.
....0 ....
0
0
+16.6%
~
of cholesterol absorption .... rJ) ~ - 10
Q) ·;:::: ·c
(graph on left). Then, the .0 c
quartiles were compared
E
:::J Q)
-g
rJ)
- 20
for a change in the risk of
z 0)
c
ro
ro § - 30 - 24.7%
heart attack after using ..c: Q)
107 126 148 () -o
statins (chart on right). Cholesterol absorption index -40 - 37.7% - 34.3%

Look at F.
II a I Explain why the data for cholesterol absorption were
split into quartiles.

b I Calculate the interquartile range for the data on I can ...

cholesterol absorption.
c I Explain what the charts show about the effect of
cholesterol absorption on t he success of reducing
heart attack risk after using statins.
• calculate the median, quartiles and
interquartile range of a simple dataset
• interpret the use of quartiles in comparing
variation in a large continuous dataset. .--------'
47
 iLS, CEE

PPT
HOW CAN WE ESTIMATE ABUNDANCE?

When there is an outbreak of a disease, it is often difficult to

measure the exact number of people who are infected because
it is difficult to collect data in many areas. Scientists need to
estimate the number of cases.

I• State what we mean by 'estimate'.

I
Abundance is how common a species is in a habitat or
ecosystem. The abundance of species is often affected by
abiotoc factors (e.g. temperature, rainfall) and biotic factors
(e.g. predation, competition from other organisms). To measure
the abundance of a species we need to use the right method for
finding that species. Some examples are shown in B.

Some lions move into an area

II where gazelles (their prey) live.
a I Give the name of the factor that
will now affect the gazelles.
One measure of abundance is population size. It is rare that you can b I Suggest the effect of this factor.
find all the organisms in a population, or have time to count them all.
Explain which method you would
Therefore, we take samples to estimate the population size.
II use to find:
For the estimate, you must know the number of organisms in a sample,
a I ground beetles
the size of the sample area and the size of the whole area:
b I insects in long grass.

total size of area where the organism lives

population size = number of organisms in sample x f
area o sampe 1
 The accuracy of the estimate is how close it is to the true value
if every organism were counted . Estimates are more accurate if:

• the sample size is larger {but this takes longer to do)

• it is easy to find organisms in the sample area

PPT • the organisms are spread across an area (rather than being
clumped).

XLS Distribution
Distribution is how organisms are spread out in the area.
a a I On a rocky shore there were three crabs
in a 0.5 m x 0.5 m quadrat. Estimate the
total crab population on the rocks, which
Diagram C shows the three main types.
covered an area of 60 m long by 10 m wide.
Random Regular Clumped
b I There are an estimated 7000 limpets living

•• •• • •• • • •• in the same area. Which organism is more

• abundant?
•••
•• • • ••• • •• • • •• •• •• ••••
•• • •• •• ••
••
I

• • • •• •• • ••• ••
•• • • • •
• • • •
C I Distribution of organisms may be randomly scattered, regularly
spaced or clumped together.

Sometimes it is easy to see how organisms are distributed

and sometimes it is not. When it is not easy to see, scientists
sample along a line or belt. This is known as a transect survey
{shown in photo E). If there is an even distribution, the organism
will be found in every sample. If the distribution is clumped , the
PPT organism will only be found in some samples.

When you do any survey of organisms in a habitat, you can also

count the number of different species. This gives information
about the biodiversity of an area {how many different species
are in the community).

a I Look at photo D. Describe the distribution of

II the birds. Explain your answer.
b l Suggest how you could estimate the number
of gannets on the small island .

The crabs in question 4 are only found in a few

II small pools between the rocks.
a I State how the crabs are distributed.
b I Suggest the effect of this on the accuracy of
XLS
your population estimate. Explain your answer.

There are many different types of grass, which

PPT
II all have slightly different leaf shapes. How would I can ...
you find out which of four different species was • identify suitable apparatus for measuring
the most abundant in a large field? distribution and abundance
• use data from abundance investigations to
estimate population size.
49
 iLS

PPT

WHY IS SURFACE AREA: VOLUME RATIO IMPORTANT?

During the Second World War, one-sixth of the deaths of A I Diseases such as tropical sprue and coeliac disease reduce
Allied soldiers in tropical areas were caused by a disease the surface area for absorbing digested food substances.
called tropical sprue.

This disease reduces the surface area of the small intestine

and so reduces the diffusion of nutrients from the small
intestine into the blood. This can lead to deficiency diseases.

A lack of vitamin 812 getting into the body

II causes a problem called anaemia.

a l Explain how vitamin 812 can diffuse into the

body.

b I Explain how tropical sprue could cause

anaemia.

SA:V ratio
Unicellular organisms have a large enough surface area that
diffusion can supply their inside volume with enough of what
they need. Larger organisms have too little outside surface
area compared with their volume to do this. So they have
organs with large surface areas compared to their volumes, in
order to quickly absorb substances. Transport systems then
PPT
carry those substances to all their cells.

Comparing surface area to volume is important in biology. We calculate

a I Explain how oxygen
II molecules enter an aerobically
respiring unicellular organism.
b l Many unicellular organisms
split into two after reaching
a certain size. Using ideas
about surface area, explain
why this is useful.
a I Name a human organ that
II exchanges gases with air.
b I Describe how the surface
of this organ is adapted to
increase its surface area.
it as a figure called the surface area : volume (SA:V) ratio. Diagram 8
shows this calculation for a cuboid. The bigger the surface area : volume
ratio, the more surface area something has per unit volume. Cells need
large surface area : volume ratios to be able to take enough of the
substances they need from their surroundings.
length I
width wf-~--------~/ surface area:
• two sides have an area of I x h
• two sides have an area of I x w
• two sides have an area of w x h
so total surface area =
height h 2(/ X h) + 2(/ X W) + 2(W
X h)
volume = I x wx h
SA:V ratio = surface area/volume

B I calculating the SA:V ratio of a cuboid XLS

 The SA:V ratio is also important when organisms lose
substances and energy. For example, mammals and birds
use energy to keep their bodies warm. This energy is
II
transferred to the environment across their surfaces. The
rate (speed) of transfer is faster for small animals than
bigger ones because small animals have a larger SA:V ratio.
Smaller animals cool faster than larger ones.
a I Calculate the SA:V ratio of a cuboid where
I is 3 em, w is 2 em and h is 1 em. Show all
your working.
b I Compare the SA:V ratio for the cuboid in
part a with the SA:V ratio of a cuboid that
has I= 6 em, w = 4 em and h = 2 em.

a I For each anteater in

II photo C, work out the
number of ants eaten
per gram of body
mass.

b I Suggest a reason
for the difference in
these values.

C I A typical silky anteater has a mass of less than 400 g

and eats up to 5000 ants a day. A typical giant anteater
partially permeable
has a mass of 40 kg and eats up to 30 000 ants each day.
membrane allows
sugar molecule molecules to pass
\ / through if they are
Osmosis \ ; - small eno"gh
Small molecules can pass through tiny holes in some membranes by diffusion.
Membranes that only allow some molecules to pass through them are partially
~~
. lbJ r ") ())!
water
permeable membranes.
0
0 1 ·~
11(0 ....... '
I' ~
- -~
molecule

Osmosis is a type of diffusion . It is the overall movement of molecules of a

solvent through a partially permeable membrane (from where there are more
rt ..-o 0 ,e
PPT of the molecules to where there are fewer). Like diffusion, osmosis is faster at
X
0 '' 0 '' 1 0 y

higher temperatures (because particles move faster). And like diffusion, it is also
~ 1+-f>J b
faster when there is greater concentration difference between one place and
~0~ re
another (the concentration gradient). ~o C l' a, C) -
i ()), d
Look at diagram D.
II a I Which liquid (X or Y) contains more water molecules? D I Osmosis occurs if solutions on each side
of a partially permeable membrane contain
b l in which direction is the overall movement of water molecules?
different concentrations of water molecules.
c I Name this process and explain how it ocurs.

II Use ideas
about osmosis
PPT
to explain the
I can ...
shape of the • give examples of
cells in photo E. how surface area
: volume ratio
Explain how affects organisms
II tropical sprue can • describe how
cause diarrhoea osmosis happens.
by osmosis.
51
 lNG
HOW CAN INFECTIOUS DISEASES CAUSE DEATHS ACROSS THE WORLD?
An infectious disease that infects many people over a short
time across several countries is called a pandemic. Many
people thought that with vaccination, antibiotics and better
hygiene, new dangerous infectious diseases were unlikely
to become pandemics. However, recently there have been
outbreaks of diseases (e.g. Ebola) that have spread from
one country to neighbouring countries, and sometimes to
other parts of the world.

Scientists are also concerned about the risk of a pandemic

of many viral diseases including Ebola, SARS, bird flu
and swine flu. These diseases cannot be treated with
antibiotics because they are caused by viruses. An
infected person can pass on the virus to others before
they show symptoms of the disease. An outbreak of
SARS started in China in 2002 and rapidly spread to 37
countries. It was controlled by isolating infected people
and anyone they had been in contact with.

C I Various organisations work together to plan and practise

how to deal with the spread of a serious infectious disease.
Was 'Spanish flu' a pandemic? Explain your
II answer.

Explain why rapid international t ravel makes a

II pandemic more likely.

Explain why isolation can be used to prevent

II a pandemic.

Suggest why some countries are more able to

II control a highly infectious disease than others.
 PDF
We need people to understand our
instructions and points of view quickly
and easily. So, we must communicate
ideas in a clear and logical way, without
too many words.
For longer pieces of writing, we often use
a plan to put information into a logical
order. Table B shows some common ways
to plan writing for different purposes.

Plan method Purpose of writing Examples

Draw out a plan
tables making comparisons II for a paragraph
~.,..J-i\-io""''
OV!j"'\\lC to compare the
problems and solutions
advantages and
lists of items .,..-+'~cl"'' 1"\"'"'"'"e disadvantages of
~evl-il\se•
using selective
weedkillers (Hint:
Look at page 30).
flow charts causes and effects
uences [ ~evt-ilisev
> [ ev.l-vopV.ic"'t-io\'1 \
concept summaries
maps

bullet points lists of items • Y.ev':>ic'J.e

• .Pv."!)iciJ.e
summaries
• i"'sect-ic<J.e

We then use the plan to write a paragraph. This needs a clear Write a topic sentence for
structure. II a paragraph to explain
how cacti can grow in
Paragraphs often start with a short 'topic sentence'. It sums up deserts.
one main idea, which the rest of the paragraph explores in more
Some people compare
detail. For example: 'Weedkillers can damage an ecosystem'. II a clearly structured
There are then some supporting sentences. They describe or paragraph to a burger.
explain the main idea in more detail, providing examples and Draw a burger between
evidence to back up the main point. two buns and label it to
show how it can act as a
Longer paragraphs usually end with a summary sentence. Th is model for a paragraph.
links together all the ideas in the paragraph.
 ANIMAL
9D1 SMUGGLING
It's not every day that you sit next to an iguana on It is not only endangered animals that are
an aeroplane, but passengers on a recent flight to the smuggled. Many countries keep animals at a
Bahamas had some rare reptilian company. special centre for a few weeks, after they atTive.
The animals can then be checked to make sure
Thitteen Bahamian rock iguanas had arrived in the
that they are healthy and free from disease. Some
United Kingdom from the Bahamas in February, in less
people try to smuggle their pets into countries to
comfortable circumstances. Wrapped in socks and shoved
avoid this 'quarantine period'.
into suitcases, they had then been loaded into an aircraft
hold for a nine-hour flight. Staff carrying out customs
checks at London discovered the animals. One had
already died .

/
.-r!
~ A I one of the
// Bahamian
- " iguanas
' •L~

Bahamian rock iguanas (Cyclura rileyi) are critically

endangered and trading them is banned under the CITES
agreement. Grant Miller, head of the UK Border Force
CITES team, said: "Not only has Border Force made sure
that the criminals responsible for smuggling these animals
are behind bars, we're also proud to have been able to
play a patt in safeguarding the future of this species."
According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the illegal
trafficking of live animals is worth about $16 billion US
dollars per year, so continued hru·d work is needed to
bring the problem under control.
In airports, animals are found in luggage using
X-rays and dogs that have been trained to sniff
out other animals. But animals are also smuggled
through sea potts in shipping containers and these
are more difficult to detect due to the lru·ge sizes
of the containers. Various detection methods are
used, including sensors that detect temperature
and carbon dioxide concentrations inside
the containers.

This story is from an online news site. The editor wants readers' questions to be answered,
II explaining the science. Choose one of the questions below and write a detailed answer for the site.
a I Why is it important that the Bahamian rock iguanas are returned to where they came from?
bl Why are temperature and carbon dioxide detectors useful in detecting concealed animals?
c I How do animals become critically endangered?
dl Why can illegal smuggling be a danger to the natural environment of a country?

II Find out about CITES. Write a paragraph describing its purpose and how it works.

When writing a story, science journalists use 'press releases', information from online resources
II (such as encyclopaedias) and their own scientific knowledge. Search for a 'press release' about
'animal smuggling' or 'animal trafficking' and write an article for an online newspaper. Use a variety
of sources and show where you have got all your information from. Use no more than 350 words.
 ENZVME
9D2 INVESTIGATION
Some tougher meats are often cooked or served with
certain fruits. This is not just to make them taste nice
but because the fruits contain substances that help
to make the meat more tender; they tenderise it.

These fruits contain enzymes. Enzymes are

molecules that speed up chemical reactions without
being changed. Many enzymes help to break down
large molecules into smaller ones. There are lots of
enzymes of this type in your digestive system.
The enzymes in some fruits can break down the
proteins in the meat. This means that long strands
of protein are broken down into shorter ones, and
the meat is easier to chew.
Gelatine is a 'gelling agent'. It is used in some
countries in cooking to make jellies, and is made
from an animal protein called collagen. There is a lot of collagen
in tendons, ligaments and skin. When gelatine is cooked, its
long strands of protein form a tangled mesh. As it cools, the
long protein strands trap water and the gelatine forms a jelly. If
enzymes are added to break down the protein in gelatine, the
protein strands become too short to become tangled up. This
means that the mesh does not form and the jelly will not 'set'.

the mesh of fibres traps water and flavourings

Planning
Working in a group, plan an investigation of your choice to find
out how fruits affect gelling agents. There are some ideas below.
• Which fruits contain enzymes that break down proteins?
• Do fruits that stop gelatine forming a jelly also work on
vegetarian gelling agents such as agar?
• Does cooking the fruits make a difference to how well their
enzymes break down proteins?
• Do canned fruits work as well as fresh ones?
• Do fruit juices contain enzymes that break down proteins?
If you are able to carry out your investigation, write a report
about it. Include a conclusion based on your evidence, and an
evaluation.

& Check that others in your class are not

allergic to any fruits you decide to try.
Remember do not eat or drink in a lab.
9D3 TEETH
COMMUNICATING WITH THE PUBLIC
Animals use their teeth to chop and grind up their food, making it
easier to swallow and starting the process of digestion. Predators
may also use their teeth to kill their prey. Animals that lose their teeth
often die of starvation.

The enamel on your teeth is the hardest material in your body.

It cannot be replaced naturally and is gradually worn away by
chewing. Enamel is destroyed more quickly by acids in your food and
by acids produced by bacteria. The bacteria form a layer of plaque,
which needs to be removed by regular brushing. Bacteria can also
blood vessels bone
infect your gums and cause gum disease. Sometimes they can infect and nerves
the tissue under a tooth or in your jaw, causing a pus-filled abscess.
A I the parts of a human tooth
Fluoride helps to strengthen the enamel, making it more resistant to
wearing away. Fluoride is found in toothpastes and in tap water in some
areas. However, dentists recommend that your teeth are checked every
six months. Problems can then be spotted and dealt with early, and
hardened plaque can be removed.

Destruction of the enamel results in holes (cavities) and, if a dentist

does not fill them, they can cause toothache. In severe cases, the
tooth can become infected with bacteria and can die, and fall out.

A dentist wants a waiting room leaflet entitled

II 'Looking after your teeth means looking after your
diet'. Design and write a leaflet using information
from this page, what you know about diet and
bacteria, and some research. You should provide
explanations for the recommendations that you
make, and include:
• the problems with too many of the wrong sorts
of foods in your diet
• what plaque is and how it is formed
• how bacteria feed.

A dentist may treat an abscess using antibiotics.

II Do some research to find out how your body
fights infections like this and why antibiotics may
be needed. You should include what antibiotics
are, how they work and why it is important
to finish a course of antibiotics. Present your
report as a leaflet to be inserted into a packet of
antibiotic tablets.
 MATERIALS OF
PDF

Throughout time we have used chemical reactions to produce

new materials to help improve our lives. Today, scientists
continue to discover and invent new materials with special
properties and uses. Recently scientists have produced carbon
VDO nanotubes that are 100 times stronger than steel, and flexible
aerogels that are lighter (less dense) than any other known solid.
The discovery and development of any new material is
extremely expensive, and teams of scientists compete with each
other to get money for research from governments and large
corporations. Great care is taken in examining ideas for research
before any money is given out.

II What is formed in all chemical reactions?

Name four examples of physical

II properties of a solid.

Name two substances that are

II conductors of electricity and two that are
insulators.

a I What are all substances made up of?

II bl What is a chemical bond?

Describe one possible future use for

II electronic clothing.
 ABOUT
UK NC, iLS

PPT

WHAT MAKES CERAMICS USEFUL?

Ceramics are a range of hard, long-lasting,

non-metallic materials, which are generally
unaffected by heat. Often formed by
heating and then cooling, ceramics include
traditional bricks, china and glass as well
as more modern materials used to make
artificial bones and protective coverings
for spacecraft.
Ceramics all have similar physical properties,
which may make them useful:
• hard, stiff, strong when compressed,
and brittle
• high melting points and heat resistant
• good insulators of heat and electricity
• very unreactive.

Porcelain is an electrical insulator.

II a I Explain what this means.
bl Why does this make porcelain a
useful material for use in metal
electricity pylons?
c I Give the name of another
electrical insulator.

Name two properties of ceramics

II that make them useful for making
artificial bones.

Ceramics are used for making cups

II and mugs.
a I Name two properties of ceramics
that make them useful for this
purpose.
bl Name one property of ceramics
that is not so useful for this
purpose.
Making ceramics
The raw materials for traditional ceramics are clays (for making pottery) and sand (to make glass).

VDO

When clay is heated, chemical reactions occur and new

compounds, such as china and porcelain, are formed.
During cooling, crystals form and bind together in the
a Name three ceramic materials and
a use for each one.

a I Name two raw materials used to

ceramic. The size of the crystals depends on the speed
of cooling. Slower cooling produces larger crystals
II make ceramics.
because the atoms have more time to form a grid-like bl Describe one similarity and one
lattice structure. This is similar to the formation of large difference in the manufacture of
china and glass.
crystals in granite when magma cools slowly.
a I Porcelain X has much smaller
In a lattice structure there are a large number of atoms, II crystals in it than porcelain Y.
in a fixed regular pattern, all joined to each other by Suggest a reason for this.
strong bonds. An example is shown in diagram E. One bl Explain why larger crystals form if
reason why ceramics are stiff is because there are so the porcelain is made differently.
many atoms bonded to each other, with strong bonds, a I What one word describes the
in a rigid structure. The high strength of the bonds is the II structure (how the atoms are
reason why ceramics have such high melting points. arranged) in most ceramic
Note that glass is slightly different because its atoms materials?
do not form a regular pattern, although the atoms are bl What do the different coloured
still held together by many strong bonds. spheres represent in diagram E?

a Explain why ceramics like china are

hard and have high melting points.

I can ...
• name some examples of ceramics and their
uses
PPT
• explain why certain ceramics have
particular uses
• explain how the properties of ceramics
can depend on their structure.
59
 UK NC, iLS

PPT

WHAT MAKES POLYMERS SPECIAL?

Diagram A shows a typical polymer. These substances have molecules

made of long chains, which contain repeated groups of atoms.

II What is a polymer?

II In the polymer shown in diagram A:

a I how many different types of atom are there
b I how are the atoms held together?
II Draw up a table with the following headings.

Object Polymer Properties that make

name polymer suitable for use

Complete the table, choosing three different

objects from photo B.

Rubber is a polymer obtained

from certain trees. It is soft and
sticky when hot, but it is hard
and brittle when cold. We use
this rubber to make some glues,
but we cannot use it to make
things like car tyres.

The properties of rubber can

be changed by vulcanisation.
The rubber is heated with sulfur
and a reaction occurs that forms
cross-links between the long
molecules. These cross-links
make the rubber much harder and
tougher, and stop its properties
changing with temperature.
 cross-links

VDO

a a I Explain why vulcanised rubber is elastic but not plastic.

bl Explain what you think would happen to rubber if too many
cross-links are formed. Use the word 'molecules' in your answer.
ethene
molecules
Rubber is a natural polymer. Other examples include DNA, proteins, starch
and cellulose. Scientists have developed a range of synthetic polymers,
mainly using raw materials obtained from crude oil. These are often
made in laboratories and factories by addition polymerisation reactions
in which lots of small molecules called monomers are added to form chains
PPT of an addition polymer. Diagram F shows how poly(ethene) is formed
from ethene.
Addition polymerisation reactions like this transfer energy to the
surroundings, making the surroundings warmer. Reactions that transfer
energy to the surroundings are exothermic. (Reactions that absorb
energy from the surroundings, making them cooler, are endothermic.)

Synthetic polymer Monomer Properties Uses

poly(chloroethene) chloroethene cheap, good insulator shrink wrap, drain
(PVC) pipes, wire insulation
poly(propene) propene strong, waterproof, textiles, ropes and
flexible, hard-wearing car body parts
poly(tetrafluoro- tetrafluoro- hard, heat-resistant, non-stick surfaces
ethene) ethene low friction surface for saucepans and
(Teflon®) baking trays

a I What is the link between crude oil and synthetic polymers?

II blldentify a natural polymer in photo B.
al Describe what happens in the reaction in diagram F.
II bl Draw the monomer used to make the polymer in diagram A.
I can ...
Choose a polymer from the table above that would make a good
• name some examples
PPT
II carpet for a hotel. Explain your choice.
and uses of polymers
• explain some of the main
II Why is the making of poly{ethene) said to be 'exothermic'? properties of polymers
• describe how polymers
Describe the differences between a lattice, a molecule and a
II long-chain molecule. are made.
61
 UK NC, iLS, CEE

9Eb PEER REVIEW PPT

HOW ARE SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES CHECKED?

Scientists communicate their discoveries by:
speaking at meetings and conferences
writing and posting papers on the web
• writing books
• publishing scientific papers in journals.
A scientific paper is a detailed investigation report.
It contains details of the aim, hypothesis, method,
results and conclusion. References are included to list
the sources of information used.

State two ways that a scientist can tell

II others of their findings.
Explain what is meant by a hypothesis and
II a conclusion in a scientific investigation.

Most scientific papers are evaluated before being There are many scientific journals,
published. This means that someone else judges them including some devoted to science
(usually by finding good and bad points and using those education. Stephanie Kwolek, who
points to say whether overall the paper is good or not). invented the polymer Kevlar®, discovered
a way of making nylon in a beaker in 1959.
Scientific papers are evaluated on:
She wrote a paper and submitted it to the
• the method (e.g. if variables were controlled) Journal for Chemical Education. The paper
• the results (e.g. if measurements are repeatable) was peer reviewed and then published.
• the conclusion (e.g. if the conclusion is valid and can This brought her method to the attention of
be made using the results). chemistry teachers all around the world in
a time long before the Internet.
This process, known as peer review, is outlined in
diagram B. It is important because scientists can make
mistakes and make the wrong conclusions. There have
also been a few occasions when scientists have been
found to have changed or misinterpreted their results
to fit their ideas. It is important that other scientists
check results and even try to repeat the experiments.
Scientists are more likely to accept findings if they have
been repeated by others.
Why do scientists need to give exact
Peer review can be time-consuming and expensive. II details of the experiments they have
Sometimes research papers by well-respected carried out?
scientists can be passed by reviewers, with little or no
a I What is meant by peer review?
inspection. This can cause problems, if incorrect ideas II
---- are published.
bJ Explain why peer review is important.
 Scientists carry out investigations
to test an idea (hypothesis).
Then they write a paper
describing what they have done,
their results and conclusions.

for revision and sent

back to the journal
to return to the
scientist. The
paper is then
revised and
sent back to
the journal
to be
checked
If everything is
correct, the paper
will be recommended
for acceptance.
The journal then
publishes the paper.

The paper is sent

to a scientific journal.
Editors at the journal read
The experts review the science content and check that it the paper and if it seems
is original (not copied from another scientist's work). They will interesting and worthwhile
also check that the conclusions are valid. Sometimes they will it is sent to expert scientists
test the reliability of the data by repeating some of the experiments. for 'peer review'.

In 2012, it was discovered that scientist Hyung-ln Moon Suggest reasons why some
had found a way of peer reviewing his own papers. He II papers are never properly peer
had given them glowing reviews! The papers were later reviewed.
retracted (withdrawn) when his deception was discovered. Why might scientists write
J•:f"J::~I.l.!NT> P141~ 4 II papers containing made-up
C I John Dalton published
his ideas on the way
. ' J
•/n"f'h
' 5 A 7 ~ data?
0 ([) G 0 ~ E& ® @
elements combine in ., ,., .. ,. .. Draw a table to compare the
the early 1800s, before
"
@ "
® 0 0 0
u

0 @ G II benefits and drawbacks of peer

peer review was used. 17 .. @.. JO
review.
Scientists have now shown
0 0 0
that Dalton's data cannot 11 rl
,,
.../Jtlli'l:··
Ll
,.,
be reproduced using his 00 ()(]) <DO 00 ~
methods. Some think that 'fi'nmn·
Dalton did not record his 96 >7
••
oeo
~.·
I can •••
methods accurately but (])()(]) O<DO 000
others think that he cheated f/n a(,-IJIPI:J· • describe the process of peer review
and made his results fit his • describe the advantages and
theory on atoms. disadvantages of peer review.

~3
 COMPOSITE
UK NC, iLS

PPT
HOW ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS USED?

Composite materials (e.g. concrete, paper, plywood)

are combinations of two or more materials, with some
of the properties of each. For example, laminated
glass combines layers of glass with a clear polymer.
The glass is hard and rigid and the polymer is flexible.
The laminated glass is rigid and hard-wearing, but holds
together under impact (it does not break up into pieces).

Many composite materials are made by mixing fibres

into a liquid resin wh ich then sets hard. Different
PPT types of fibres and resins produce different composite
materials with different properties and uses.

polyester resin glass fibres

II What is a composite material?

II What is glass-reinforced plastic (GRP)?

II Why are the properties of GRP useful in boat hulls?

II What properties would be needed in a composite used for racing car bodies?
 Concrete
Concrete is a composite material that has been used
for thousands of years. It is made from a mixture of
cement, sand, aggregate (crushed rocks) and water.
The cement powder and water form a material that can
be moulded into shapes and then sets hard. However,
hardened cement is not very strong and so aggregate is
added to give concrete its strength. In building projects,
steel rods are also added; this reinforced concrete is
even stronger, so will not crack under pressure.
VDO
Cement is mainly calcium oxide (lime). It is made by
roasting calcium carbonate (limestone), which breaks
down in a thermal decomposition reaction:
This equation shows the formulae for
CaO(s) + the substances. The letters in brackets
calcium carbonate --+ calcium oxide + carbon dioxide are state symbols (s = solid, I = liquid,
g = gas, aq = dissolved in water).
Very high temperatures are needed because this is an
endothermic reaction. This means that it absorbs
energy from the surroundings, and this energy is stored
in the products.

II Explain why concrete is a composite material.

When zinc carbonate is heated, an endothermic

II decomposition reaction occurs. Explain what this means.

When water is added to the concrete mixture it reacts with the calcium
PPT oxide in an exothermic reaction. During exothermic changes energy
is transferred to the surroundings, so their temperature rises.

Look at photo D. Explain why a steel grid is needed to

II reinforce the concrete in this particular use.
When GRP resin is setting, it gets hot.
II aJ What type of reaction is happening?
bl Explain what has happened in terms of energy transfer.

I can ...
• explain composite materials,
giving examples
PPT
• describe and justify the uses of
some composite materials
• explain what happens in thermal
decomposition, and exothermic
and endothermic reactions.
65
Write down two properties
materials should have for
each of these components.
a I windows
b I tyres
c I seat covers

Use your knowledge of

properties to suggest a
material for each component
in question 1. Explain your
choices.

Maximum temperature (°C)

150-250
1730 80-215 $$$$$$$$$$
$$$$$$$$$$
3800 170 1500 $$$$$$$$$$
33 50-80 $
$
 Suggest why the chassis (the main frame)
of a car needs to be strong.

Use the data in table 8 and your

knowledge of material properties to:
a I give some advantages and
disadvantages of using aluminium
alloy instead of steel for car bodies
b I suggest two reasons why
poly(propene) is often used to make
car bumpers, even though it is not a
strong as steel
c I explain why ceramics are not used to
make car bodies.

Explain why the car in photo C costs

many times more than a normal car.

The properties of a carbon fibre composite material depend on the number of layers
of carbon fibres, how they are laid, and the type of resin that binds the fibres. Materials
scientists design ways of collecting and analysing data about material properties. They also
evaluate their data to ensure it is good enough to use in designing new products.
Papier mache is a composite material made from paper and glue. You are going to
investigate some of the properties of papier mache.
1 a Work in a group to make papier mache samples and test them.
b Make several samples approximately 20 em x 5 em. Each of your samples should have
a different number of layers of paper.
c When the strips are dry, compare how flexible they are (diagram D).
d Write a conclusion for your
investigation.
ruler

e Evaluate the evidence you

collected. Was it easy to make a fair
comparison of your strips? Could
you improve your method if you
repeated the investigation?
2 Now plan another investigation. You
could investigate the type of paper
the type of glue.
 PROBLEMS WITH
U K NC, iLS

PPT
WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS OF MAKING AND USING MATERIALS?

Manufacturing materials usually uses energy released by the

combustion of fossil fuels. This can damage the environment:
• carbon dioxide (C02) - helps trap the Sun's energy and so
increases the greenhouse effect, leading to climate change
• carbon monoxide (CO), unburnt fuel and soot particles caused
by incomplete combustion, due to lack of oxygen
• sulfur dioxide gas (S02) (caused by sulfur impurities in fuels) and
nitrogen oxide gas (caused by high combustion temperatures)
- dissolve in moisture in the air forming sulfuric and nitric acids,
PPT which cause acid rain.
Acids react with metal carbonates (such as calcium carbonate in
limestone buildings).
acid + metal carbonate ---+ salt + water + carbon dioxide al Write a word equation for
For example:
II the combustion of sulfur.

sulfuric + calcuim ---+ calcium + water + carbon bl Write the equation using
formulae and state
acid carbonate sulfate dioxide
symbols. Remember that
H2S04 (aq) + CaC03 (s)---+ CaS04 (aq) + H2 0(1) + C02 (g) oxygen is 0 2 •

State the salt produced

Incomplete combustion can be reduced by increasing the amount of
oxygen during combustion. Removing sulfur impurities reduces the
II when nitric acid reacts with
calcium carbonate.
amounts of acidic pollutants formed. Reducing the quantities of fossil
fuel used will slow down the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide,
as will increasing the use of carbon capture technology.

Suggest reasons
why the stonework in
photo A has become
both blackened and
worn away.

a Explain how carbon

capture technology
could help protect
our Earth.
 Toxic substances
Factories can release toxic substances into the
environment. In 1956 doctors in Minamata, Japan, saw
an increase in people with serious nervous system
problems. This was traced to a factory producing
chemicals for the polymer industry, which was releasing
mercury compounds into the sea. These were absorbed
by microorganisms and passed up the food chain. The
toxins did not break down and, because the larger
animals ate many smaller animals, the concentration of
the compounds increased in animals further up the food
chain. This process is called biomagnification.

a I Explain how water pollutants from factories

II can get into humans.
C I Humans that ate the local fish in Minamata
accumulated very high levels of mercury.
VDO
bl Why do the levels of poisons increase up a
food chain?

Biodegradability
Many modern materials are designed to last for a
long time and not to break down naturally. They are
non-biodegradable and can cause pollution problems.
For example, when plastic bags made of polythene are
thrown away, they take a long time to break down, are
unattractive and can also harm organisms on land and
PPT in the sea.
Burning non-biodegradable polymers could reduce
the waste and produce useful energy. However, the
PPT combustion of polymers releases toxic gases that can
pollute our atmosphere.
A better solution is to use biodegradable materials,
which break down in the soil. Many new biodegradable
polymers are made using renewable resources from
plants. This also helps to save our limited resources of Explain one advantage and one
crude oil. II disadvantage of non-biodegradable
plastics.

Describe two advantages of using

II biodegradable plastic bags made from
corn starch.

I can ... PPT

• explain how making and using materials can
cause problems
• suggest ways of reducing these problems.

69
 RECYCLING
UK NC, iLS

PPT

WHICH MATERIALS SHOULD BE RECYCLED?

The more mat erials we m anufacture, t he faster How the time varies for different fuels
we use up Earth's finite resources. Som e
resources could even run out this century. In
addition, the more materials we use, t he more
waste we creat e.
Recycling means using the same materials natural gas
again. By recycling materials we reduce ou r
PPT use of lim it ed resources, save fuel and energy
costs and reduce the use of landfill sites .

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Years left

A I Some resources will eventually run out. XLS

Recycling metals
Metals are extracted from naturally occurring substances
called minerals that are found in rocks called ores. As we
use up these supplies of metal ores, we will need to dig
more quarries to get new supplies. This destroys habitats
and causes pollution. We will also have to use ores that are
harder to obtain and contain less metal. This will require
more time and energy, and be more expensive. Recycling
metals will help save our resources of energy and ores.
It is usually fairly easy to recycle metals. Once they are
separated from other materials, the metals can be melted PPT
down and used again.

Recycling glass
Many ceramics are not easy to recycle, but
II Explain why metal ores are a finite resource.
glass is different. Once it has been collected
How much longer are our reserves of fossil and separated by colour, it can be crushed and
II fuels expected to last ? easily melted to be moulded into new glass
objects. Although the raw materials for making
a I Suggest one way we can reduce our use
II of landfill.
glass are fairly cheap and plentiful, it takes
much less energy to make recycled glass, so it
bl Describe two problems of using landfill sites. reduces the amount of fossil fuel used.
Recycling polymers
A symbol is stamped on objects made from
a Describe two advantages of recycling
materials.
polymers to make recycling easier. Even with the
symbols it is difficult and expensive to separate II Suggest why glass is separated into
different colours for recycling.
the different polymers, so recycling levels are still
quite low.
II al Suggest one reason why the amounts
of polymers recycled are low.
C I symbols for recycling bllt has been suggested that, instead
of using recycle labels, each kind of
Symbol Polymer Commonly found
polymer is made in a particular colour.
in ...
Suggest one advantage and one
/'\ polyethylene bottles for water, disadvantage of this idea.
c~
terephthalate soft drinks and
cooking oil
PET

poly(chloroethene)
Recycling concrete
/'\ food packets,
Concrete from demolished buildings was often
(also called wire insulation
C!) polyvinyl chloride) and water pipes dumped in landfill sites. Now much of it is
PVC recycled using large crushing machines. The
poly(propene) bottle caps, aggregate produced by these machines is used
/'\ for the foundations of roads and buildings.
(also called straws and
C!) polypropylene) medicine bottles
pp

Recycling paper
Wood is a composite containing fibres of cellulose
and a natural adhesive called lignin. Paper is made
by boiling wood chips with water to form a pulp,
which is spread out on grids to dry. This forms a
new arrangement of cellulose and lignin, in sheets.
Paper is printed.
Pulp is squeezed
and dried to
remove water Waste paper
and form pap~ ~ is collected.

~
~
~

~
Heated and JC'
mixedto ,............,......,_
form pulp.
tt
~Water is added
~ ~ to wash and
II a I How is concrete recycled?

bl What is recycled concrete used for?

Filtered to remove
remove ink.
a Draw a flow chart to show the stages
involved in recycling paper.
excess water.

E I Recycling generally produces low quality paper, PPT

which is used to make newsprint and cardboard. I can ...
• explain the advantages of recycling

XLS • describe the recycling of some materials.

71
 MATERIAL .,
WHAT UNFORESEEN PROBLEMS HAVE MATERIALS CAUSED?
Sometimes new materials have unexpected properties
that can cause problems. A composite material containing
asbestos, a natural ceramic fibre, was widely used in buildings
because of its good insulating and fireproof properties.
Unfortunately breathing in asbestos fibre dust can cause
asbestosis, leading to permanent lung damage. New ceramic
materials have now replaced asbestos for many uses.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are non-toxic and
non-flammable. They were developed to be safe to use in
aerosol sprays and fridges. Later, it was discovered that
CFCs were reducing ozone levels in the upper atmosphere.
Ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, and
so with less ozone more of this radiation reaches the Earth.

Not all unexpected properties are a problem, however. In the

1960s, scientists were working on a super-strong polymer to
be used as an adhesive for aircraft. One of those polymers
was very weak and was ignored. Then someone noticed that
it could be peeled off easily and reused, and so the sticky-
note was invented.

Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using

II asbestos as an insulator in cookers.

a I Name four different groups of waste that can be

II sorted for recycling.

bl Suggest how one of the groups could be sorted

further to help recycling.

a I For each of the following materials give a description

II and an example: ceramics, polymers, composites.

bl Choose one of the materials from question 3a.

Explain how and why it should be recycled.

c I Choose another example from question 3a. Describe

how its manufacture and use can cause problems.
 PDF

Large buildings and tall chimneys

that are no longer wanted can be
demolished by implosion using
explosives. Once the explosives are
detonated (set off), the implosion
is very fast and usually takes just a
few seconds. An expert makes sure
that the building falls into itself so
that other buildings nearby are not
damaged.
Occasionally, the demolition does not
work as expected. There is always a
risk that some of the debris could fly
out and hit spectators. Sometimes
the building may not collapse
completely and it may be left
unstable and tilting at a dangerous
angle. If there are some undetonated
explosives left in it, it is dangerous
The detonation of explosives is a chemical reaction but
for workers to make it safe. II the implosion is a physical change. State two differences
When the explosives are detonated, between physical changes and chemical reactions.
a large amount of energy is
transferred to the surroundings. II State three hazards associated with demolition.

Gases are produced and they

expand quickly, creating a high II What causes a gas to exert a pressure?
pressure. This produces a shock
wave and the very loud noise that
we hear.
a State three ways to increase the pressure of a gas.
 TYPES OF
UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

HOW DOES AN EXPLOSION HAPPEN?

For the 'trashcano' in photo A, a plastic bottle of liquid

nitrogen was put at the bottom of a dustbin filled with
water. Liquid nitrogen boils at -196oc and so there was
a rapid change of state. The gas pressure in the bottle
increased until the bottle split, causing an explosion.
As with all explosions, there was a sudden increase in
volume (due to the release of the nitrogen gas) and a huge
transfer of energy to the surroundings (forcing the water
and bin into the air).
This explosion was caused by a physical change. No new
substances were made and there was no change in mass.
Physical changes can cause natural explosions too, such
as in volcanoes and geysers (see photo B).

11 a I What physical change happens in a geyser?

bl Why is this a physical change?
c I Why is this an explosion?

The explosion in photo C was

caused when a large petrol
storage tank was overfilled.
Petrol escaped from the tank
and some evaporated. The
petrol vapour formed a cloud
that spread out and mixed with
the air. A spark caused the
flammable petrol to explode.
This explosion was caused
by a chemical reaction. New
substances were formed as the
petrol vapour suddenly ignited
and produced large amounts
of hot carbon dioxide gas and
water vapour. However, as for all
chemical reactions, the mass of
the reactants was the same as
the mass of the products.
 Identify the following changes as physical or chemical. Give a reason for each answer:
II a I heating solid wax until it changes to a liquid b Iburning coal c Ifrying an egg.

II What physical change happened before the explosion shown in photo C?

II Explain whether a physical change or a chemical reaction is occurring in photo C?

What happened to the temperature of the surroundings when energy was transferred to them
II during the explosion shown in photo C?

In a chemical reaction, the

bonds between atoms in
the reactants are broken. + plus
The atoms are rearranged
and new bonds are formed,
to make new products hydrogen + oxygen --•11 water (word equation)
with different properties.
For example, hydrogen
combusts with oxygen
to form water. Hydrogen
and oxygen are gases D I Particles are rearranged in a chemical reaction. We can show what happens
but water is a liquid at using models, such as word and symbol equations.
room temperature. We
Write word and symbol
can show what happens
using equations (see
II equations for the
combustion of one
diagram D).
atom of carbon.

Increasing pressure
The particle model explains how the forces of particles
hitting the walls of a container cause pressure in gases. This
model can also explain how gas pressure is increased by:
Explain how pressure builds up in
• increasing the number of gas particles (so more particles II the trashcano (photo A).
hit a surface)
• decreasing the size of the container (so particles hit a
surface more often)
a Draw a diagram and use it to
explain how an increase in the
number of particles in a container
increases the pressure.
• increasing the temperature (so the particles move faster

.
and hit more often and with more force).

o. .o o, I can ...

• ••
•• o.
d ct
•• , t
•o,
'.
'.
,/0

•• • identify and explain the

differences between
physical changes and
PPT
PPT o. o.
o• • 0 • o, chemical reactions
• model reactions using
words and formulae
gas particles in a container gas particles in a higher temperature
at room temperature smaller container • use particle theory to
explain gas pressure and
E I increasing the pressure of a gas how it can be changed.
75
 UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

HOW DO YOU COMPARE THE REACTIVITY OF METALS?

Some metals are more reactive than others.

Caesium is one of the most reactive metals,
and it blows up the trough when a small amount
reacts with water! Gold is very unreactive; nothing
happens if you put it in water.
The reactivity series is a list of metals in order of
reactivity, with the most reactive at the top.

Reaction
Reaction Reaction
with
Metal oxygen in with cold with dilute
water acid
air
potassium
~ ~ ~!~
• A I Caesium reacts violently with water.
sodium ~ .!.!.I ~'~
•
lithium
~ .!.I .!.!.I
II Name a metal that:
calcium
~ .!.I .!.!.I al reacts with water and dilute acids
bl reacts with oxygen but not water
magnesium ~ .I .!.I
f c I does not react with dilute acids or
aluminium .!.I.! ••• .!.I 1S water, but reacts slowly with oxygen.
zinc .!.I ••• .!.I f
iron .!.I ••• .I
~
'iS
II What is the 'reactivity series'?

tin .I ••• .I f
g To decide where to put a metal in the reactivity
lead .I ••• .I series, we look at how vigorously it reacts. For
copper .I X X example, the reactions with water and acids can
produce bubbles of hydrogen gas, and the more
mercury
••• X X bubbles formed the more reactive the metal is.
silver ••• X X
Metals that react with water:
gold X X X
metal + water ---+ metal hydroxide + hydrogen
platinum X X X
Metals that react with dilute acids:
Key
metal + acid ---+ salt + hydrogen
~~ explosive ~ can catch .!.!.I reacts very
• _ fire qu1ckly The salt (e.g. chloride, sulfate, nitrate) depends on
XLS .!.I reacts
quickly .I reacts slow or partial
• •• reaction
which acid is used .
no Metals that react with oxygen:
X reaction
metal + oxygen ---+ metal oxide
8 I the reactivity series Th is is an oxidation reaction. The rusting of iron
is also an oxidation reaction (but needs oxygen
PPT
and water).
 Atoms II Write word equations for:
a I sodium reacting with water
Metals are on the left and in the middle
of the periodic table (see page 169). bl magnesium reacting with sulfuric acid
Lithium, sodium, potassium and caesium c I zinc reacting with oxygen.
are all in the first group. These metals
Barium reacts steadily with water. Rubidium reacts
become increasingly reactive going II explosively with water. Cobalt does not react with water.
down the group.
Write these metals in order of reactivity (most reactive
There are also trends in the periods.
first).
For example, sodium, magnesium and
aluminium are all in the same period
and become less reactive, from left to neutron (no charge)
right.
We can explain these trends by looking at the sub-
atomic particles found in atoms.
The central nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
Atoms of each element have different numbers of
protons, and so each element has its own proton
VDO number or atomic number. In the periodic table,
elements are in order of atomic number.
The mass number is the number of protons and
neutrons. The atom in diagram C has four protons and C I sub-atomic particles in a beryllium atom
five neutrons; its mass number is 9. Element symbols and their charges (not drawn to scale)
are often shown with their mass and atomic numbers
(diagram D).
Neutrons have no electrical charge , but each proton has
a positive charge(+ 1). Each electron has an equal but / mass number
/ (protons + neutrons)
opposite negative charge (-1 ). The numbers of protons
23
and electrons in an atom are the same and so atoms
have no overall charge. 11
Na +--- atom symbol
.._____ atomic number
Chemical reactions take place due to electrons. The (protons only)
electrons in some atoms take part in reactions more
easily than in others (because of their numbers or D I The atoms of an element are commonly
distance from the nucleus). This causes differences in shown in this format.
reactivity.

I can ...
a lin which part of an atom are neutrons found?
II bl State one way in which neutrons differ from electrons.
• describe the reactions of
metals with water, dilute
acids and air
a I State the number of neutrons in the nucleus of a
II sodium atom (shown in diagram D). • explain how metals are
placed in the reactivity series
bl Explain the overall charge on a sodium atom.
• describe the structure of an
A lithium atom contains four neutrons. Use the periodic atom.
II table on page 169 to help you show this type of atom using
the format shown in diagram D.

77
UK NC, iLS, CEE

ENERGY AND
PPT

HOW DO WE GET ENERGY FROM A CHEMICAL REACTION?

Many chemical reactions that cause explosions need

oxygen. This can come from the air but explosives usually
have an oxidiser or oxidising agent mixed with them.
During the reaction, this substance releases oxygen. The
more oxygen, the quicker the reaction.
Potassium nitrate, KN0 3 , is the
oxidising agent that is mixed
with powdered charcoal to make
gunpowder for fireworks. The
potassium nitrate releases oxygen,
which reacts with the carbon in the
charcoal to form carbon dioxide.
The carbon is therefore oxidised by
the potassium nitrate.

II Describe how the carbon in fireworks gets oxygen.

larger piece smaller pieces

The solid fuel in an explosive reacts at a faster rate if it

has more oxygen, and if it is in tiny pieces. Chemical
reactions take place on the surface of a solid. Small
pieces of a solid have a greater surface area than one
large piece, so there will be more particles exposed
at the surface and more reactions can take place. The
smaller surface area larger surface area
rate of reaction (its speed) is also increased if the slower explosion faster explosion
temperature is higher.
C I the effect of changing surface area PPT
Why do you think gunpowder is made in a
II powder form?

Flash powder in fireworks produces loud bangs

and bright sparks when tiny flecks of magnesium
or aluminium combust. The oxidising agent in flash
powder is potassium permanganate.
When heated, both potassium permanganate and
potassium nitrate undergo thermal decomposition,
releasing oxygen gas. We can confirm that the gas is
oxygen by using the test shown in photo D.

II Describe a test to show that a gas is oxygen.

 Energy transfer
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
t ransferred and stored in different ways.
A reaction in which energy stored in the reactants is transferred to
the surroundings is an exothermic reaction. In the surroundings,
PPT the addition of energy causes the temperature to increase.
Combustion and neutralisation reactions are exothermic.
A reaction in which energy is transferred from the surroundings
to the reactants is an endothermic reaction. Thermal
decomposition is endothermic.

State a type of reaction that is:

II a I exothermic b Iendothermic.
Some zinc powder was stirred into copper sulfate
II solution in a test tube. Use the data below to explain
whether the reaction was exothermic or endothermic.
Initial temperature of copper sulfate = 20 oc
Final temperature of solution = 45 oc

Many exothermic reactions need

energy to start them off. Methane + +
is a hydrocarbon. As it burns, the
hydrogen and carbon atoms are both
oxidised. A lot of energy is transferred fu el + oxygen _. carbon dioxide + water
to the surroundings during the reaction, (methane)
so methane is used as a fuel. +
However, a mixture of methane and oxygen does not burn without some
F I Methane combusts
energy to start the reaction (for example, from a flame or spark). This input
to produce carbon
of energy is needed to break some bonds in the reactants to separate dioxide and water.
some atoms. The reaction can then start: atoms are rearranged, new bonds
are formed and energy is transferred.
Some reactions, such as thermal decomposition, are endothermic and
need a continuous input of energy to keep them going.

Hydrogen gas was mixed with oxygen gas in a balloon and

II nothing happened. Explain:
a I why nothing happened when the gases were mixed
PPT
I can ...
bl what you need to do to start the reaction.
• describe the test for oxygen
Gunpowder will only explode when there is an input of
II energy from heat or a flame.
• explain how combustion
reactions can be speeded up
a I Describe the energy transferred in the endothermic part of • classify changes as
this process and explain why this is needed. exothermic or endothermic
• explain why some reactions
bl Describe the energy transferred in the exothermic part of need a supply of energy.
this reaction.
79
 UK NC, iLS, CEE

PERCENTAGE
CHANGE PPT
HOW DO WE WORK OUT PERCENTAGE CHANGES?
50cm3 of air in metal
We often use percentages to express the amount of something
present. To calculate a percentage, first express the amount as
a fraction of the total amount, and then multiply by 100.
For example, diagram A shows an experiment to find the heat
approximate percentage of oxygen in the air. 50 cm 3 of air The plungers are used to push the air back and
forth over the hot copper.
is placed in one of the gas syringes. The copper metal is
heated, and the plungers are moved back and forth, passing ~ " " " " . ~ • . ai, " . f " " .:
the air over the copper. The copper oxidises and forms
heat
black copper oxide, which decreases the volume of the air.
When there is no further decrease in the volume
When there is no further decrease, the heat is removed from of air, the remaining volume is measured .

the copper. The new volume of air, can be used to work out copper + oxygen ----+ copper oxide
the percentage that was oxygen, as shown in diagram A.
2Cu + 2Cu0
gas syringe
Look at diagram volume decrease = start volume - end volume
II B. Explain how = 10 cm3
to use this
apparatus to So, 10 cm3 of oxygen has reacted.
work out the As a percentage of the total 50 cm3 of air:
percentage of
oxygen in the
air. ~ x100=20%
50

Percentage gain or loss

In the experiment above, the copper increases
in mass as it gains oxygen from the air to form
a solid oxide. There is, though, no change in
the overall mass of substances because the
air loses mass. The same thing happens when
magnesium combusts in air (photo C).

PPT When other solids are heated they appear to II

18 g of water contains 2 g of hydrogen. Calculate
lose mass because a gas is produced, which the percentage of hydrogen in water. Give your
escapes. This gas has a mass, which accounts answer to one decimal place.
for the decrease in the mass of the solid. ..__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.

An example is the thermal decomposition of copper

carbonate (photo D). All reactions obey the Law
of Conservation of Mass, which states that mass
cannot be created or destroyed.

What is 40% expressed as:

II aJ a decimal b I a fraction in its simplest form?
We can find the mass of solids at
the end of a reaction if we know the
percentage gain or loss in mass.

Example 1
5.00 g of copper was heated and increased in mass by 25%. What is the mass of solid after heating?

1 ~0 x 5.00 = 1.25 g
2
mass gained is 25% of 5.00 g =
final mass of solid = initial mass + mass gained = 5.00 + 1.25 = 6.25 g

Remember that if the solid gains mass, the final mass w ill be more than the initial mass.

Example2
10.0 g of magnesium carbonate was heated and lost 52% of its mass. What mass of solid was left?
First find the mass lost:
mass lost is 52% of 10 g = 15~0 x 10 =5.2 g
Then find the mass of solid left:
mass of solid left = initial mass - mass lost = 10.0 - 5.2 = 4.8 g

Remember that if t he solid loses mass, the final mass will be less t han t he initial mass.

Percentage change Example3

We can find the percentage gain or loss When heated, copper carbonate decomposes:
in the mass of a solid when it is heated, copper carbonate ~ copper oxide + carbon dioxide
if we know its mass at the start and t he
Calculate the percentage change in mass when:
mass of the solid products at the end.
mass of copper carbonate used =12.4 g
Calculate the percentage gain in
II mass when 2.4 g of magnesium
mass of copper oxide left = 8.0 g

are heated in air to form 4.0 g of
magnesium oxide. Show your
working.
What is the percentage loss in
II mass when 8.4 g of magnesium
carbonate is heated if the mass
of magnesium oxide left is 4.0 g?
Give your answer to one decimal
place.
What is the percentage gain in
II mass when 4.0 g of calcium is
heated in air and forms 5.6 g of
calcium oxide?
• work out the difference between the mass at the
start and at the end (final mass- initial mass). A
negative number shows a loss in mass.
• divide this difference by the initial mass
• multiply by 100.
First find the change in mass:
final mass- initial mass =8.0 - 12.4 =-4.4 g
Then find the percentage change:
mass change x 100 = - 4.4 x 100 = -35.5%
initial mass 12.4 (to 1 decimal
place)

a 100 g of calcium carbonate was heated.

It lost 44% of its mass. What is the mass
of solid left?
I can ...
A piece of zinc with a mass of 4.0 g was
II heated. It increased in mass by 20%.
• express one number as a percentage of another
• calculate percentage change.
What is t he mass of solid formed?
 UK NC, iLS, CEE

HOW CAN WE USE THE REACTIVITY SERIES? PPT

Each metal will react with compounds of the metals below

it in the reactivity series. Aluminium is more reactive than
iron. It reacts with iron oxide and takes the place of the
iron:
aluminium + iron oxide ---+ aluminium oxide + iron
This is a displacement reaction. The aluminium
displaces the iron.

B I Think of aluminium as 'pulling' oxygen away from iron.

This reaction needs an initial input of energy by lighting

a fuse. During the reaction, aluminium forms strong Select from the word equation
bonds with oxygen. The reaction is very exothermic II above:
and the temperature increases so much that liquid iron a I two elements
is formed (as shown in photo A). This reaction is known b Itwo compounds.
as the thermite reaction, and is used to join sections of
What has been oxidised in the
railway track. The molten iron runs into the gaps between
the sections of rail, where it solidifies.
II reaction between aluminium and
iron oxide?
We can use the reactions between metals and metal
oxides to arrange metals in the reactivity series, or we
can use the reactivity series to predict which mixtures of
a metal and a metal oxide will react.
Displacement also occurs in solutions. The order of
reactivity of non-metal elements in group 7 of the
VDO periodic table (the halogens) can be worked out using
displacement reactions in solutions. A solution of a
more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive halogen
from a solution of one of its compounds. An example is
shown in photo C.

a I Write a word equation for the reaction in photo C.

II b I Explain what this tells you about the reactivity of
bromine and chlorine.
 Use the reactivity series on page 76 to
II suggest a metal:

al that could displace copper from

copper oxide

bl that cannot displace iron from

iron oxide.

In a similar way, a more reactive metal will

displace a less reactive metal from a solution of
one of its compounds. For example, when a piece
of zinc is dipped into copper sulfate solution, a
coating of copper forms on the surface of the
zinc. Some of the zinc takes the place of the
copper and forms zinc sulfate solution. If the
reaction is left for long enough, the solution will
turn colourless as only zinc sulfate solution will
be left.
Displacement reactions only work one way.
Copper cannot displace zinc from zinc sulfate
solution because copper is less reactive than zinc.

a I What evidence in photo D shows that a reaction occurs?

II bl Write the word equation for this reaction.
c I Explain why this displacement reaction occurs.

Use the reactivity series on page 76 to predict whether a

II displacement reaction will take place in each case below.
Either complete the word equation or write 'no reaction'.
a I magnesium + copper nitrate -+
bl zinc+ sodium chloride -+
c I iron + silver nitrate -+
dl copper+ potassium sulfate -+
e I silver + magnesium nitrate -+

Four metals, W, X, Y and Z, were placed in solutions of the

II sulfates of these same four metals. They were observed to see
whether a reaction took place. The results are shown in table F.
a Look at photo E.
Suggest the name of
the crystals formed
on t he surface of the
Metal Metal W Metal X Metal Y Metal Z
copper wire.
sulfate
solution
W sulfate reaction no reaction reaction
I can ...
X sulfate no reaction no reaction no reaction
• explain what happens
Y sulfate reaction reaction reaction
Z sulfate no reaction reaction no reaction
in a displacement
reaction
PPT
• predict whether a
Use the data to put the metals into a reactivity series, with t he displacement reaction
most reactive metal first. will occur.
83
 UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

HOW DO WE GET METALS FROM THEIR ORES?

More reactive metals are more likely to form

compounds than less reactive ones. Platinum and
gold are so unreactive that they occur uncombined
in their native state in the Earth's crust. Other metals
are more reactive and occur as compounds. An ore
is a rock that contains enough of a metal or metal
compound (mineral) to be worth mining. Reactive
metals need to be chemically extracted from minerals.

Iron
A lot of iron is extracted from a mineral called
haematite (iron oxide) using a blast furnace (as
shown in diagram B). The oxygen is removed by
al Zinc can be extracted from zinc oxide
heating the iron oxide with carbon. Carbon is more II in a blast furnace. Suggest a suitable
reactive than iron so it displaces iron from iron oxide: reducing agent for the reaction.
iron oxide + carbon - iron + carbon dioxide bl What is added at the bottom of the
The carbon is oxidised by the iron oxide. At the same blast furnace?
time, the iron oxide is reduced - it loses oxygen (and a I State the type of reaction in which carbon
PPT forms iron). Carbon is a reducing agent because it II is changed into carbon monoxide.
has removed the oxygen from iron oxide.
bl Explain your answer.
iron ore .
carbon limestone
II State what is meant by a reducing agent.

Any reaction in which oxidation and reduction

occur at the same time, is called a redox reaction.
Carbon can be placed between aluminium and
zinc in the reactivity series. It is a useful reducing
agent because it oxidises to form a gas, which
escapes into the air and so does not contaminate
the metal that is being produced.

II Copper can also be produced in a blast furnace.

molten
iron out
B I Limestone is added to a blast
furnace to remove the impurities,
which are extracted as 'slag'.
carbon + copper oxide - copper + carbon dioxide
al Explain why this is a redox reaction.
blldentify each of the reactants as: is reduced, is
oxidised, the reducing agent, the oxidising agent.
Aluminium positive graphite electrodes

More reactive metals form more stable

compounds, which are more difficult to extract
the metals from. A more powerful method of
reduction is needed - electrolysis. This involves
passing electricity through a molten metal negative
compound. The electricity transfers energy to the graphite
electrode
compound and splits it up to obtain the metal.
Aluminium oxide is found in an ore called
bauxite. Carbon is not reactive enough to aluminium
displace aluminium from aluminium oxide. So, steel cell molten aluminium out
electrolysis is used.
C I Electrolysis is used to extract aluminium from aluminium
aluminium oxide ---+ aluminium + oxygen oxide.
Iron could also be extracted using electrolysis but
it is too expensive. A lot of electricity would be
needed to heat the iron oxide to keep it molten, Metal Method of Ease of Date of first
extraction extraction isolation
and the process of electrolysis also requires vast
amounts of electricity. Electrolysis is only used to Potassium hard to 1807
extract the very reactive metals that cannot be Sodium extract 1807
obtained by heating their oxides with carbon. Lithium 1817
electrolysis
Calcium 1808
a I Name two metals, other than iron,
II that can be extracted from their ores
Magnesium
Aluminium
1808
1825
by heating with carbon.
b I Name two metals that are extracted (Carbon) getting before 3000 BCE
from their ores by electrolysis. Zinc harder to about 500 BCE
extract
Iron ores are
Suggest why carbon is shown:
II a I between aluminium and zinc in the Tin heated with
reactivity series in table D Lead carbon
bl in brackets. Copper before 3000 BCE
Silver
Suggest why the most reactive metals
II were not extracted from their ores Gold found in
before the 19th century. Platinum native state easy to
extract
Metals that occur in their native state and those
D I The method of extraction of a metal depends on its
that can be extracted by heating their oxides
position in the reactivity series.
with carbon have been known for a long time.
Metals that must be extracted using electrolysis
have been obtained much more recently.
I can ...
•
• explain why the method used to extract
In the mid-1800s, aluminium was very a metal is related to cost and the metal's
reactivity
PPT
expensive to produce and was more
valuable than gold. Emperor Napoleon Ill of • describe how metals are extracted from their
France used aluminium plates and cutlery ores by heating with carbon or by electrolysis
for his most honoured guests. • explain what happens in redox reactions.
85
a I What do you call a raw material that is a
source of a metal?
b I Name a raw material for making
aluminium.

Why are materials managers needed in the

production of iron?

Suggest a reason why the problem shown

in photo C has occurred.
 a I What is an inventory?
b I Suggest a problem caused if a
manufacturer's inventory is inaccurate.

Explain why materials will usually be

I 0·- - - " - - - - - - - - - ' - -
ordered in large quantities.
Explorond metals
lnve.ntory Iron extrectlon

Rftf' MltefiM Cunnt ~

....,._,
In tlOftllf: Oft
-·
MeM UIWC"
(tOIVIIHPf"
Oeliwry

......,,_, -·....
_...,.., ....... _...._,
Tneuntil

1ron01•

,...
-
100,0110
100,0110

50,000
,..,0110

100,000
,
lweet
1 Work in a group to design an inventory
for a home fridge. Only include items that
are used regularly (e.g. milk, fruit juice).
l•mtitOI"'• 250,000 ~.ooo 100,000 •week Discuss:

.
"
•
•
the items you will list
the lengths of time until certain items 'go
" umber
ol we•ks
•uppty In
otod< off'
• how to make sure that items do not run
lbtw m•te:rlal
out.
2 A problem with a fridge inventory is that
people need to update the spreadsheet
regularly. Design a 'fridge of the future'
that automatically tracks and re-orders
Use the information in spreadsheet D to foods. Present your ideas as a labelled
answer these questions.
drawing, including how the fridge will:
a 1 How much iron ore will be in storage on
site one week later? • avoid food 'going off'
b 1 Use a calculation to show that coke will • trigger placing an order for more of a
run out before the next delivery.
certain food.
c 1 Calculate the mass of limestone in stock
after the order is delivered in four weeks.
SHOULD EXPLOSIVES BE BANNED?
Alfred Nobel was born into a family that manufactured tools and explosives,
including iron for cannons used in the Crimean War. He devoted himself to
the study of explosives, especially the manufacture of nitroglycerin.
In 1864 a shed used for the manufacture of nitroglycerin exploded, killing five
people, including Alfred's youngest brother, Emil. Alfred continued to build further
factories, but he concentrated on improving the stability of the substances he
was developing so they would be safer and not explode unexpectedly.
Nobel invented dynamite in 1866;
it was patented in 1867. This
explosive is easier and safer to
handle than nitroglycerin as it needs a detonator to start the
reaction. Dynamite is still in daily use for constructive purposes,
such as quarrying, mining, road building and demolition.
Dynamite made Nobel a very rich man but he never married. In
his will he stated that his fortune should be used as prize money
for the person or group of people whose work has been of the
greatest good to humankind in the previous year. Since 1901,
these prizes have been awarded to individuals or groups of people
from around the world for outstanding achievements in physics,
chemistry, medicine and literature, and for work to promote peace.
Svante Arrhenius was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry
in 1903 for his discovery of how compounds can carry electric
currents. We can now explain what happens when metals are
extracted using electrolysis.

In 1997, Jody Williams and a group called the

International Campaign to Ban Landmines
Many metal ores are obtained by the use of
II explosives in mining. Describe the energy
shared the Nobel Prize for Peace for their
work in the banning and clearing of anti-
changes that occur in this process.
personnel mines.
Summarise how iron is extracted from iron
II oxide.

Summarise how aluminium is extracted from

II aluminium oxide.

Explain how the methods used for extracting

II iron and aluminium are related to the positions
of the metals in the reactivity series.
 ART AND
PDF
Artists need to know about the properties of the materials
they use. Today, they have a greater choice of materials
than ever before, thanks to chemists.

Many copper compounds are blue or green, which has

made them useful in paints. One artists' pigment, called
'verdigris', has been made for centuries by covering
copper metal in vinegar and then scraping off the green
compound that forms. Naturally occurring minerals
containing iron, lead and mercury have been used in
paints since ancient times. Examples include brown
haematite (Fep), white cerussite (PbCOJ and red
cinnabar (HgS).

Artists also use chemical reactions. Antony Gormley often creates

sculptures made out of an iron alloy that slowly develops a surface
coating of rust. Colours can be applied to bronze sculptures
by using a blowtorch to apply compounds such as iron nitrate
(Fe(NOJJ.

Identify two reactions on this page that occur at

II different rates, and describe how the rates are different.

Explain whether the reaction that occurs in a

II blowtorch is exothermic or endothermic.

a I A speck of Fep3 contains 1000 iron atoms.

II How many oxygen atoms will it contain?

b I Write down the other four chemical formulae

shown on this page and identify the elements in
each compound.

Copper sulfate can be made by adding copper oxide

II (a base) to sulfuric acid.

a I State what sort of reaction this is.

b I Write out an equation for this reaction.

c I What holds atoms together in a compound?

 iLS

PPT

WHY ARE IONS IMPORTANT IN CHEMISTRY?

The building in photo A is the Atomium building in Brussels. It is a

giant model of the arrangement of atoms in iron. However, it does
not accurately reflect how the atoms are held together.

Atoms contain a very small central nucleus containing positively

charged protons, and neutrons {which have no electrical charge).
There are also negatively charged electrons, which are outside the
nucleus. There are an equal number of protons and electrons, and so
the charges balance, and atoms have no overall charge. However, if
an atom loses or gains electrons, the charges no longer balance. An
atom that loses or gains electrons becomes an ion.
sodium atom - negative With the loss of an electron,
charges of electrons balanced the sodium ion has an
by positive charges in nucleus overall positive charge.
negative- - - ~
electrons
swirl around
--.......,;.._ +
a positively
charged,
central nucleus

VDO
chlorine atom - negative
charges of electrons balanced
by positive charges in nucleus
• Thunderstorms, waterfalls and waves
With the gain of an electron, all create negative ions from the
the chloride ion has an
substances in the air.
overall negative charge.

PPT 8 Jlons are atoms that have lost or gained electrons, and so have a charge.
When an ion forms, there is no change to the atomic number (number of
protons) or mass number (number of protons + number of neutrons). ..... -
G \ 8 \ G)I G) l G)
II What type of charge does an electron have?
G) -G)_ G)\ G) re-
II Explain why an iron atom has no overall charge.
+-:.. \ ...=- --. -
II An iron atom loses electrons. State the type of charge
the ion has.
e e _e e ,e\
In a metal, some of the electrons become free and are shared
between the atoms. You can think of this as positively charged
-8 1eJe 0 \G
ions of the metal surrounded by a 'sea of electrons' . The attraction
between the positive and negative charges holds the structure C Jln metallic bonding, the electrons are able to move
freely and randomly in all directions.
together. We call this metallic bonding.
 eeeeeeee potential difference eeeeeeee
a I Look back at photo A. Suggest what the tubes
II in the building represent.
(voltage)

b I Describe one poor point about using this model

for the structure of iron.

Metal conductivity
Knowing about metallic bonding allows us to understand why
metals conduct electricity. If you apply a voltage (a potential
difference) between two points on a piece of metal , electrons will
flow in the same direction. This flow of electrons transfers energy
and forms an electrical current.

D I When a voltage is applied to a piece of metal, an electrical

II Explain why metals conduct electricity. current flows.

Ionic compounds The symbol for an

ion is the element
Metal atoms quite easily lose electrons and non-metal atoms easily symbol with a little
gain electrons. A positively charged metal ion and a negatively superscript+ or -
charged non-metal ion attract one another. This force of attraction after it.
is called an ionic bond and this is another type of bonding. sodium chloride lithium bromide

Compounds held together with ionic bonds are ionic compounds. Different ions can
have different
Many metals in the middle of the periodic table form ionic
amounts of charge,
compounds with intense colours, which are used in artists' colours.
as shown by the
Like electrons, ions can also carry an magnesium sulfide iron oxide numbers.

electrical current if they can move. So, solid

E I some common ionic compounds
sodium chloride will not conduct electricity
but molten sodium chloride will, and so will
sodium chloride solution .
II What is the symbol for the ion formed from a sulfur atom?

II a I What charge does a magnesium ion carry?

F I Ionic transttion metal compounds are found in
b I Has a magnesium ion lost or gained electrons to form this ion?

--
oil paints.

a Potassium bromide (KBr) is an ionic compound. Draw the ions

in this compound.

Solid lithium bromide contains charged particles but cannot

II conduct electricity. Why not?

Suggest why swimmers should get out of the sea during a

thunderstorm.

PPT
I can
• explain how ions are formed
• describe metallic and ionic bonding
• explain how metals and ionic compounds can conduct electricit.v.
.,.;.___ ___.
I 91
Give two examples of how the indoor
environment might be controlled in an art
gallery.

Describe two weather modifications that

could be helpful to people.
 Describe two ways that rain might be
caused when no rain is forecast.

State what is meant by an ion.

Describe an advantage of causing

clouds to produce rain.

Suggest a disadvantage of causing rain

when it normally does not rain.

loniser
chance of causing rain -1
availability of -1
equipment

In a group, discuss what kind of weather modification could be helpful where you live. Choose one change
and evaluate it.

You could think about the effects on different groups of people (e.g. farmers or office workers), how much
new technology may be needed, and how expensive it might be. Use your evaluation to decide whether
your weather modification should be developed for use in your area.

Write a short statement to explain your decision and be prepared to read this out to your class.
 UK NC, iLS

ENERGY
PPT
WHAT HAPPENS TO ENERGY IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES?

Bonds affect the properties of substances. For example, the

metallic bonding in magnesium is stronger than in sodium, which
is why solid sodium is softer and more malleable than solid
magnesium.

Metallic bonding is stronger if there are more free electrons and

ions with more charges. The more charges, the stronger the force
between opposite charges. In sodium each atom contributes one
electron to metallic bonding, leaving ions with a 1+ charge. However,
in magnesium the atoms contribute two electrons, leaving Mg2+ ions.

Potassium atoms contribute one electron to

II metallic bonding, but calcium atoms contribute two
electrons. Explain which metal is likely to be harder.

Explain whether sodium or magnesium w ill conduct

II electricity better.

Physical changes
To melt or evaporate a substance, energy must be supplied. The
energy breaks some of the bonds between particles. The stronger
the bonds, the more energy is needed to break them.
 Why is sodium used in some street lights but
II magnesium is not?
Aluminium atoms can each contribute three
II electrons to metallic bonding. Suggest how
the boiling point of aluminium will compare
with the boiling point of magnesium.
Describe the evidence on the previous page
II to suggest that ionic bonding is stronger than
metallic bonding.

Melting and evaporation require an input of energy. They are

endothermic changes. The energy that enters makes the
particles move faster and breaks some of the bonds holding
the particles near to each other. The additional energy also
means that the temperature of the substance can increase
(but the temperature of things around it falls).
Freezing and condensation are exothermic processes. Particles lose energy
Draw a table to compare
and slow down, allowing bonds to form between them. The exit of energy
II endothermic and exothermic
VDO can reduce the substance's temperature (but increase the temperature of
things immediately around it).
changes.

Chemical reactions
Unlike in physical changes, in chemical reactions new bonds form between
different types of atoms. This produces new substances. When bonds are
broken, energy is taken in. When bonds are formed, energy is released . The
difference between the energy taken in to break the bonds and the energy
released when new bonds form, determines whether a chemical reaction is
exothermic or endothermic.
p Q
We can show the differences in energy between the
reactants and products in a reaction profile.

-
Q) Q)
~ ~
-en (/)
products
In diagram F, explain which reaction profile E ~ -~
~(.)
Q)

II (P or Q) shows an endothermic reaction.

-c
·3: ~
iJ;.2
reactants
-c
·3: ~
iJ;.2
reactants
.... :::::1 .... :::::1
a I A metal burns in air with a bright
Q) (/) Q) (/)
products
II white light. Explain whether this is an
c
w
c
w

exothermic or endothermic reaction.

b I Draw a reaction profile for this reaction. Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

When barium hydroxide is mixed with F I reaction profiles for endothermic and exothermic changes PPT
II ammonium thiocyanate in a test tube, ice
forms on the outside of the tube.

a I Explain whether the reaction inside the

test tube is exothermic or endothermic. lean
b I The ice is formed from water vapour in • interpret and sketch reaction profiles PPT
the air. Is this a chemical reaction or a • explain why changes are described as being
physical change? exothermic or endothermic
• explain how bonding affects the properties of
c I Describe the changes that occur to
water molecules as this process occurs.
some substances.
95
 PPT

WHAT CONTROLS THE RATE OF A REACTION?

Some chemical reactions

happen very slowly while
VDO
others occur extremely
quickly. The rate of reaction
is how quickly a reaction
takes place.

Compare the
II rates of the
reactions in
photos A and B.

To measure the rate of reaction, we either measure how quickly the reactants
are used up or how quickly the products are formed. For example, photo
C shows the reaction between calcium carbonate (marble chips) and
hydrochloric acid. Carbon dioxide gas is produced by the reaction. Some
results from the reaction are shown in table 0 and graph E.

Time (s) Volume of carbon dioxide

collected (cm3)

10 36
20 55

73

C I This method of collecting a gas is known as 'collection over water'.

 PPT XLS
The mean rate of reaction is calculated by dividing the total How the amount of gas produced by the reaction
volume of gas by the time taken to collect it. changes with time
f~ 80
mean rate of carbon dioxide formation = 72 cm3 I 40 s "0
= 1.8 cm3/s
Ql 70
tl
~
60 The line gets = he honzontal
You can see from graph E that the rate of reaction 0
u less steep as ~ line shows that
Ql
changes. It is fastest at the start and gradually becomes "0 50 the reaction :: the reaction
·x slows. :: has stopped.
slower. The reaction then stops. 0
'6 40 The slope is No more gas
c:
0
..0
30 steepest at the is being made.
a I Describe how graph E shows when the ....
II reaction stops.
-ro
u
0
20
start, showing
that the reaction
Ql 10 is fastest at
b I Give a reason why the reaction stops. E the start.
::J
0 ,,
a I Calculate the mean rate of reaction ~ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
II between the start and 8 seconds. Time (s)

b I Explain why this is a mean rate. II

Changing rates ••••
For particles to react, they need to collide with each other.
•••••• •••••
• • •••
•••••
Increasing the temperature increases the rate of a reaction
because the particles are moving faster and so collide more •• •••••••••
••••••••
•••••••••• •• •
•••• •••••••••
and with more energy. The harder particles collide, the more
•• •••••••• •• •••••
likely they are to react.

The more often particles collide, the more particles will react.
One way of increasing the number of particles that collide
• • • • •• • •••••
•••
is to increase the surface area of a reactant. Diagram F F I Increasing the surface area of a reactant increases the rate of
reaction.
shows that only the blue particles on the surface of the block
on the left can react with the red particles. If you split up the
blue block, then more of the blue particles are on a surface
and so can react.
II a I Calculate the SA:V ratio of a cube of side 3 em.
b l The cube is now split into 27 cubes of side 1 em.
The ratio between the surface area and volume is an
Calculate the total SA:V ratio for the 27 cubes.
important concept. We call this the surface area : volume
ratio or SA:V ratio. We calculate it by dividing the total c I How would splitting a large cube of calcium
into smaller cubes affect its rate of reaction
surface area of something by its volume (see page 50).
with water?
When a substance is split into smaller pieces, its volume
does not change but its surface area increases. So, its SA:V
ratio is greater. The greater the SA:V ratio, the faster the rate II What has to happen for two particles to react?

of reaction.
II Sketch a copy of graph E, and add a line to show
the reaction if the marble chips had been smaller.

Explain why the reaction in graph E is fastest at

II the start.

I can
• describe how rates of reaction change PPT
• explain the importance of surface area:
volume ratios in chemical reactions.
97
 CHEMICAL
PPT

HOW ARE SYMBOL EQUATIONS USED AND BALANCED?

A salt is an ionic compound produced in a neutralisat ion reaction. Some

neutralisation reactions are shown by the word equat ions in the panel below.

nitric acid + sodium hydroxide ---+ sodium nitrate + water

hydrochloric acid + copper oxide ---+ copper chloride + water

calcium carbonate + sulfuric acid ---+ carbon dioxide + calcium sulfate + water

II State the names of the salts found in the word equations above.

Write a word equation for the reaction between potassium

II hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.

Symbol equations
We use symbols to represent the formulae of elements and compounds.
The formula for a compound clearly shows the elements it contains (which is
not always obvious from a substance's name). For example:
PPT

.-~-n-it-
~F
ro-g-en_).., II State the ratio of sodium
to oxygen in:

a I sodium hydroxide
The small lowered numbers in a formula show the ratio of the different
b l sodium nitrate.
elements. If there is no number after an element, that element is in the ratio of
1 compared with the others. So, nitric acid contains 3 times as much oxygen Write a symbol equation
as nitrogen . The ratio is 3:1 . The ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is also 3:1 . There II for the reaction between
are the same amounts of nitrogen and hydrogen. The ratio is 1:1 . magnesium carbonate
(MgCO~ and sulfuric acid
We use formulae in symbol equations. For example:
(H 2SO.J. The salt (MgSO.J
nitric acid + sodium hydroxide ---+ sodium nitrate + water is soluble.
HN03 + NaOH ---+ NaN03 + Hp

We can add state symbols to show the state different substances are in.
Explain whether sodium
State symbols are in brackets after each substance in a symbol equation:
(s) for 'solid', (I) for 'liquid', (g) for 'gas' and (aq) for 'aqueous' (dissolved in water).
II nitrate is soluble in water
or not.
For example:
Re-write your answer to
nitric acid + sodium hydroxide ---+ sodium nitrate + water II question 4 adding in state
HN03 (aq) + NaOH(aq) ---+ NaN03 (aq) + H20(1) symbols.
 Balancing equations
In a chemical reaction, the law of conservation of mass states that the total mass of the reactants is
always exactly the same as the total mass of the products. This is because atoms cannot be created
or destroyed in a chemical reaction. So, when we write out symbol equations we must have the same
number of each atom on both sides of the arrow. Doing this produces a balanced equation.

For example, this equation is balanced:

HN03(aq) + NaOH(aq) ----.. NaN03 (aq) + Hp(l}

1 + 1 == 2 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
HN0 + NaOH
1 nitrogen 1 nitrogen 3

3 + 1 == 4 oxygen 3 + 1 == 4 oxygen
1 sodium 1 sodium
II Balanced

This equation is not balanced :

HCI(aq) + CuO(s) ----.. CuCI 2(aq) + Hp(l}

\ } \ }
y y

hydrogen 2 hydrogen
1 chlorine 2 chlorine
1 copper 1 copper
CuCI + H 0
1 oxygen 1 oxygen 2 2

•
,.---'----L==;o

Not balanced!
We need to balance equations by adding atoms. We cannot change
the formulae in the equation. Instead, we can put a large number in
front of a formula that then multiplies the elements after it.

For the unbalanced equation above (and in diagram C) we need

another hydrogen on the left of the arrow. We can get this by
doubling the 'HCI'. We write '2' in front of the HCI, meaning '2 lots
2HCI +GuO
of HCI'. This gives us two hydrogens. It also doubles the number of
chlorines because the 2 applies to HCI as a whole (and not just the

PPT H). The equation is now balanced.

2HCI(aq) + CuO(s) ----.. Hp(l) + CuCI 2(aq)

II Balanced at last!

Write out a balanced equation, using state What are the names of the products
II symbols, for: II and reactants in the two reactions
shown on this page?
a I magnesium burning in oxygen (02}
b l methane (CH.J reacting with oxygen
PPT
c I sulfuric acid reacting with sodium hydroxide I can
to produce Na2SO4(aq).
• write balanced symbol equations with
state symbols.
99
 STANDARD
9Gd FORM PPT
HOW IS STANDARD FORM USED?
The standard Sl unit of length is the pea influenza virus iron atom
metre. We often want to measure things width: 8 mm width: 80 nm width: 0.14 nm
that are smaller than a metre and so we in metres: 0.008 m in metres: 0.000 000 08 m in metres:O.OOO 000 000 14m
use centimetres (em), millimetres (mm),
micrometres (~Jm) and nanometres (nm).
Using these smaller units means that we do
not end up with so many Os in the numbers.

red blood cell haemoglobin molecule

a I How many times bigger is
II a pea compared with a red
width: 8 ~m
in metres: 0.000 008 m
width: 6.5 nm
in metres: 0.000 000 006 5 m
blood cell?

b I How many times bigger is A I There are 1000 mm in 1 m, 1000 ~m in 1 mm and 1000 nm in 1 ~m.
a red blood cell compared
with a flu virus?

Index numbers
To measure areas we use square units, such as square metres (m 2) or square millimetres (mm 2). To measure
volumes we use cubic units, such as cubic centimetres (cm 3). The small raised number is the index (or power).

8 Iindex numbers in common units /

height

width
length

length
'----------Y/ length

area = length x width volume = length x height x width

example mm mm x mm = mm 2 mm x mm x mm = mm3
units em em x em = cm 2 em x em x em = cm 3
m m x m = m2 m x m x m = m3

Index numbers tell you how many times to multiply something.

For example, 52 means two 5s are multiplied together: 52 = 5 x 5

~=3x3x3x3x3x3x3x3x3

10 11 = 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10
There is an easier way to do this on a calculator rather than keying the numbers all those times!
Make sure you know how to use the 'index' or 'power' function on your calculator.
 When you multiply a number by 10, the digits move one place
value to the left and you fill in the gaps with zeros:
II Write out these multiplications in full.
a I 66 b 11 03 c 128
1
Write these multiplications using an
1x10= 10
10 X 10 = 1QQ II index number:
al4x4x4
In positive powers of 10, the index tells you how many place
values to move 1 to the left. bl10x10x10x10x10

5 4 3 2 1 cl2x2x2x2
{'\(\(\(\(\
105 = 100000 dl10 X 1Q X 10 X 10 X 10 X 1Q X 10
109 = 1 000 000 000 Write these as 'ordinary' numbers:
In negative powers of 10, the index tells you how many place
II al103 =10x10x10= .. ...
values to move 1 to the right. bl104
c 1106
10-1 = 0.1 dj1Q-2
10-5 = 0.00001 ej10-4

Standard form
We can write very large or very small numbers as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a
power of 10. This is called standard form:

A x 1on where A is between 1 and 10 and n is the power of 10.

Standard form is another way of writing numbers without having too many zeros to deal with.
For example, the beaker in photo C contains 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 copper atoms.
We can write this in standard form:
number between 1 and 10

602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 6.02 x 1023 . . , power of )
10

PPT Very small numbers are shown using standard form with a negative index number.
For example, the width of a carbon atom is 0.00000000007 m.
In standard form: C IThis beaker contains
0.00000000007 = 7 x 10-11 m 6 x 1Q23 atoms.

The Earth is about 4 600 000 000 years old. Light takeS abOUt 3 X 10-9 S tO travel 1 m.
II Write the number of years in standard form. II Write this time as an ordinary number.

The Moon has a diameter of 3.474 x 10 6 m. Use standard form to show the widths of
II Write this distance as an ordinary number. each of the items in diagram A in metres.

An average human cell has a mass of

II 0.000000000001 kg. Write this mass in
standard form. I can
Water has a density of 1 x 103 kg/m 3 . Write • recognise and use numbers and units with
II this density as an ordinary number. indices
• convert numbers to and from standard form .
.-------
101
 PPT

WHAT IS A DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM?

In a chemical reaction, reactants form products. We show

this using equations, with the reactants on the left of the
arrow and the products on the right.
HCI(aq) + NaOH(aq) _,. NaCI(aq) + H20(1)
I

reactants
' y
products

Sometimes there is only one product and sometimes there

is only one reactant (such as in decomposition reactions).
The equation below shows the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide (Hp2}. A weak aqueous solution of hydrogen
peroxide is used to remove stains from paintings.

In some reactions, the products react together and form

the reactants again. For example, if ammonium chloride is
heated it will decompose to form ammonia and hydrogen
chloride. However, some of the ammonia and hydrogen
chloride will react together again to form ammonium II State the names of the products
and reactants when hydrogen
chloride. There are two reactions going on at the same time: peroxide decomposes.
NH4CI(s) _,. NH3(g) + HCI(g)
NH3(g) + HCI(g) _,. NH4 CI(s)
A reaction that can go both backwards and forwards is called a reversible
reaction . We show this in equations using half arrows that point in both
directions.

NH4CI(s) ~ NH3 (g) + HCI(g)

PPT When we read an equation like this, we say that the reaction going from left
to right is the 'forward reaction', and the reaction going from right to left is the
'backward reaction '.

a I What is produced by the forward reaction when

II ammonium chloride decomposes?

b l What is produced by the backward reaction?

Nitrogen (N 2} can be made to react with hydrogen (H 2} to form

II ammonia in a reversible reaction. Write a balanced symbol
equation, including state symbols, for this reaction.

Sulfur dioxide (S02} can react with oxygen to form sulfur

II trioxide (S03} gas in a reversible reaction. Write a balanced
symbol equation, including state symbols, for this reaction.
 Equilibrium How the percentages of reactants and products
change in a reversible reaction
100
If a reversible reaction happens in a sealed container, the
reactants are never totally converted into products because some 90 equilibrium
of the products will always react to form the reactants again . 80
~ products
-5 70 p
As the rate of the forward reaction slows down, the backward 0
reaction speeds up. They then reach a point where the two a 6o
oil
reactions are taking place at exactly the same rate. The reaction (J) 50
c:
has reached equilibrium.
reactants
Once equilibrium has been reached, the percentages of the ~ 30 R
<f.
different substances in the reaction mixture do not change, as 20
shown on graph C. However, the reactions are still happening. 10
Something that is undergoing constant change is said to be 0
'dynamic' and so this is called a dynamic equilibrium. 0 50 100 150 200 250

•
Time (s)

PPT If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it will be

endothermic in the other. The same amount of energy will be
transferred in each direction.

The water level does not change

because there is a dynamic
equilibrium (the volume of water
entering is the same as the
volume of water leaving).

Look at graph C. Describe what line P tells you about the forward
II reaction.

a I State the percentage of reactants when equilibrium has been reached

II in graph C.
b I Explain why this is a dynamic equilibrium. I can
Hydrogen and iodine vapour (1 2) can react to form hydrogen iodide gas (HI)
• represent reversible
PPT
II in a reversible reaction.
reactions using
balanced symbol
a I Write out a balanced symbol equation, including state symbols, for equations
this reaction. • explain how a dynamic
b I Hydrogen iodide production is exothermic. Describe the energy equilibrium is formed in
transfer in the backward reaction. reversible reactions.
103
Fn11CC18 ara wall decorations craated by painting on wet
plaster. The plaster Is made from calcium oxide mixed with
water, which forma calcium hydroxide In an axolhermlc
raacdon. Once on the wall, the plaster Is painted. lhe
calcium hydroxide raacts with carbon dioxide In the air to
form solid calcium carbonate (CaCOJ. lhls raactton traps
the paint plgmanls.

Fn11CC18, like all artworks, raact slowly with subatancee

In the environment. Ackllc gases, such as sulfil" dioxide
(SO.), ara a particular problem. Sulfur doxlde, formed by
the burning of sulfur lmpwltles In foaall fuels, raacts with
oxygen In the air to form sulfur trioxide gas (SOJ. 1hls than
raacts with water vapour to form sulfuric acid (H2SO.J.
The sulfuric acid can react with the calcium carbonate to
produce 'gypsum' (calcium sulfate), which forms big crystals
In a fr8sco. 1hls causes the fr8sco to bubble and flake.

Reatorars can remove 'gypsum' by cleaning a frasco with

81'11110111um carbonate:
CaS04 + (NH.JaC08 ~ (NH.JaS04 + CaC08
Other subatancee ara used to ramove layer& of soot and
grime from frascos, and faded araas can be raatorad by
rapalntlng uU1g the original pigments.

a I State the type of reaction used to remove

II 'gypsum' .

b l Reactions like this form a 'dynamic

equilibrium'. Give a definition for the term
'dynamic equilibrium'.

Describe the direction of energy transfer when

II calcium oxide reacts with water.

State the ratio of the different elements in

II 'gypsum' .

Write out balanced symbol equations for the

II two reactions that produce sulfuric acid from
sulfur dioxide, including state symbols.

Calcium oxide is an ionic compound.

II Describe the bonding in this compound.
 BEING
9H OB..JECTIVE PDF

•
If you are being objective about something, you
GreenCar
do not allow your personal feelings or opinions to
influence what you say. Climate Friendly
Worried about climate change? Our new
When scientists write papers, they try to be GreenCar can help you save the planet. An
electric motor drives you smoothly and q uietly,
objective. They state all their results and describe with no carbon dioxide emissions. Contact
your local dealer for details.
how the evidence supports their hypotheses. Other
scientists can easily see what they have done.
Not everyone reports science like this. Newspapers
and advertisers may choose words to add extra
importance to a point. Or they may only describe
part of the evidence. This causes bias - a shift away
from the correct meaning.

Some scientific reports are paid for by companies, and might be biased in
favour of the company. It is important to think about who has written or paid for
the investigations and reports, and whether all the evidence has been included .

• Look at the car advert in A.

II
Electric cars
aJ Which words in the advert encourage you
to buy the car?

b I Write down part of a sentence from the

// D[fi)(~ UaJ®ij~ text that could be described as showing
bias.

Look at the magazine article in B. Identify

II a fact that has not been mentioned in the
While it is true that electric advert in A, and suggest why it has not been
cars do not emit C02, the electricity mentioned.
used to charge their batteries has to be
generated somewhere. Only if this
electricity is produced by renewable
resources can the car claim to be truly
'eli mate-friendly'.
 CARBON
9H1 CAPTURE
NEWS
I Home I UK I World I Business I Education I Technology I Science I Health I Entertainment I More I

Carbon Capture and Storage gets going

Press release: CarbOiiCo oil extracted
pumped in
CarbOiiCo is excited to
announce our new carbon
capture and storage (CCS)
t
plant comes online today.
Maintaining the supply of
energy is vital in our world,
and fossil fuels provide the
only widely available reliable
energy resource. CarbOiiCo is
reducing the effect of carbon
dioxide on climate change by
working with power stations
to capture C02 and store it in
our underground reservoirs.

This story is from an online news site. The editor wants readers' questions to be answered,
II explaining the science. Use your communications skills to write a detailed answer for one of the
following questions.

a I Coal consists mainly of carbon. How is coal formed and why is it a non-renewable resource?

bl What is the carbon cycle? (Hint: It may be easier to answer this question using a labelled
diagram.)

c I Why is the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere increasing and why is this
likely to cause environmental problems?

Carbon dioxide captured from power stations is often pumped into the rocks in oil fields. This
II process is called 'enhanced oil recovery'. Collect information to help you to explain why using
carbon dioxide in this way may not help to reduce the amount put into the atmosphere.

Newspaper or magazine editors often write 'editorials' in which they give their own balanced
II opinions on t hings discussed in their publication. Find out more about the benefits and
drawbacks of CCS plants, and use the results of your research to write a balanced editorial
that shows both sides of the argument. The final part of your editorial should give your own
conclusion about whether or not new CCS plants are a good thing.
When a salt such as copper sulfate dissolves in water, the
crystals break up and form positively charged particles of
copper (called copper ions) and negatively charged sulfate
ions in the water. In electrolysis, two electrodes are placed
into the solution and connected to an electricity supply
and the charged particles are attracted to the electrodes.
Copper metal forms at the electrode connected to the
negative terminal of the power supply.
Metals can be extracted from their ores using electrolysis.
However, for fairly unreactive metals such as copper there
are also other, cheaper, methods that can be used.
Many uses of copper require the
copper to be pure. Electrolysis
can be used to purify copper, by
making the impure copper the Planning
positive electrode. Copper from You are going to work in a team to plan and carry out an
this electrode turns into copper investigation of your choice to find out how different variables affect
ions in solution, and these the amount of copper produced during the electrolysis of copper
are deposited on the negative sulfate solution. Here are some variables you could investigate:
electrode as pure copper. • the volume of copper sulfate solution
• the concentration of copper sulfate solution
• the size of the current
• the t ime for which the current flows
• the size (or surface area) of the electrodes.

Results and conclusion

• Present your results in a way that helps you to reach a
conclusion. Other people should be able to look at your results
and see why you reached that conclusion.
• Write a conclusion based on the data you have gathered.

Evaluation
• Have you gathered enough data to reach a conclusion?
• Is your data good enough
to give you confidence in
your conclusion?
M
L_D Copper sulfate is .harmful.
Wear eye protection.
9H3 NANOP ICLES
COMMUNICATING WITH THE PUBLIC
Titanium dioxide is widely used as a white pigment, in
paint and things such as toothpaste. Since titanium dioxide
particles are good at reflecting all wavelengths of light, it is
used in sunscreens.
Titanium dioxide crystals can be made that are much smaller
than usual - only about 20 nanometres across. These are
examples of nanoparticles (particles of 1 nm to 100 nm
in diameter). Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have different
properties from the larger crystals. They do not reflect all
colours of light but still absorb UV light from the Sun.

Making a material into nanoparticles often changes its

properties. This is mainly because the surface area of
the material is greatly increased for the same mass.
Nanoparticles made of various materials have many
uses. For instance, vehicle catalytic converters
can now be made using less platinum if this metal
is made into nanoparticles. Catalytic converters
have a mesh with a large surface area, through
which exhaust gases pass. For small engines, this
mesh is often made of an alloy of iron, chromium
and aluminium. This is coated with a layer of
large titanium dioxide crystals, to give the mesh a
rough surface (and more surface area), and this is
covered in a fine layer of platinum nanoparticles
(the catalyst). The large surface area of the catalyst
speeds up the reactions that convert pollutants in B I This catalytic converter is designed for use
exhaust gases into less harmful compounds. on petrol-powered lawn mowers.

A motor exhibition needs a card to describe

II the elements used in t he catalytic converters
in small engines. For each element, outline
how it is extracted and describe one other
use of the metal, with a reason for this use.

In a catalytic converter it is important that

II the exhaust gases come into contact with
a large enough surface area of catalyst.
Describe how the ratio between surface area
and volume changes as the particles get
smaller, and explain why less catalyst can
be used if it is made into nanoparticles.
 PDF

Photo A shows a lighthouse being moved in the United States.

Modern equipment and machinery are needed to move large
buildings like this. Smaller houses are sometimes moved
using lorries.
Machines such as those used to move the Cape Hatteras
lighthouse have only existed for a few centuries. Before then,
moving and lifting things had to be done using only human or
animal power, or by using energy from the wind or moving water.

Look at photo A. Name the forces acting

II on the building as it is being moved, and
describe what they are doing.

II Look at photo C. The students are using

rollers beneath the stone they are pulling to
reduce friction.
a I How does friction affect the movement of
an object?
bl Describe two ways of reducing the friction
between two surfaces without using rollers
or wheels.
II The students moving the stones are using energy.
a I Where do humans get their energy from?
bl Where does this energy originally come from?
c I Draw a diagram to show the energy
transfers between the original source of
energy and the students.
 FORCES AND
UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

HOW DO FORCES AFFECT OBJECTS AND THE WAY THEY MOVE?

When an object is pulled along the ground, the

force of friction between the object and the
ground makes it difficult to move. Friction can
be reduced using rollers or wheels. In snowy
countries, sleds have been used for thousands
of years to move heavy loads.

II Look at photo A. Suggest why sleds

are only used when there is snow on
the ground.

If the forwards force on a moving sled is the

same size as the force of friction, the forces on
the sled are balanced. The sled will continue A I This sled is being used to transport logs.
to move at a constant speed.
If the horses pull harder the forces on the sled will be
unbalanced. The difference between the forward and
backwards forces is the resultant force. In th is case, the
resultant force will be acting in a forwards direction and the
sled will accelerate (get faster) . As well as changing the
speed, unbalanced forces can also change the direction in
which something is moving and its shape.
In photo B, the shape of the metal horseshoe is being changed
using a force from the hammer. Some changes of shape are
not as obvious as this. For example, in photo A the leather in
the horse's harness will stretch as it pulls the sled. Even things
like metal wires stretch a little when they are pulled.

C I Forces on a moving boat. Longer arrows represent

larger forces.

Some of the stones used in Stonehenge come

from Preseli, in South Wales, over 250 km away.
Many archaeologists think these stones were
transported using boats on rivers and the sea.
upthrust
Early boats were paddled using oars, but later force from wind
boats had sails to use the wind to move them. ~ pushing on sails
A boat moving through the water has several
forces acting on it.

liP

II
Water resistance and air
resistance are forms of
drag. Drag forces act to
slow down objects moving
through fluids. The size of the II
PPT drag force increases as the
speed of the object increases, II
because more of the fluid has
PPT to be pushed out of the way
II
each second.
Top speed
The top speed of a ship or other vehicle depends on the maximum force
that can move it forwards and on the friction or drag acting to slow it down.
As a ship gets faster, the water resistance increases. Eventually the water
resistance is as large as the force from
the sails and this means that the ship
cannot accelerate any more. It is now at
its top speed for that amount of wind.
Falling objects also reach a maximum
speed. As the object starts to fall
there is no air resistance because it is
not moving. As it accelerates, the air
resistance increases until it balances
the weight of the object. The speed at
which this happens is called terminal
velocity. Velocity is the speed in a
particular direction.
Look at photo C. Write down the force that:
a I is caused by gravity
bl is helping to make the boat go forwards
c I will increase if the speed of the boat increases.
The weight of the boat in photo Cis 2000 N. How big is the
upthrust? Explain your answer.
Explain what will happen to the speed of the boat if the wind
gets stronger.
Explain why a sailing boat will slow down if the wind speed reduces.
speed= 0 speed = 100 km/h speed = 200 km/h
no air resistance air resistance increasing air resistance = weight
accelerating accelerating terminal velocity
(maximum speed)
D I The terminal velocity of the skydiver is when the air resistance
is equal to their weight.
A racing car has a higher top speed than a
II family car. Give two reasons for this.
Look at diagram D.
II al Explain what will happen to the air
resistance of the skydiver when they open
their parachute.
bl Explain why the skydiver will reach a new,
lower, terminal velocity.
I can ...
• recall the names of different types of force
PPT
• explain the effects of balanced and unbalanced
forces
• explain why moving objects have a top speed.
111
UK NC, iLS, CEE

ENERGY FOR
PPT

WHICH ENERGY RESOURCES CAN BE USED TO MOVE THINGS?

The earliest forms of transport often used animals to carry things, or to pull sleds
or carts with wheels. The energy needed by humans and animals comes from their
food. The energy in the food originally came from the Sun. Today we also directly
use energy from the Sun (solar energy) to heat water and to produce electricity.

energy transferred
from the Sun by light

energy stored in plants energy stored

(chemical energy) in animals

Ships were moved using oars, or using energy from the

wind. Anything that is moving contains a store of kinetic
energy.

Write down three examples of substances or

II objects that are stores of chemical energy.
Explain how the galley in photo B could be said
II to be using solar power.
Write down one factor that affects the amount
II of kinetic energy stored in an object.

Just over 200 years ago, some forms of transport

started to use energy stored in coal. Coal is a fossil
fuel, formed underground over millions of years from
the remains of plants. Fossil fuels are a very convenient
way of storing large amounts of energy, but they are a
non-renewable resource because they will run out one
day. Today we also use energy stored in oil and natural
gas for transport. Energy released by burning fuels can
be transferred by heating to be used for cooking or
keeping our homes warm.

Explain how energy stored in coal originally

II came from the Sun.

PPT
Other energy stores
Smaller amounts of energy can be stored using weights and springs.
The clock in photo D uses weights to keep it going. A weight on a chain
gradually falls and transfers energy to the clock. Energy stored in raised
objects is called gravitational potential energy. Some clocks use elastic
potential energy (or strain energy) stored in a wound-up spring. Elastic
materials can store energy when they are deformed (change shape).

Internal (or thermal) energy is the energy stored in the movement of

particles. There is more of this energy in things that are hot. Energy is
transferred from hot objects to cooler objects by heating.

An archer uses a bow to shoot an arrow.

II a I How is energy stored just before she shoots?
bl What happens to this energy as she shoots?

a I Give two examples of objects or substances that store

II gravitational potential energy.
bl Describe two factors that affect the amount of gravitational
potential energy stored in an object.

Transferring energy
Many modern devices use energy transferred by electricity. Electricity
cannot be stored, but has to be generated using renewable resources
such as wind, moving water or solar energy, or from non-renewable
resources such as fossil fuels or nuclear energy.
Energy is never created or destroyed, but only transferred. This is the law of
conservation of energy. However energy is not always transferred usefully.
The efficiency of an energy transfer compares the useful energy transferred
to the total energy transferred. Wasted energy is usually transferred to
the surroundings by heating, and often by sound as well. This energy is
dissipated (spread out). The greater the efficiency, the less energy is wasted.

Write down three energy resources that are:

II a Irenewable b Inon-renewable.

Early steam engines had efficiencies of only a few per cent.

II a I What energy store did steam engines use?
bl Was most of this energy transferred as wasted or useful energy?
Explain your answer. I can ...
c I Suggest two ways in which energy might have been wasted. • recall ways in which
energy can be stored
A man pushes his daughter on a swing to make her start moving. PPT
II a I Draw an energy transfer diagram (similar to diagram A) to show
and transferred
• recall the law of
the energy transfers. conservation of energy
bl Explain why the swing event ually stops moving after the man • state the meaning of
stops pushing it. efficiency.

~ 13
Suggest why deck officers need to:
a I speak English
b I be good at maths and physics
c I have good eyesight.

Explain why deck officers need to study

meteorology (weather) and sea currents as
part of their training.

Suggest why deck officer qualifications

need to be internationally recognised.
 Explain why the ships in D and E still need
normal engines.

Some naval ships and submarines use

nuclear reactors as their power sources, and
do not produce carbon emissions. Suggest
why:
a I nuclear power is useful for a submarine
b I cargo ships do not use nuclear power.

Three different systems that could reduce carbon emissions from cargo ships are: spinning
rotors, kites and solar cells used to power electric motors.
1 Evaluate each idea. Your evaluation could consider these points:
• how much it will cost to install the equipment on a ship
• how much the propulsion will be affected by the weather.
Summarise your evaluations in a table, showing the advantages and disadvantages.
2 A shipping company uses small cargo ships that make short trips to deliver goods to many
ports on the Baltic Sea. Decide which system would be best for one of these ships, giving
your reasons.
UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT
HOW DO WE CALCULATE SPEED?

Speed is a way of saying how far

you can travel in a certain time.
This time can be a second (s),
a minute (m), an hour (h), or even
longer.
To work out a speed, you have
to measure a distance and a
time. The units you use for speed
depend on the measurements you
take. For example, if a car travels
200 kilometres in 4 hours, its
speed would be in kilometres per Convert a speed in m/s to km/h by dividing by
hour (km/h). Other units for speed 1000
that are often used are metres (1 000 m = 1 km) then multiplying by 3600 (3600 s
per second (m/s) and miles per = 1 hour).
hour (mph).
Convert a speed in km/h to m/s by multiplying
distance
speed = by 1000 then dividing by 3600.
time

Many moving objects do not travel at a Example

constant speed. For example, cars can travel 1000
faster on motorways than in towns, and may 50 km/h =50 x = 13.9 m/s
3600
have to stop at junctions. The mean (average) PPT
speed for a journey is the total distance
travelled, divided by the total time taken.

II You are growing a little taller each year. Distance-time

What units could you use to measure
how fast you are growing?
A horse and rider cover 54 km in 9 hours.
II a I Calculate the mean speed.
bj Explain why the fastest speed during
the journey was higher than your
answer to part a.
The fastest human can run at 44 km/h.
II Convert this speed to m/s.
graphs
You can show how fast someone travelled during
a journey using a distance-time graph. This is
sometimes called a displacement-time graph.
Displacement is the distance in a straight line
between an object and its starting point. Graph B
(opposite) shows a journey by coach and horses.
A steep line on a distance-time graph shows
that something is moving quickly. A shallow line
shows it is moving slowly. If the line is horizontal
the object is not moving at all.
 Distance-time graph for a coach journey
a Look at graph B.
a I How far did the coach travel?
uphill, and the
100 horses are tired bl How long did it stop when they changed
the horses?
c I During which part of the journey was the
80
coach moving fastest?
E' ~ coach stops to
6 Calculate the speed of the coach for the first
Q)
(.)
60 change horses
<"
mostly downhill
on a good road II 4 hours of the journey.

-
c

0
m
.!!2 40
II Sketch a distance-time graph to show your
journey to school.

20 coach travels
on flat roads
Relative speeds
I I I I I I I When you talk about how fast you can walk or run, you
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
are measuring your speed over the ground. However
Time {h)
you can also walk along a train while it is moving. If
you walk at 2 m/s towards the front of the train and the
train is travelling at 50 m/s, your speed relative to the
ground outside is 52 m/s. If you walk towards the back
of the train, your speed relative to the ground is 48 m/s.
If two trains are travelling towards each other, and
both are moving at 100 km/h, they are moving at
200 km/h relative to each other.
Sailors and pilots have to think about relative motion
all the time, because water and air are usually moving.

VDO

D I The speed of a boat depends on its speed through

the water and on how fast the water itself is moving.

II Look at photo D.
al How fast is the boat moving relative to the
riverbank?
bllf the river was flowing in the opposite
direction to that shown, how fast would the
boat be moving relative to the riverbank?
boat moving at
5 m/s through
the water
I can ... PPT
• describe the meanings of speed and mean (average)
speed
• use the formula relating speed, distance and time
• represent simple journeys on a distance-time graph .
.-------'
117
 PPT
HOW DO WE DRAW AND INTERPRET DISTANCE-TIME GRAPHS?

Calculating distances and times

The text in the box describes Sam ina's cycle ride. We
can use this description to construct a distance-time
graph to show her ride.

Samina cycled at 16 km/h for half an

hour, then at 8 km/h for the next half hour.
She covered the last 6 km at 24 km/h.

We need to know the distance and time for each part

of the journey. We can rearrange the formula for speed:
. distance
distance = speed x time t lme= - --
speed

Calculate how far Samina travels in the second Example

II half hour of her ride.
How far does Samina travel
Calculate how long Samina took to complete
II the last part of her ride.
during the first half hour?
distance = speed x time
Use your answers to questions 1 and 2 to draw
II a distance-time graph to show Samina's ride. = 16 km/h x 0.5 hours
Your vertical axis should go up to 20 km and =8 km
your horizontal axis should go up to 1 .5 hours.
Remember to give your graph a title.
Distance- time graph for a toy car
horizontal change (time taken)
Calculating a gradient 100
1+---+1
You can use a distance-time graph to compare the speeds
at different points in a journey. 80
You can also use information from a distance-time graph E' T
to calculate speeds. The gradient of a line is a way of -60
~

I
c vertical
describing how steep it is in numbers. The larger the value .l9 change
t
of the gradient, the steeper the line. .!!! 40 (distance
0
moved)
For distance-time graphs, the gradient of a line represents r
20
the speed. On graph B, the gradient will be how far the rt
object travels in 1 second. 15-r
0
:Vi~; v~-pve.s.ev~t.s. 2 4 6 8 10
tV!~ d~s.tii!V\,C,t 110 Time (s)
. t
grad 1en = -vertical change
- - - --=--
horizontal change
tV!~; v~-pve.s.ell\.,t.s. .s.o tVie eo uettt.oll\., ~.s, c,et Lc,uLII!t~ii\D
\ .J
Ht~
tV!e t~w..e clLstCl 11\.,ce t vetveLLed -pev s.ec,oll\.,cl
 •
. , t
• •
-
.. • ·-
,,
• • ' I I .&.J.
... I
I
;
J
#
'
• •
' ,.

.
A
,..
. ·- -
- ·~«
I~ Example
Graph 8 shows how a radio-controlled car moves.
Calculate the speed of the car between points 8
and C by working out the gradient of the line.

Vertical difference (distance) = 60 m - 20 m

=40 m
start vv~tltl tltte eV\,ol of tV!e .s.ee-t~oV\, of tltte LLV\-~ tj OIA til ve
~V\,tev~;teol ~V\, cr V\,ol vecrol ~t.s. vetLIAe fro VIA tltle vert~e-crL
.s.wLe, tltleV\- s,IAbtvac.t tV!e vetLIAe fov tV!e beg~V\,V\,~"'-0 of
tV! crt s,ec.hoV\, of L~V\-e.

Calculate the gradient of the following Horizontal difference (time) = 6 s - 4 s

II lines on graph 8: I
=2S
a lA-B bl D-E.
F~V\-ol tltle vc.1 L~Ae OV\- tV!e lttov~zoV\-tCl L crx~.s. fov tV!e eV\,ol
o+l tltle s,ec.t~oV\, vLAOIA ave Loo~~V\-0! crt, etV\-ol .S.IA~trcrc.t title
~

vcrL~Ae for tltle beg~V\,V\,~~ of tV! Cit ;ee-t~oV\, of the L~V\-t .

Speed-time graphs
You can show how fast someone travelled
using a speed-time graph. Graph D shows . 40 m
grad 1ent =- - R.eV~AeV~A~er tltlat tltle IAV\-~t.s.
Samina's ride. The horizontal lines show 2s for .s.-pe~ol ole-peV\,ol OV\- tV!e
where she is travelling at a constant speed. = 20 m/s IAV\-~t.s. ~A.s.eol to VIAW.S.w(e title
The sloping lines show where she is ol~;tC!V\-e-e CJV\-ol title t~VVt.e.
changing speed (accelerating).

II 25 ~--~~~~--~--~~~
•
Speed- time graph for Samina's ride

II Look at graph D. At what time is Samina:

a I speeding up
20 bl slowing down?

Use the information on this page and your

'0
II answers to question 4 to draw a speed-
<!)
<!)
time graph for the toy car. Your vertical axis
a. 10
(/) should go up to 20 m/s. The horizontal axis
wil l be the same as graph B.
5

0+---~---4----+----+--~ I can ...

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.25
• use the formula relating speed, distance and time
Time (h)
• draw and interpret distance-time graphs
• calculate the gradient of a line on a graph
• draw and interpret speed-time graphs. 119
 TURNING
UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

HOW CAN YOU INCREASE THE SIZE OF A FORCE?

You can move heavy objects using a lever. A lever is a long bar
that turns around a pivot or fulcrum. When you push down on II What is a lever?
one side you are applying an effort and the object on the other
end moves up. This object is called the load. The longer the II Explain what a fulcrum is.
lever, the easier it is to move the load.

(man pushes
on lever) distance distance

A I The effort force moves further than the load. B I The effort is smaller than the force needed to lift the
weight of the load directly.

There are many simple levers in the home. Most levers work by changing
Suggest one other
a smaller force into a larger one. The lever acts as a force multiplier if II object that has a
the effort distance is greater than the load distance. When the load is lever as a:
lifted, the effort force is smaller than the force at the other end of the lever
a I force multiplier
pushing up on the load. The force has been multiplied. However, the effort
bl distance multiplier.
force has to move through a greater distance than the load.

PPT Some levers can act as distance multipliers instead.

In this case a large effort force moves a small distance,
and the load you are moving moves a greater distance.
 distance force

Turning forces
The spanner in diagram E is being used to turn the nut.
The turning effect of a force is called a moment. The
size of the moment depends on the size of the force and
___
(.....______

The distance is always

the distance between the force and the pivot. Moments
are measured in units called newton metres (N m).
moment of the = force X perpendicular distance
II measured at right angles
(perpendicular) to the force.

force (N m) (N) from the pivot (m)

The spanner is 0.2 m long and the force is

II 20 N. Calculate the moment of the force.

We can use ideas about moments to explain how

levers work. Look at diagram F. If the moment due
to the effort is equal to the moment caused by the
PPT load, the lever will not move. If the effort moment effort load
is greater than the load moment, the load will moment = 220 N x 2 m moment = 400 N x 1 m
= 440 N m = 400 N m
move in the direction shown.
F I The box will move up because the moment from
Look at photos C and D. Explain why:
II a I the bottle opener is a force multiplier
the effort is bigger than the moment from the load.

bl an arm is a distance multiplier.

Look at diagram G. Which force is the load

In equilibrium II and which is the effort?
The crane in diagram G is acting as a lever. Look at diagram G. The rope holding the
The crane is balanced, because the clockwise II barrel is moved so that it is only 0.5 m from
moment is balancing the anticlockwise moment. the pivot.
We say it is in equilibrium. If the man in al Will the anticlockwise moment be larger
diagram G pulls a little harder, the forces will not or smaller than before? Explain your
be balanced and the barrel will rise. answer.
bl Calculate the new anticlockwise
1m 3m
moment. Show your working.
• ====:::::;;;:::::::===================;)
c;;::::l

600N '

I can ...
• describe how a simple lever can multiply
forces or distances
• identify the load, effort and pivot on a
diagram of a lever
PPT
• describe the factors that affect the size of
1800 N
a moment
anticlockwise moment clockwise moment
• explain why something will balance if the
= 1800 N x 1m = 600 N x 3m
= 1800 N m = 1800 N m moments are equal and opposite.
121
 UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT
WHAT OTHER SIMPLE MACHINES MAKE IT EASIER TO MOVE THINGS?

A machine is anything that can help us to work

w ith forces. Most machines help by allowing us
to use a smaller force to move an object. Levers
are simple machines. Another type of simple
machine is a ramp. It needs less force to push
an object up a slope than it does to lift it directly.
The shallower the slope, the less force is needed.

Force needed
to lift block
= 1000 N

XLS Weight
1000 N

B I A ramp reduces the force needed to lift an object, but

XLS the object has to be moved further.

Write down two more examples of where ramps

II are used.

Pulleys can also be used to help us to move things.

In diagram D, pulley X makes lifting the load easier
because we can pull down on the rope instead of lifting
the object directly, but it does not change the force
PPT needed. Pulley Y halves the force needed to pull the
object, but the rope has to be pulled twice as far as for
pulley X. Pulley Z reduces the force needed even further.

II Suggest two other uses of pul leys.

Look at the pulley in photo C. The woman would

II need less force to control the sail if the rope went
round more pulleys. Suggest why this is not done.
Work
In physics, work means the amount of
energy transferred when a force moves
something. Work is measured in joules (J).
The formula for calculating work done is:

work done = force x distance moved in the

(J) (N) direction of the force (m)

Example
Look at pulley Y in diagram D. The force on the rope is
50 N, and the rope is pulled through a distance of 2m.
How much work is done? 100 N 100 N 100 N

work = 50 N x 2 m
D I If the rope is pulled for 1 m through pulley
= 100 J X, the weight will be lifted by 1m and will
gain 1OOJ of gravitational potential energy.

In pulley Y, the force from the rope lifts the weight upwards, and the weight moves up by
1 m. The energy transferred (work done) by pulling on the rope is all transferred to the
weight. The weight has 100 J more gravitational potential energy than before it was lifted.
In a similar way, energy is transferred (work is done) when a force is used to stretch a
spring. This energy is stored as elastic potential energy in the stretched spring.

Conservation of energy
In diagram D, pulley Z allows the weight to be lifted using a force of 25 N, but the rope
has to be pulled for 4 m to lift the weight by 1 m. The same is true of all machines- if
a smaller force is needed to move something, the force has to move through a greater
distance.
You would expect that the same work is done to lift the weight even when the pulley
allows you to use a smaller force. However, friction causes a little more work to be done
when smaller forces are used.

Look at diagram B. Calculate the work done to:

II a I lift the block directly upwards
bl push the block up the ramp .
c I Comment on your answers to parts a and b.
PPT
Look at diagram B. Explain why it wil l need more I can ...
II energy to lift the block using the ramp than it wi ll to pull
• describe how simple machines
it directly upwards.
can magnify forces
A heavy box is pulled along the floor. The work done is • describe the factors that affect
II 200 J . Explain the final form of this energy store. the total work done.
123
 SUPPLYING
WHAT TRANSPORT IDEAS DID NOT LAST?
Steam engines had to carry a supply of coal with them. In the 1840s several engineers built railways
where the engines were beside the track instead of part of the train. This meant the trains did not
have to carry fuel. These 'atmospheric' railways had a long tube laid along the track with a slot.
Air pumped into the tube from pumping stations along the track pushed on a piston attached to the
train. Unfortunately the atmospheric railways had problems with air leaking out of the pipe, and they
turned out to be more expensive to run than steam locomotives. They only ran for a few years.

Although diesel-powered trains still have to carry

their energy store with them, many modern trains
use energy transferred to them by electricity.
The train does not emit any polluting gases.

Suggest some advantages and

II disadvantages of an atmospheric railway
compared to a steam-powered railway.
Suggest some advantages and
II disadvantages of modern electric trains
compared to diesel-powered trains.
Mr Wong travels 70 km from Kuala
II Lumpur to Seremban. The journey takes
1.5 hours by train. The train stops for 10
minutes in the middle of the journey. Draw
a labelled distance-time graph to show
this journey.
Engines are machines. Simple machines
II include levers, pulleys and ramps.
al Write a sentence or two for each of
these simple machines to explain how
they can help us to move things.
bl Explain why a machine that magnifies
a force needs as much energy as doing
the same task without the machine.
 MISSION TO
PDF

The Moon is the most distant body that has been

explored by humans. Sending humans to Mars or
beyond is more complicated than sending them
to the Moon. The distance is much greater, and
astronauts would have to live in space for many
months or even years.

It takes a large force to move spacecraft from the

surface of the Earth into space. All the equipment,
food and fuel for the whole mission has to be
lifted. Rockets burn fuel such as hydrogen or
kerosene, but in the future there may be other
ways of launching astronauts and equipment into
space, such as using giant magnetic 'guns'.

a I What is the force that pulls objects

II towards the Earth?

bl Name two factors that affect the size

of this force, and describe how they
affect it.

a I What are the two ends of a magnet

II called?

bl What is a magnetic field?

cl Explain why compass needles point

north.

Electronic devices (such as computers on

II the Curiosity rover) use electric currents.

al Describe the apparatus you need to

make an electric current flow.

bl Describe how to measure an electric

current.

c I What does voltage mean?

dl Describe how to measure a voltage.

 UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

WHAT KINDS OF FORCE FIELD ARE THERE?

In science fiction films, a force field is often shown

as a kind of invisible wall. The meaning of force field
in physics is a space where a non-contact force
has an effect.

Magnetic fields
The space around a magnet where it can attract
magnetic materials is called a magnetic field. A bar
magnet has two ends, called the north pole and the
south pole. Two north poles or two south poles will
repel each other. A north pole and a south pole will
attract each other.

Draw two bar magnets in an arrangement

II
•
where they will:
PPT
a I attract each other
b I repel each other.
PPT
You can find the shape of a magnetic field using
iron filings or small compasses. The arrows show
the direction a north pole would move. The field is
strongest where the lines are closest together. PPT
State where the magnetic field of a bar
II magnet is:
a I strongest
blweakest.

VDO The Earth's magnetic field helps to protect it from

charged particles emitted by the Sun. However,
the shape of this field is altered by the Sun.

Explain why the full name of the north

II end of a magnet is the 'north-seeking
pole'.
 Gravitational fields All objects attract
each other.
Any object that has mass has a gravitational field If one or both of the
around it. When two objects are in each other's objects has more mass,
gravitational field, they attract each other. the force is bigger.
A If the objects are
The gravitational field strength (g) of the Earth is . .. , further apart, the
approximately 10 N/kg. This means that the force of force is smaller.
attraction between the Earth and a 1 kg mass is 10 N.
D I The force of gravity between two masses
XLS We call this force the weight of the object: depends on the strength of their gravitational
weight (N) = mass (kg) x g (N/kg) fields, and on how far apart they are. The
gravitational field strength of the Earth decreases
as you move further from the centre of the Earth.

The Curiosity rover is exploring Rhea is a moon of Saturn and Oberon is a

II Mars. It has a mass of 900 kg.
a I Calculate its weight on Earth.
b I The gravitational field strength
of Mars is 3. 7 N/kg. What is the
rover's weight on Mars?
II moon of Uranus. They have similar diameters,
but the mass of Oberon is approximately 1.3
times the mass of Rhea.
a I Explain which moon will have the greater
force of gravity on its surface.
bl Suggest why two moons of similar diameter
were chosen for this question.

Storing energy
It takes energy to move an object away from the Earth, because
of the forces of attraction between the two objects. The energy
needed to move the object is stored in its mass as gravitational
VDO potential energy (GPE). The greater the mass, or the higher it is
moved, the more gravitational potential energy it stores.

Describe two
II different ways
of increasing
the amount of
gravitational
potential energy
stored in a bucket.

PPT
I can ...
• state what is meant by a force field
• describe the shape of a magnetic field
• recall the factors that affect the strength of gravity
• calculate the weight of a mass.
127
 STATIC
UK NC, iLS

PPT
WHAT CAUSES STATIC ELECTRICITY?

People sometimes get small shocks when touching metal

railings, doorknobs or car doors. Shocks like this are caused by
static electricity. A charge of static electricity can build up when
two different materials rub together. Sparks caused by static
electricity can cause fires or damage electronic equipment.

Separating charges
Atoms consist of a central proton
nucleus with small particles
called electrons moving
around it. The nucleus
contains positively charged
protons and uncharged
neutrons. It has an overall B I a model of an atom
positive charge and
each electron has a negative charge. The total positive and
negative charges in an atom are usually the same, so they
balance each other and the atom has no overall charge

II Where are electrons found in an atom?

II Why do most atoms have no overall charge?

When you rub two insulating materials together some electrons may be transferred
from one object to the other. The positive charges cannot be transferred because
the protons are fixed in the nuclei of the atoms. The object that ends up with more
electrons has an overall negative charge. The object that has lost electrons has an
overall positive charge.

When you rub an The acetate now

acetate rod with a has more positive
C I The effect piece of cloth, some than negative
of the electrons in charges, so it has
of rubbing two an overall positive
the acetate move
different insulating onto the cloth. charge and the
materials with a cloth has an equal
cloth. The charges negative charge.
stay where they
are when they have ;;,.,;' When you rub a
polythene rod, some
been transferred. of the electrons in
the cloth move onto
onto the polythene.
 Positive and negative charges can become separated
Why are only the negative charges
II transferred when you rub an
when a conducting material (such as metal) is rubbed.
insulating material? However, the charge spreads out over the whole of the
metal object, so we do not usually notice the charge.
II Look at diagram C.
a I Explain why the polythene rod •
has an overall negative charge
Lightning happens when clouds build up a
after it has been rubbed.
very large charge of static electricity. The
bl Explain why the cloth will have potential difference (voltage) between the
the same amount of positive cloud and the ground can be as high as
charge as the rod has negative
100 million volts.
charge.

Attract and repel

Something with a charge of static electricity can
attract uncharged objects. The force is not very
strong, so you only notice this effect with small things
such as pieces of tissue paper or hair (see photo D).

Two charged objects can attract or repel each other.

If the charges are the same (two positively charged
objects, or two negatively charged ones) they will
repel each other. If the two objects have opposite
charges they will attract each other.

Look at diagram C. Explain what will

II happen when two charged rods are
suspended close to each other if:
a I they are both acetate rods
b I one is acetate and one is polythene.
VDO
Look at photo E. The silver dome is part of a
II machine that makes static electricity, which
has passed into the girl. Explain why the
girl's hair is sticking out.

Electric fields
The space around a charged object where it has
an effect is an electric field. The field is strongest
close to the object. Diagram F shows one way of
representing the electric field around the end of a I can ...
rod with a negative charge.
• explain why an insulating material can be PPT
given a charge by rubbing
Look at diagram F. Draw a similar diagram
II to show the electric field around a positive
• describe how electrically charged objects
affect each other
charge. Explain your answer. • describe an electric field.
129
 UK NC, iLS, CEE

CURRENT
PPT

HOW CAN CURRENT ELECTRICITY BE CONTROLLED?

All spacecraft need computers. These control the

engines and all the instruments. For spacecraft that
carry astronauts, the computers also keep the air inside
breathable and at the correct temperature. Electric circuits
turn motors and fans on and off at the correct times.

An electric current is a flow of electrons, which are

negatively charged particles. An electric current only flows
when there is a complete circuit for the current. A circuit
also needs something to 'push' the current around the
circuit, such as a cell or power pack.

The wires in a circuit are often made of copper.

II Explain why this material is used.

We represent electric circuits using standard

II symbols. Draw the symbols for: Astronauts in space cannot survive
alacell blabulb. without electricity. In some countries,
if the mains electricity supply failed,
some physically weak people could
start dying after only a few days from
B I Circuits can be series circuits or parallel circuits. contaminated water or shortage
of food.
Series circuits Parallel circuits

r II A series circuit has two bulbs in it.

The current is the same
everywhere in the circuit.
PPT All the bulbs go off when the
switch is opened.
If you add more bulbs in
series, the current in the
PPT circuit is reduced and the
bulbs are dimmer.
The current through the cell
splits up when it comes to a
junction.
a A parallel circuit like the one in
Each bulb can be controlled
individually.
If you add more bulbs in
parallel, the bulbs all stay at
the original brightness. The
current through each bulb
II
stays the same.
One bulb is removed and the gap
in the circuit is joined up. Explain
what will happen:
a I to the current in the circuit
bl to the brightness of the
remaining bulb.
table B has one of the switches
closed. Explain how the current
in different parts of the circuit will
change if the other two switches
are also closed.
Copy the parallel circuit in table B
and add one switch to it that will
turn all the bulbs on and off at once.
Measuring electricity 6V

We use an ammeter connected in series to measure the current flowing

through a circuit. The units for current are amperes (A).
The voltage across a cell is a measure of the energy provided by the
cell. We measure voltage using a voltmeter connected in parallel to a
component; we say that a voltmeter is connected across a component.
The units for voltage are volts 0/).

4V 2V

•
3V

The voltage across a component is a measure of the energy transferred

by that component. In circuit C the bulb is transferring more energy
than the motor, because the voltage across it is higher. The voltages
across all the components add up to the voltage across the cell.
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each branch of the circuit is the
same as the voltage provided by the cell. In circuit E both bulbs have a
voltage of 3 V across them.

Look at circuit C. The voltage of the

II cell is increased to 12 V. I can ...
• explain how switches can be used to control
aJ What will happen to the current in different parts of a circuit
the circuit?

b I Explain how the voltages across the

• recall how current behaves in series and parallel
circuits
PPT
bulb and motor will change. • describe how voltage behaves in series and parallel
circuits.
131
Write down three different things
electricity is needed for:
a I in a car
b I in a supermarket.

Look at photo A. Suggest why the

plastic covering on the wires has
different colours.
 Explain why it is important that electricians
understand safety regulations.

State two risks from unsafe electrical wiring.

Write down a list of the things an electrician

needs to think about when planning the
wiring for a house.

When a car is towing a trailer, the brake

lights on the trailer should come on at the
same time as the brake lights on the car.
a I The brake lights on a car's trailer are not
Problem area: can you wo11< out where the
fault is most hkety to be? working. Write a list of all the possible
Identify possible causes: make a checkltst of causes of the fault.
all the posstbie causes?
Priorities : chek lhe most llkeiy cause first, b I The brake lights on the car are working.
this Will save lime?
What does this tell the electrician about
Test and repair.
the location of the fault?
c I Suggest how the electrician could check
one of the possible causes.

Your teacher will give you an electrical circuit that does not work. Your task is to
find the faulty component and replace it.
1 Write down all the possible reasons why the circuit is not working. Put them
in order, starting with the problem that you think is the most likely, and make a
checklist.
2 Ust the equipment you will need to test the circuit.
3 Test the circuit, and identify the fault or faults. Make a list of your findings.
4 Check your conclusion by replacing the faulty components.
 UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

HOW CAN WE CALCULATE THE RESISTANCE OF A COMPONENT?

Spacecraft are controlled by computers

and other electronic systems. The currents
in the components inside a computer are
very small, only tiny fractions of an amp.
But the current inside a heater can be
over 10 amps.

The size of the current flowing in a circuit

depends on the voltage of the cell or
PPT power pack, and on how easy it is for
current to flow through the components in
the circuit.

What are the units for measuring:

II a I current b Ivoltage?

The resistance of a component is a way of saying how easy or difficult it is for current to
PPT flow through it. The current in a circuit can be controlled by changing the resistance of the
components. Resistance can be added to a circu it using components called resistors.

Factors affecting
resistance
The resistance of a w ire depends on how long it
is, how thick it is and on the metal it is made from.

• Longer wires have a higher resistance than

shorter wires.
• Thin wires have a higher resistance than thick
wires.

All metals conduct electricity, but

some metals conduct it better
than others. Copper, silver, gold II Name three different materials that have a high resistance.
and aluminium are the best
Look at photo B.
conductors. II al Explain why the plastic handle is needed to allow people to
Insulating materials have very move the wire.
high resistances. bl What can you say about the resistance of plastic materials?
 Calculating resistance
The units for measuring resistance are ohms, and the symbol is
the Greek letter omega (!l).
Voltage, resistance and current are related by this formula:
voltage (V) = current (A) x resistance (0)

The voltage of a cell is what helps to 'push'

charges around a circuit. This formula shows
that the voltage you need to supply to a circuit
increases if you need a large current or if the
circuit has a high resistance.

Example
What voltage do you need to mak~ a
2 A current flow around a circuit With D I The formula
a resistance of 5 0? can be rearranged
voltage = current x resistance using this triangle.
V represents voltage,
v =I X R I represents current
=2Ax50 and R represents
XLS resistance.
= 10V

Calculate the voltage needed to make a 5 A current flow

II through a circuit with a resistance of 20 0.

The formula can be rearranged to work out the resistance of a

component from a current and a voltage. The resistance of a component is the
ratio of the voltage (potential difference)
Example across it to the current flowing
through it. A graph of current against
What is the resistance of a bulb
when the voltage across it is 1o v voltage is a straight line.
and the current is 0.5 A?

resistance = voltage ( V) A F I Current-voltage

current R =T 10V
graph for two
resistors. The graph

•
10 v B
PPT 0.5A
shows that current is
directly proportional
=200 to voltage.
voltage

What is the resistance of a component that has a current

II of 3 A through it when the voltage is 18 V? I can ...
Describe how you could show that the resistance of a
• describe some factors that XLS
II wire depends on its length.
affect resistance

Look at Graph F. Which resistor has the higher resistance?

• use the formula relating voltage,
current and resistance.
PPT
II Explain your answer.
135
 ROUNDING
9Jd NUMBERS PPT

HOW AND WHY DO WE ROUND NUMBERS IN SCIENCE?

We round numbers to make estimates or to
make calculations simpler. For example, on
page 127 the gravitational field strength of the
Earth was given as 10 N/kg. A more accurate
value for the average gravitational field
strength is 9.80665 N/kg.
We use a value of 10 N/kg in Exploring Science
because this is accurate enough to explain
ideas about mass and weight. This is the value
rounded to the nearest whole number.

Decimal places
The gravitational field strength can be rounded
to different numbers of decimal places.
When you have rounded a number, it is useful to
9.f
show how many decimal places it is rounded to.
Otherwise someone reading it does not know if
9.8 is the exact value, or if it was rounded from
a higher or lower number, such as 9.84 or 9. 75. 2 d.p. - C\ .&o\666 9.fl
'\ S 0( (Y)O("e,

11 The mass of an apple is 0.25834 kg. Write its mass: rov'Od vp

a I to one decimal place b Ito three decimal places. 9.f07
Look at photo A. Suggest why engineers did not
II round the value of gravity on the comet to 1 d.p.

Rounding in calculations The numbers used to calculate

The box below shows an answer to an exam this answer are both given to one
question. decimal place. Th is means that the
actual voltage could really have been
Exam question: A current of 0. 7 A flows through anything between 1.45 V and 1.54 V.
a component when the voltage is 1.5 V. What is
its resistance?
Answer: r-eSiStVIV\C:e =voltVI~e/c:vr-r-eV\t II Suggest two different
values for current that could
= 1.7 V/0.7 A be rounded to give 0.7 A to
= 2.1Y2'D571Y7 0 one decimal place.
The number of digits after the decimal point in the
exam answer makes it appear that the value for
the resistance is far more accurate than it really is.
The answer to a calculation should always be
rounded to an appropriate number of decimal
places. This is usually the same number of decimal
places as the numbers given in the question.
The answer to the exam calculation
II should be rounded to one decimal
place. What should the answer be?
In a different version of the exam paper
II the voltage and current were given as
1.50 V and 0. 70 A. Explain what the
answer should be in this case.

Significant figures
• Small numbers Large numbers

Rounding numbers to a certain number of 0.000 483 5 183 760 000

decimal places does not work very well when the t \
numbers are very large or very small. l.st .sijnifico.nt fijvre l.st .sijnificc..nt
=Lt. ten thov.sc..ndth.s fi5vre = 5 billion
For example, the current through an electronic
component could be 0.000 483 A. If you round Round to 2 significant figures (2 s.f.):
this to two or even three decimal places, you get 0 000 ~.t.&\3 6 l\& 3 760 000
a value of zero. For large or small numbers, what '"\
J
matters is the number of significant figures. The \e~~ ih<>.l"\ 5
So roul"'d dov.~f\
'5 or (V\O("e,
So roundvf
PPT
first significant figure is the digit with the highest
place value. The second significant figure has the 0 .000 Lt.& 6 200 000 000
next highest place value, and so on.
\. cJJ 2 eros so
ihe '5 is still
in ihe billion~ position

A Falcon 9 rocket had a launch mass of 505 846 kg.

II al What is the mass to 1 s.f.?
bl What is the mass to 2 s.f.?
c I Suggest who would use the accurate value in the
question, and who might use one of the rounded
values you worked out in your answers.

The speed of light in deep space is 299 792 458 m/s.

II This value is often quoted as 300 000 000 m/s.
al Round this number to 1 s.f., 2 s.f, 3 s.f. and 4 s.f.
bl Explain why you cannot say to how many
significant figures the value of 300 000 000 m/s
is given.

I can ...
• round numbers to a given number of decimal places
• round numbers to a given number of significant figures. ..-------'
137
 ELECTRO-
UK NC, iLS, CEE

PPT

HOW CAN ELECTRICITY PRODUCE MAGNETISM?

Apollo astronauts used lunar rovers to help them to

explore the Moon. The rovers were powered by electric
motors that used energy stored in batteries. Electric
motors use electromagnets to make them spin.

Electromagnets
A wire with an electric current flowing through it has
a magnetic field around it. The strength of the field
increases if the current increases. The direction of the
field changes if the direction of the current changes.
When the wire is wrapped into a coil, the magnetic
field is a similar shape to the magnetic field of a
bar magnet. The directions of the north and south
poles of an electromagnet depend on which way the
current is flowing through the wires.

You can increase the strength of an electromagnet by:

• increasing the number of coils of wire
• increasing the current in the wire Key
-+-- electric current
XLS • using a magnetic material as a 'core' inside the
coil of wire. -+- magnetic field

a I What happens to an electromagnet if you

II switch the current off?

bl How is this different to a bar magnet?

Describe three ways of reducing the strength
II of an electromagnet.
Describe how you could show that the
II strength of an electromagnet depends on the
current in the coil.

Electromagnets have many uses. Relays (as shown

in diagram C) can improve safety by using a small straight wire electromagnet
current to switch on a circuit that carries a much
B I The magnetic field around a wire and an
VDO bigger current. This means that people do not have to
electromagnet. There is only a magnetic field
touch any part of the circuit carrying the large current.
while the current is flowing.
 low-current
circuit
spring
Look at diagram C. Explain what happens
II when a current flows in the low-current circuit.

Electric motors
A current flowing through a wire creates a magnetic f ield metal bar attached coil of wire iron block
to iron block that can slide
around it. If the wire carrying the current is placed in
the magnetic field of a magnet, the two magnetic fields C I an electromagnetic relay
affect each other and the wire experiences a force.
This is known as the motor effect. The direction of the
force depends on the directions of the current and the
magnetic field. This only happens when the wire cuts magnetic
field
across the magnetic f ield.

Suggest two ways in which the force shown in

s
II diagram D could be made bigger.
current

An electric motor consists of a coil of wire in a

magnetic f ield. The magnetic field can be produced
by permanent magnets (as shown in diagram E), or by
electromagnets. When a current f lows through the coil
of wire, the combination of the magnetic field from the
D I the motor effect
magnets and from the coil makes the coil spin.

This side of the motor This side is Explain what effect you think the following
is pushed upwards. pushed downwards. II factors will have on the motor in diagram E:

magnet al increasing the current in the coil

bl making the magnetic field weaker
c I changing the direction in which the
current flows.

Some motors are small enough to fit

inside human cells. However, these
nanomotors use electrostatic effects,
not electromagnets.

The metal ring is split

so that the current
changes direction I can ...
every half turn. • describe an electromagnet and its magnetic field
E I This is a simplified diagram of an electric motor, • describe how the strength of an electromagnet
can be changed
PPT
as a real motor would have a lot more turns of wire
on the coil. • describe some applications of electromagnets. .-------'
139
 HUMANS
WHAT ARE THE RISKS OF SPACE FLIGHT?
Since humans first started travelling into space,
18 astronauts have died in space, and 11 more
have died during training accidents on the
ground. In addition there have been accidents
during test flights of rockets.
But accidents are not the only risks. Astronauts
do not feel weight in space, and this leads to
their muscles wasting away and their bones
becoming thinner.

In 2012, a Dutch company called Mars One

announced plans to send four astronauts on a
one-way trip to Mars. More astronauts would
join them later. Their journey would be made into
a reality lV show. Thousands of people applied
to go to Mars, even though they would not be
coming back.

Gravitational field strength on Mars is

II 3.7 N/kg. Suggest what will happen to
astronauts' bones and muscles if they live
on Mars for a year. Explain your answer.

al Describe the three types of force field

II you have studied in this unit.

bl Write down two similarities and one

difference between them.

The air and temperature inside the Mars

II One base will be controlled by electric
heaters and fans.
al Describe what resistors are used for in
electric circuits.
bl Describe how to find the resistance of a
component.

11 Fans are moved by electric motors.

al Describe the components of an electric
motor.
bl Describe two ways to make an electric
motor spin faster.
 PDF

WHAT DO PHYSICISTS DO?

A physicist is a scientist who researches questions
connected with the properties of matter and energy.
Questions vary from what is inside atoms to working
out what happened when the Universe began.
Uke all scientists, physicists make observations that
lead to asking questions. Then they make a hypothesis
and use it to make a prediction. The ways they gather
data to test their predictions can be very different.

a I Draw a flow chart to show the scientific

II method used by most scientists.
b I Which of these steps may be done
differently by astronomers compared
to particle physicists?

II Write down two scientific questions that:

a I can be investigated by experiments
in a laboratory
b I can only be investigated by making
more observations.

a I Write down two differences between

II the weather in the summer and in
the winter in the UK.
b I Explain why one of these differences
occurs.
 iLS, CEE

PPT

HOW DO DIFFERENCES MAKE THINGS HAPPEN?

Potential difference
Lightning can strike between a cloud and the Earth or between
two clouds. Clouds become charged with static electricity because
hailstones and ice crystals rub against each other as they move inside
the cloud . If the difference in the charges (the potential difference)
between two places is large enough, the air between them can conduct
electricity and we see a lightning strike.

Potential differences are also needed to make electrical

II circuits work.

a I What supplies the potential difference in a circuit?

b I What does the potential difference across a
component show?

Temperature differences
Temperature differences cause energy transfers by heating, such as when
Explain why a cold drink taken
a hot drink cools down because it is warmer than the surrounding air.
II from the fridge will warm up.
Temperature changes can cause substances to change state. An ice cube
taken out of a freezer is at a temperature below its melting point. As energy
How the temperature of water
is transferred to it from its surroundings its temperature will rise until it changes as it cools down
reaches 0 oc. Its temperature will remain at 0 oc while it is melting.

Energy is still being transferred to the ice cube while it is melting, but
does not cause a temperature rise. Instead, this energy breaks the bonds

XLS between the particles in the solid. This bond-breaking energy is called the
latent heat. When water freezes, the latent heat is given out again. There
are also transfers of latent heat during evaporation and condensation.

Graph B shows the temperature of water in a puddle as the

II
•
water cools on a freezing cold night. Explain the shape of the Time
graph. Include the words ' latent heat' in your answer.
Density and pressure differences
Changes in temperature cause materials to
expand or contract. When fluids (liquids or gases) The air above the sea is The air above the land
warm up they expand and become less dense. cooler and so more dense warms up more than
than the air above the land. the air above the sea.
If parts of a fluid have different densities, the less It becomes less dense
dense part will rise. These density changes can and rises. The air
The air pressure is higher pressure drops where
cause convection currents to form. than the air above the land, the air is rising.
so a breeze blows from
The Earth is warmed by energy from the Sun the sea to the land.
during the day, and cools down at night. But the
temperature of the land increases more than the The sea has a higher specific
heat capacity than the land,so Land has a lower specific
temperature of the sea for the same amount of
it does not warm up as much. heat capacity than the sea,
energy transferred. The energy needed to raise so it gets hotter more
the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 oc quickly than the sea.

is its specific heat capacity. Water has a higher

specific heat capacity than soil or rock. The D I Light winds called 'sea breezes' occur during the day because differences
resulting difference in temperature causes light in temperature cause differences in density. The density differences cause
winds that flow from the sea towards the land convection currents. PPT
during the day.

Substances with high specific heat capacities

also cool down more slowly than substances
with low specific heat capacities. This can cause
' land breezes' during the night.

Joyah heats up some water in a

II beaker, and heats the same mass
of soil in another beaker.

a I Which one will be the hotter

after 10 minutes? Explain your
answer.

b I If she also heated up the

same mass of wet soil in the
same way, what would its
temperature be compared to
the other two substances?
Explain your answer.

Explain how land breezes occur,

II in as much detail as you can.

Explain the difference between

II 'latent heat' and 'specific heat
capacity'.

I can ...
• describe how temperature differences can cause
convection currents
PPT
• state the meanings of latent heat and specific heat
capacity.
143
 iLS, CEE

PPT

HOW IS THE IDEA OF A FIELD USED IN PHYSICS?

In physics, a force field is a volume where a non-contact force

has an effect. The three non-contact forces that produce fields are
magnetism, static electricity and gravity.

Storing energy in
fields
Gravitational potential energy is the name for energy stored
because of an object's position in a gravitational field. If an object
is moved away from the Earth it stores energy. The raised object can
transfer this energy when it is allowed to fall.

PPT Hailstones are small lumps of ice that form inside large clouds. As they
fall, their gravitational potential energy is transferred to kinetic energy.

PPT

II Look at photo B.
a I How did the gravitational
potential energy become stored
in the skydiver?

b I How will this store of energy be

transferred as he falls?
 The amount of gravitational potential energy stored in an object depends
a I Calculate the energy stored in a
on its mass, how high it has been raised, and on the gravitational field
strength (approximately 10 N/kg on Earth}. The formula is:
II skydiver with a mass of 80 kg at a
height of 1500 m.
gravitational = mass x height x gravitational
potential energy (kg) (m) field strength b I Explain how your answer to part
(J) (N/kg) a will compare to the energy of an
astronaut with a mass of 80 kg at a
height of 1500 m above the Moon.
Example
A 65 kg skydiver is at a height of 2000 m. H~w much?
gravitational potential energy does the skydiver store.

gravitational potential energy = 65 kg x 2000 m x 10 N/kg

= 1 300 000 J

Energy can also be stored in electric fields and magnetic field s. You need to use
a force to pull two magnets apart. The work done by moving the magnets stores
the same amount of energy in the separated magnets. If you let them go, the
stored energy is released as they move back together.

Modelling fields
Diagram C shows how the gravitational field of the Earth can be represented.
It shows the direction in which a small mass will move if it is released in the
Earth's gravitational field.

All the lines in diagram C point towards the centre of the Earth. The Earth's
gravitational field is strongest close to the Earth, and this is where the lines are
closer together.
II Look at diagram C. Write down:
a I two things that the diagram
Field diagrams such as this: field lines tells you about the Earth 's
~
gravitational field
• are two-dimensional representations of
three-dimensional fields b I one thing that it does not
tell you.
• indicate (by the closeness of the lines)
qualitatively where the field is strongest

• have lines that do not cross.

PPT
We can draw similar diagrams for electric fields

PPT and magnetic fields. The arrows on these fields

show which way a positive charge or a north
D Ithe electric field
around a positive charge
pole would move.

Explain why diagram D above is different

II from diagram F on page 129.

a I Sketch the magnetic field of a bar magnet.

II (Hint: page 126, diagram B may help.)

b l Describe two differences between your

sketch and diagram D.
I can ... PPT
Use photo E to help you to describe how a
II north pole would move if it was placed in
• use the formula for gravitational potential energy
• model force fields using diagrams and interpret
position X.
them.
145
 CAUSE AND
PPT

HOW ARE CAUSES LINKED TO EFFECTS?

Many people ask themselves what

causes the changes they observe
around them. Many myths and legends
are about explaining things around us.

Scientists also think up explanations

(causes) for the changes (effects) they
see around them, but then they test
the explanations. In this way, science
tries to find the best explanations for
why things happen.

A I Some cultures explained that winds were caused when powerful beings blew. Our
modern explanation is that winds are caused by temperature differences between
different places on the Earth.

II natural place is in the

Earth. Light objects fall
slower than heavy ones
because their natural
place is above
the heavy ones.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE) was a
Greek thinker. He made many
observations and explained
VDO them, but he did not carry out
experiments to test his ideas.
Galilee Galilei (1564-1642)
was an Italian scientist who
carried out experiments in
many different areas of physics.
Sir Isaac Newton (1642- 1726) was an
English scientist and mathematician
who used experimental evidence to
suggest laws and equations that
described how objects move and fa ll.

Correlation and II a I Aristotle is sometimes called a scientist.

Explain whether or not this is a good
causation description of him.
A correlation is when two things happen together, or when two b I Explain why Galileo and Newton can be
sets of data appear to be linked. Sometimes this shows that a described as scientists.
change in one factor causes the other, such as the length of a
Newton described how forces affect the
spring increasing when you pull it harder. But the fact that things
happen together does not necessarily mean that one thing
II motion of objects. Describe what causes a
car to:
causes the other. Sometimes there may be a third factor that
a I accelerate (speed up)
affects both, or there may be no connection between them at all.
b I change direction.
 Correlation between ice cream sales
The average world temperature is increasing, and
II the number of pirates is going down. Do you think
and deaths by drowning

X
that the change in one of the variables causes the
Ol
change in the other? Explain your answer. ·c:c
~£
0 c
Look at graph C. Suggest why there is a correlation
II
.... 0

between the two variables. (Hint: there is another ~E

.0~
(/) u
factor that affects both variables.) ~
-Q)
<ll
<ll
Q)
0 X
If scientists think that changes in one variable cause changes in
another, they try to find out how this happens. It is only once they have Ice cream sales each month
found out why one thing affects the other that they accept that the
cause and effect go together. C I The number of deaths by drowning
increases when sales of ice cream increase.
Spotting the effects
Many causes and effects are obvious, but some are not so
clear. For example, you know that when you drop a ball the
force of gravity makes it accelerate downwards. But there
is also a force from the ball that pulls the Earth upwards,
towards the ball. This idea that forces are always in pairs is
called Newton's Third Law.

Some materials are radioactive. This means they emit

particles or waves that can ionise atoms and molecules.
When a soccer player kicks a ball, their foot
We can detect this radiation using photographic film or a
Geiger-Muller detector. Scientists have worked out that II exerts a force on the ball. What is the other
this ionising radiation is caused by changes within the force in this pair?
XLS
radioactive atoms.

Diagram E shows a mass attached to a

II spring. The spring has stretched and the
mass is now not moving .

• a I How has putting the mass on the spring

made it stretch?
b I How do you know there must be a force
from the spring on the mass? PPT
c I Sketch a diagram of the mass attached to I can ...
the spring. Use arrows to show the force
• describe some examples of cause and effect in
from the mass on the spring, and the force
science
from the spring on the mass.
• describe the difference between correlation and
cause.
147
 LINKS BETWEEN
CEE

PPT

HOW CAN VARIABLES BE RELATED MATHEMATICALLY?

When a change in one variable causes a change in another

variable, we say there is a causal link between the variables.
Sometimes the link can be described using a mathematical
formula.

Graph B shows how the temperature and pressure of the

PPT air change with height. There are causal links, because air
pressure depends on the height of air above a particular
point, and temperature depends on several different variables,

XLS including height. However, the relationship between height

and temperature or pressure cannot be described using a
simple formula.
Pressure (Pa)
0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
100

air temperature
75
E'
6
Q)
"0 50 -
--
::J
:;J
<( - air pressure
- r= l7 .
25

0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 +20
0
• Temperature ( C)
How length of stretched
spring depends on force
Look at graph B. Describe in words how:
II a I air pressure changes with height
b l air temperature changes w ith height. .c.
C»
c:
Q)
_J

Proportional and
linear relationships 0'----------+
0 Force
Graph C shows how the length of a spring changes when the
force on it changes. This is a linear relationship, because the
points on the graph fall on a straight line, but the line does not C I The stretched length of the spring can be worked out
using this formula:
go through the (0,0) point on the graph.
stretched length = original length
+ (spring factor (a constant) x force)
Graph D shows how water pressure changes with Pressure (kPa)
depth. The graph is a straight line that goes through
0 50 000 100 000
the origin (0,0). This shows that the pressure is directly I
0
proportional to depth, and the relationship can be
described by the equation shown in the caption . 1
1\
For two variables in direct proportion : 2
\
3
\
• if one variable is zero the other is also zero

• if the value of one variable doubles, the other also

.........
E 4
\
doubles.
6
£ 5
\
a.
c3 6
1\
II Explain why the relationship shown in
graph C is not showing direct proportion. 7
1\
8
1\ D Ithe relationship between pressure
II The weight of an object is directly
proportional to its mass. Sketch a graph 9
1\ and depth can be described by:
pressure = depth x density of fluid x g
of weight against mass that shows this.
10
1\

Inverse proportion
The current in a wire depends on how much charge flows in a given time. For a fixed amount of
charge, if the time doubles, the current halves. This is an inversely proportional relationship.
Graph E shows an example of an inversely proportional relationship.

II Look at graphs B and E.

a I Compare the shape of the graph for air pressure to
the graph for current.

b I Air pressure is not inversely proportional to height.

Suggest why it is easier to spot a directly proportional
relationship using a graph than to spot an inversely
proportional one.
How current changes with time for a fixed amount o f charge
Class 11 measured the amount of rain that fell in one
II day. Each student used a container of a different size.
so
\
Table F shows their results. 40

Cross-sectional area of Volume of water ~ 30 \\

container opening (cm 2) collected (cm 3) ~
~ 20 r-....
v
10 90 "-...... r--
30 270
10

0
4
-
0 6 8 10

•
Time(s)
150 1350
300 2700

a I Plot a graph of these results on graph paper. Cross-

sectional area of the container should be on the PPT
horizontal axis. I can ...
b I Explain what kind of relationship is shown on your graph. • identify linear and proportional
relationships from graphs.
149
 CEE, iLS

PPT

WHAT KIND OF INFORMATION CAN WE OBTAIN FROM GRAPHS?

Equations for graphs
Lines on graphs can often be described using an equation.
Straight lines on graphs can be described using equations
of the form:

y= mx + c
Using a graph to work out the values of m and c can tell us
about the relationship shown by the graph.

When a gas is heated the particles move faster. If the gas is

XLS inside a sealed container the particles hit the walls harder
and more often, so the pressure increases. If the pressure
increases enough it can cause an explosion.

Graph 8 shows that there is a linear relationship between

the pressure inside a container of gas and its temperature.

How pressure in a container depends on temperature For graph 8:

B y
~ m is the gradient of the line,
::J
(/)
(/) so it tells you how much the
~ m = gradient
a.. pressure increases for each
of the slope
1 oc increase in temperature ~

7
Y= ~ + '
X
o·c Temperature

r---~-------------
II Look at graph C on page 184. x is the temperature c is the point at which the
line crosses the vertical
a I What kind of relationship is shown in this graph?
axis, so it tells you what
b I The line on the graph can be described in the the pressure is at 0 oc
form y =mx +c. Explain what the values of m
and c in this equation tell us about the spring.

Graphs for motion Distance-time graph for a car journey

Graph C is a distance-time graph for a journey. The gradient 150 The car covers
I
of each part of the line shows how fast the car was going for
E'
.Y.
125 __.,.
~,
50 km in
-; 100 0.5 hours.
each part of its journey - the steeper the line, the faster the I / It is travelling
gco 75 at 100 km/h.
speed. A horizontal line shows the car was stationary. /
u;
i5
50
25
I/
v The gradient
tells you
the speed .
Look at graph C. At what speed is the car 0
II I I I

• 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0

travelling for the first hour of its journey?
Time (hours)
A journey can also be shown on a speed-time graph. Graph D
Speed-time graph for a new car journey
shows a different car journey. Horizontal lines show the car
60
travelling at constant speeds, and sloping lines show when the
car is accelerating. - 50
~ 40
I ~
Acceleration is a way of saying how quickly a moving object is c.
-c 30
\
speeding up or slowing down. The units for acceleration are
metres per second per second (m/s2}. An acceleration of 5 m/s2
<I>
~ 20
f'-
Cf)
means that the object is going 5 m/s faster every second. The 10
steeper the line on a speed-time graph, the faster the car 0
\
is accelerating. The acceleration can be found from the 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

•
gradient of the line. Time (minutes)

II Look at graph D.

a I What was t he top speed of t he car during this

journey?

b I When was the car slowing down fastest?

c I Sketch a speed-time graph that shows a car

accelerating for 1 minute to 90 km/h, travelling
at a constant speed for 5 minutes, then
accelerating for 1 minute to 11 0 km/h.

The formula relating speed, distance and time can be Speed-time graph
used to work out how far a vehicle has travelled: 25
distance = speed x time
20
Look at graph E. Between 10 and 20 seconds the vehicle ~ 15 /
was travelling at 15 m/s. _§_
-g 10
/
distance= 15 m/s x 10 s <I> ~
a. /
Cf) 5
=150m

This is the same value you would get from working out 0
/ I

the area of the orange rectangle on the graph . 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

• Time (s)
For the first 10 seconds of the journey the vehicle is
accelerating. The distance it covers during this time is
the area of the yellow triangle on the graph.

area of triangle = Y2 x base x height

= Y2 x 10 s x 15 m/s PPT
= 75 m I can ...
• use the formula for a straight line to help
Calculate how far the vehicle in graph E travelled
II between 25 seconds and 30 seconds.
interpret graphs
• use gradients to interpret distanc~time
The distance travelled between 20 and 25 seconds and speed-time graphs
II can be calculated by splitting the area under the • calculate distances from the area under a
graph into a rectangle and a triangle. How far did speed-time graph.
the vehicle travel in this time?
151
 CEE

PPT

HOW ARE MODELS USED IN SCIENCE?

A model is a way of representing something. In science,

models can be used to help us to describe things more
easily or understand how they work. Some models can be
used to test new technology, or to help scientists to discover
how things work.

A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon moves into the

shadow of the Earth. Photo A shows a physical model of a
lunar eclipse. Other physical models include balls and sticks
used to represent molecules of elements and compounds.

Abstract models are models that exist in computers or in

your imagination. Diagram B is an abstract model showing
what happens during a solar eclipse. People standing in
the shadow of the Moon see a total eclipse. If the Sun is
only partly blocked, they would see a partial eclipse.

Draw a diagram similar to 8 to

II show what is happening in the lunar
eclipse modelled in photo A.

Mathematical formulae, graphs and chemical equations are

also abstract models. Computer models must be checked
by using them to make predictions and then testing the
predictions.
The particle theory of matter is an abstract model. It is
also an analogy, because it is comparing the particles
that make up everything to small balls that are stuck to
each other or moving around and bouncing off things.

Describe one other analogy you have

II used in lessons. (Hint: analogies are
often used to describe how electrical
circuits work.)

Describe four different kinds of model

II mentioned in this Unit and say whether
each is a physical or abstract model.

It is important to remember that a model is usually

simpler than the thing it is describing. Sometimes
scientists use different models for the same thing,
depending on what they are trying to understand.
Diagram D shows some different models that scientists
use to represent atoms.
 //_.-------· ------.......,
nucleus
r ./---------------.._ _\ -.\
\ ~. ) )
solid ball
'
\\. '\·.......... .- .., ........' ' '
//

(particle theory) ··... II, protons and neutrons

nucleus surrounded by
electrons (used when
learning about static
electricity)
0.._----------------- made of even smaller
nucleus contains protons and neutrons, particles (used when
with electrons at different distances from explaining radioactivity)
the nucleus (used when learning how
chemical bonds form)

D I how the abstract model of an atom changes as you learn more science

Wave models
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. We can see
waves on the surface of water, and we can see how they are
reflected and refracted.

We cannot see sound being reflected, but we can hear echoes.

We can carry out experiments to show that sound is also
refracted. We use a wave model to help us to think about how
sound travels. Light can also be reflected and refracted. We can
explain many of the properties of light by thinking of it travelling
as a wave, but the wave model does not explain all of the
properties of light.

a I Describe what happens to the particles

II in air as a sound wave passes through.

b I Describe two differences between a

sound wave and the water waves shown
in photo E.

Describe two differences between the wave

II model of sound and the wave model of light.

Why is it not correct to say that light is a

II wave?

PPT
I can ...
• explain the difference between physical
and abstract models
• describe some ways in which models are
used in science.
153
Game designers invent characters for
adventure games. Suggest two other
things they need to invent or design.

Explain why some developers study

computer art.

Sound is a key part of many games.

Suggest two things to consider when
creating sound for a game.
 Games companies
usually evaluate the
idea for a game, as
well as the finished
game. Suggest why
they do this.

Your company is developing an adventure game set 1000 years ago in your country. Your team
must evaluate the new game by doing a survey of garners. The evaluation is in three stages:
• concept (initial idea, storyline and artwork for some scenes and characters)

• partly developed (a partly working game, including the scenes and actions)

• final test (fully developed game).

Draw up an evaluation form Show: artwork for opening scene (5 = completely agree, 1 =
for each stage of the testing. completely disagree)
Analysing the results is easier if Question Gamer Gamer Gamer Gamer
you ask people to rate different 1 2 3 4
statements from 1 to 5, so you This scene really makes
can add up the scores from me want to play the
different people. The form should game.
include what you will show to the
garners, and the statements you
will ask them to rate.
 PHYSICS
WHAT IS BEING RESEARCHED IN PHYSICS?
Research in physics can be classified into different types:

applied research is often aimed at improving a particular technology,

such as designing materials that are more efficient at converting
sunlight into electricity

basic research is investigating things that may not have an application,

but that scientists are interested in.

All scientific research needs money to pay for equipment and to pay the
scientists. Applied research is often funded by technology companies. Basic
research is usually funded by governments.

Once the first laser had been

II invented , many scientists
investigated ways of making
more powerful lasers.

a I Explain what kind of

research this is.

Scientists studying hurricanes fly aeroplanes b I How is this kind of

II through them to gather information, including research different from the
kind of research illustrated
how much rain there is inside the clouds.
by photo B?
a I Why do scientists need to collect data in real
hurricanes when they have computer models?
b I The scientists hypothesise that the more rain
there is, the more energy is being transferred
to the hurricane. Why does the formation of
raindrops release energy?
c I The lift provided by an aeroplane's wing is
proportional to the density of the air through which
it is flying. Explain what proportional means.
 WORKING
9LASAT
Most research is done by teams of scientists.
Before starting, the team members agree on
what they are going to do. Each team member
has time to explain their own ideas and listens
carefully to others. Some of the things that
they will need to discuss are shown in panel A.
PDF
A team needs to make decisions about the
project, such as:
• what question they are going to answer
• what additional research is needed
how to carry out the investigation.

Suggest one advantage and one The team also decides who will carry out the
II disadvantage of having a confident different tasks, taking into account people's
speaker making the presentation. different skills. For example, who:

For complicated investigations with many
stages, the team members decide how long to
spend on each stage. Someone is in charge of
making sure the group sticks to the timetable.
At the end of a teamwork task, it is important
to evaluate the whole task. Each team member
has time to explain what they think went well,
and what could be improved. The team then
decides on recommendations for how to do
the project better. The methods, results and
• does different parts of the additional research
• sets up the apparatus
• changes the independent variable
• measures the dependent variable
• records the results
• evaluates the results
• designs the presentation or writes the report
• gives the presentation.
---------------------------------------

conclusions of scientific experiments are

A I some things a team must discuss before starting a
checked by peer review (see page 62). project
You can do peer review in school by showing
your report to another group. You should get
feedback on:
• which parts the reviewers thought were
done well
• which parts were confusing or unclear
• if they think any more information is
needed.

Write down two questions you should

II ask when you evaluate a teamwork task.

Suggest two differences between

II a scientist having their work peer
reviewed, and you showing your
report to another group at school.
9L1 EARS AND
Bionic ears and eyes
Today hundreds of thousands of people have
cochlear implants. A tiny microphone in the patient's
ear transmits signals to a receiver implanted in their
head. The receiver converts the signals to impulses
in the patient's auditory nerve. A cochlear implant
can give some people who are completely deaf the
ability to hear. Inventions such as cochlear implants
involve combining ideas and knowledge from
engineering and medicine.

Bionic eyes are more difficult.

A microphone can be hidden
inside or behind the ear, but the
cameras needed for a bionic
eye must be built into a pair of
glasses (photo B). The patient has
to have a receiver implanted into
their skull, with a tiny wire leading
to an implant in their retina.

The story above is from an online news site. Use your

II communications skills to write answers to readers' questions Think about how you
explaining the science. Here are two of the questions: are going to structure
a I Do microphones and ears hear sounds in the same way? -I-
your answer before you
start to write. You could
b IAre eyes and cameras the same thing but just one is electronic?
describe how each
There are many different ways in which eyes can fail or be one works and then
II damaged. Sometimes people cannot see clearly because they point out similarities
cannot focus on objects at different distances. Collect information and differences, or you
to help you to explain how 'short sight' and 'long sight' are caused, could make a table to
how they affect people, and how lenses can be used to help people help you to compare
with these conditions to see clearly. Communicate your findings in
the two. Make sure
two concise paragraphs.
you use language that
Find out more about cochlear implants. Write a story of 350 words your audience will
II for an online newspaper, describing what cochlear implants are, understand.
how they work and the kinds of people who can be helped by them .
Make a list that records all the sources of information you used.
9L2 GOING FASTER
INVESTIGATION
Unbalanced fo rces on an object can make it
change speed. Acceleration is the change in
speed over a particu lar time.

Planning
You are going work in a team to plan and
carry out an investigation to find out how
different variables affect the acceleration
of an object. Here are some questions you
could investigate.
• How does the steepness of a ramp affect
the time it takes for a toy car to run down it?
• Does the mass of a toy car affect how
A I This ski jumper is accelerating down a ramp. Does the
long it takes to run down a ramp?
steepness of the ramp affect their acceleration? What other
• You can pull a toy car along a flat variables might affect their acceleration?
surface. Does the mass of the toy car
affect how fast it accelerates?
• How does the size of the force affect the
acceleration of a toy car?
• The force of gravity accelerates objects
downwards. Does the acceleration
caused by gravity depend on the mass of
the object? Does it depend on its size?

Results and conclusion

• Present your results in a way that helps you
to reach a conclusion. Other people should
be able to look at your results and see why
you reached that conclusion.
• Write a conclusion based on the data you
have gathered.

Evaluation
• Have you gathered enough data to reach a
conclusion?
• Is your data good enough to give you
confidence in your conclusion?
9L'3 SPEED LIMITS
COMMUNICATING WITH THE PUBLIC
Speed limits are lower in towns than on open roads because A I some typical UK speed limits
vehicles are more likely to need to stop quickly in towns , to Type of road Speed limit (km/h)
avoid hitting other traffic or pedestrians. Also, if a car does hit
Highways 110
someone, the person's injuries are usually not as severe if the
Roads in the 100
car is going more slowly. countryside
The distance a car travels from the time the driver notices Roads in towns 50
an obstacle to when they press the brakes is the thinking Some roads 20
near schools
distance. The distance the car travels while the brakes are
or housing
slowing it to a stop is the braking distance. The stopping developments
distance is the sum of these two distances.

The distances in the chart are typical distances.

The thinking distances will be longer if the driver
is tired. The stopping distances will be longer if
the road is wet, or the car's tyres or brakes are
not in good condition.

Typical stopping distances

A road safety organisation wants
II leaflets to be given out with new
40
km/h
cars, to encourage drivers to stick 17 metres 9 metres = 26 metres or 6.5 car lengths
to the speed limits. Design and write 60
a leaflet, using information from this km/h
page and from further research. You 25 metres 20 metres = 45 metres or 11 car lengths
need to include: 80
• what the speed limits are km/h
33 metres 36 metres = 69 metres or 17 car lengths
• why the speed limits are different 100
on different roads km/h
• when drivers should stick to
42 metres 56 metres = 98 metres or 24.5 car lengths
speeds below the speed limits. Thinking distance
Braking distance average car length = 4 metres
The thinking distance depends on
II the driver's reaction time. Find out B I typical stopping distances
how reaction times are measured and
what typical reaction t imes are. You
could also find out how much longer
reaction times are when people are
tired. Use the information you find
to write a script for a one minute TV
advert with the slogan 'Think before
you drive'.
Pronunciation note: A capital '0' is said as in 'sd

abiotic factor Something that isabiotic has nothing to do with living aseptic precautions Any method to ensure that living microorganisms do not come
organisms (e.g. temperature, the wind). into contact with something.

absorbed 'Soaked up' or'taken in: atomic number The number of protons in an atom.

abstract model A model that only exists in your thoughtsor asa computer balanced equation A symbol equation in which the numbers of atoms or ionsof
program, formula or diagrams (such as ray diagrams). (eck-way-shun) different types are the same on both sides of the arrow.

abundance The number of organisms in an area. Also called 'population size: balanced (force) When two forces on an object are the same strength but in
opposite directions.
accelerate To change speed.
base Any substance, soluble or insoluble, that neutralises an acid
accuracy A measure of how close a value is to its real value. forming a salt and water only.
(ack-U-rass-ee)
bias (bye-as) A shift away from a correct meaning or value.
acid A substance that reacts with alkalis, turns lit mus red and has a
pH of less than 7 is acidic. biodegradable Capable of being decomposed (broken down) by organisms in
the soil.
acid rain Rainwater that is more acidic than usual due to air pollution,
usually caused by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides dissolved biodiversity The range of different species of organisms in an area.
in it. (bi-D-die-ver-sit-ee)

adaptation The features that something has to enable itto do a certain job biotic factor An activity of an organism that affects another organism (such
(add-app-tay-shun) or survive in a part icular place. as competition or predation).

addictive If something makes you feel that you need to have more of it, it bond A force that holds some atoms t ightly together.
is said to be addictive.
brain The organ of the nervous system that controls the body and
addition polymer A polymer formed by adding monomer molecules together to coordinates responses to changes inside and outside t he body.
form a long chain in an addition polymerisation reaction.
breathing The movement of muscles that make the lungs expand and
addition The reaction that joins monomer molecules together to form a contract.
polymerisation polymer.
brittle Hard but easily broken or cracked.
aerobic respiration A type of respiration in which oxygen isused to release energy
(air-0-bick) from substances, such as glucose. carbon capture Tech nology t hat can be used to remove carbon dioxide from
technology the waste gases produced by power stations and indust rial
aggregate Gravel, small stones or piecesof crushed rocks used in building. processes preventing it from entering the atmosphere.

aim What you are t rying to find out or do. carbon cycle A model used to show how carbon compounds are recycled in
an ecosystem.
air resistance A force that tries to slow things down that are moving through
air. It iscaused by friction and by the object pushing t he air out causal link When a change in one variable causes a change in another (this
of the way. is not the same as correlation).

algae Types of protoctists t hat can photosynthesise. cell division (sell) The splitting of a parent cell to form two identical daughter cells.
The daughter cells both contain t he same genetic information
amino acid Substance used to make proteins. as the parent cell.

ammeter A piece of equipment that measures how much electricity is A strong plant material used to make cell walls.
cellulose
flowing around a circuit. (se/1-you-/Ohs)
ampere (A) The unit for measuring current. The tough wall around some cells. It helps to support and
cell wall
protect the cell.
amplitude The size of vibrations or the distance a particle vibrates when a
wave passes. cement A substance that binds materials together. In building it refers to
a mixture of clay and lime (calcium oxide).
analogy A model that compares something complicated to something
(an-a/-0 -jee) that iseasier to understand.
central nervous The brain and spinal cord.
system
anther A male reproductive organ in plants t hat produces pollen grains.
ceramic A range of hard, durable, non-metallic materials, which are
antibiotic Medicine t hat helpspeople recover from bacterial infection by
(ser-am-ick) generally unaffected by heat. E.g. china and glass.
killing t he pathogen.

antibody Protein made by lymphocytes that stick to pathogens.

characteristic A feature of an organism. correlation When two things happen together, such as one variable
(kar-ack-ter-iss-tick) (cor-al-lay-shun) increasing (or decreasing) asanother increases, or two variables
changing with the time in a similar way.
chemical energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored in chemicals.
Food, fuel and batteries all store chemical energy. Crick, Francis Scientist who, along with James Watson, worked out the
struct ure of DNA.
chemical reaction A change in which one or more new substances are formed.
(kem-ik-al) criteria (cry-teer-ee-a) A set of standards by which to judge things.
(re-ack-shun)
cross-breeding When sexual reproduction occursbetween different varieties
chlorophyll The green subst ance found inside chloroplasts. It traps energy or breeds.
(klor-0 -fill) transferred by light.
crude oil A fossil fuel formed from the decay of sea creatures over millions
chloroplast A green disc containing chlorophyll, found in plant cells.Where of years under the conditions of high heat and pressure and in
(klor-0 -plast) the plant makes food, using photosynthesis. the absence of air.

chromosome (krow- A st ructure found in the nuclei of cells. Each chromosome crust The solid rocks at the surface of the Earth.
mO-sOwm) contains one enormously long DNA molecule.
crystals Pieces of a mineral with sharp edges. A solid with a regular
classification Sorting things into groups. (kris-tan shape and flat surfaces which reflect light.

clay Very fine particles of rock. current The flow of electricity around a circuit.

climate change Changes t hat will happen to t he weather as a result of global cuticle (cyou-tick-ul) The waxy covering on the outside of many leaves.
warming.
data Observationsor measurements collected in investigations.
combustion Burning, usually in air. The reaction gives out energy, which is
transferred to the surroundings by heating or light. decimal place The position of a digit to the right of the decimal point in a
number. The number of decimal places in a number is the
communicable A disease that can be passed from an infected person to an number of digits after the decimal point.
disease uninfected person. Also called'infectiousdisease:
decomposer An organism that feeds on dead organisms or animal wastes,
community All the different species of organism living in a habitat. causing them to decay.

competition There is competition between organisms that need the same defonn Change shape.
(com-pet-ish-un) things as each other. We say that they'compete'for those t hings.
density A measure of a substance's mass per unit volume (e.g. the mass
component Something in a circuit. such asa bulb, switch or motor. of 1cubic centimetre (cm3) of a substance measured in grams
(com-po-nent) per cubic centimetre {g/cm3)).

composite material A material made up of two or more other materials.The diet The food that you eat.
(kuh m-poz-it) separate materialsdo not react together.
diffusion When particles spread and mix with each other without
compound A substance that can be split up into simpler substances, since it (diff-you-zshun) anything moving t hem. Diffusion into and out of cells occurs for
contains the atoms of two or more elements joined together. particles t hat are small enough to passthrough the cell surface
membrane.
compressed Squeezed into a smaller volume.
digested When food has been broken down it has been 'digest ed:
concentration The difference between two concentrations. There will be an
gradient overall movement of particles down a concentration gradient. direct proportion A relationship between two variables where one variable
from higher concentration to lower concentration. doubles when t he other doubles. The graph is a straight line
through (0,0). We say that one variable is directly proport ional
conclusion What the results of an investigation show. to the other.

concrete Art ificial st one made from a mixture of sand, cement, water discontinuous Data values that can only have one of a set number of options
and larger pieces of material such as gravel or small stones are discontinuous. Examples include shoe sizes and blood
(aggregate). groups.
conduction The way energy is transferred through solids by heating. When the value of a variable is discontinuous, it shows
discontinuous
(con-duck-shun)
variation 'discontinuous variation:
conductor A substance that allowssomething to pass t hrough it (e.g. heat, disease Something that makes you ill, such as infection by a pathogen
electricity).
or not having a healthy diet.
contact force A force where there needs to be contact between object s
displacement The distance in a straight line between an object and its starting
before t he force can have an effect (e.g. frict ion).
point.
continuous Continuous data can take any value between two limits.
dissipate Spread out.
Examples include length, mass, time.
dissolve When a substance breaks up into such tiny pieces in a liquid that
continuous variation When the value of a variable, such as height, can take any value
it can no longer be seen and forms a solution.
and showscontin uous variation.
distance multiplier A lever or other machine where the load moves further than
contract To get smaller. the effort.
convection The way energy is transferred by heating in fluids. distance- time graph A graph that showshow far and how fast something travels
(con-veck-shun) during a journey. Steeper lines on the graph show faster speeds.

convection current A flow of liquid or gas caused by part of it being heated or distribution How the organismsare spread throughout an area, such as
(con-veck-shun) cooled more than the rest. evenly, randomly or clumped.
DNA A substance that contains genetic information. Short for enzyme A substance that can speed up some processes in living things
deoxyribonucleic acid. (e.g. breaking down food molecules).

double helix Two helices joined so t hat they are in parallel. epidermis cell Cell t hat forms tissue covering the surface of an organ.

drag Another name for air resistance or water resistance. equilibrium When things are balanced and not changing they are 'in
(ek-wi/1-ib-bree-um) equilibrium:
drug A substance that affects the way your body works.
estimate An approximate answer, often calculated from a sample or
dynamic equilibrium When there are const ant changes going on but t hese changes
using rounded values.
(dy-nam-ick) are equal and opposite and so do not effect the overall levelsof
(ek-wi/1-i b-bree-um) something.
eutrophication When a body of water contains excessive levels of nutrients (e.g.
nitrates from fertilisers).
eclipse When one object in space blocks out light between a star and
another object. In a lunar eclipse t he Earth blocks out light
evaluation Weighing up plus pointsand minus pointsto reach a
from the Sun getting to the Moon.ln a solar eclipse the Moon
judgement about something (e.g. how good something is, how
blocks out light from t he Sun getting to the Eart h. All the light is
well something does its job, how safe something is).
blocked in a total eclipse. Only some of the light is blocked in a
partial eclipse.
evidence Data used to support an idea or show that it is wrong.
ecosystem All the physical environmental factorsand all the organisms that
are found in a habitat. evolution A change in one or more characterist ics of a population over a
long period of time.
effectors Organs that bring about responses to changes inside the body
and in the surroundings, such as muscles t hat cause movement exhalation Breathing out.
and glands t hat produce hormones.
exothermic A change or reaction that transfers energy into the surroundings
efficiency A way of saying how much energy somethi ng wastes. (ex-o-therm-ic) making the temperature of the surroundings rise.
(e-fish-en-see)
expand To get bigger.
effort The force put on something, especially a lever or other simple
machine. explosive An explosive substance reacts very fast, releasing a lot of energy
(ex-p/0-siv) and gas.
elastic Any subst ance that will return to its original shape and size after
it has been stretched or squashed. extension The amount by which a spring or other stretchy material has
(ex-ten-shun) stretched. It is t he stretched length minus t he original length.
elastic potential A name used to describe energy when it is stored in stretched or
energy squashed things that can change back to t heir original shapes. extinct An organism that no longer exists is extinct.
(po-ten-sha/1) Another name for'strain energy:
faeces(fee-sees) Waste food material produced by the intestines.
electric current A flow of elect ronsaround a circuit.
fat A substance that is often used to store energy.
electric field The space around an object with a charge of static elect ricity
where it can affect other objects.
fermentation Anaerobic respiration occurring in microorganisms.
(fer-ment-ay-shun)
electricity A way of transferring energy through wires.

electric motor A machine consisting of a coil of wire in a magnetic field. The coil fermenter A container in which microorganisms are cultured to produce a
useful substance on a large scale -the product iscollected from
spins when a current flows through it.
the solution in which the microorganisms have grown.
electrolysis Breaking down a substance using electricity.
{e/1-ek-tro/1-e-sis) fertilisation Fusing of a malegametewith a female gamete.
(fert-i/1-/-zay-shun)
electromagnet A coil of wire with electricity flowing in it. An electromagnet has
a magnet ic field like a bar magnet. fertilised egg cell What is produced when two gametes fuse. Another term for
(fert-i/1-/-zed) 'zygote:
electron A sub-atomic particle found outside t he nucleusof an atom. It
has an electrical charge of -1. fibre (fY-ber) A long thin continuous st rand or thread.

element A simple substance, made up of only one type of atom. finite Something that isa limited resource and will eventually run
out.
endangered When a type of organism is in danger of ceasing to exist.
(en-dayn-jerd) flammable A flammable substance catches fire easily.

endemic Belonging to a certain area, and only naturally found in that fluid A gasor a liquid.
area.
food web Many food chains linked together, showing the flow of energy
endothermic A change or react ion that absorbsenergy from the through organisms in a habitat.
(end-0 -ther-mik) surroundings making the temperature of the surroundings fall.
force A push, pull or twist.
energy resource A st ore of energy that we can use for heating, t ransport, and to
force field The volume around something where a non-contact force can
keep our bodies working.
affect things. Examplesare electric, magnetic and gravitational
environment The conditions in a habitat caused by physical environmental fields.
factors and living organisms.
force multiplier A lever or other machine where the load is bigger than the
effort.
environmental factor Anything that can change t he conditions in a habitat or t he
organisms that live there.
formula (chemical) A combination of symbolsand numbers that shows how
many atoms of different kinds are in a particular molecule. In
environmental Differences between organismscaused by environmental compounds that do not form molecules, it shows the ratio of
variation factors. elements in the compound. Pl ural is formulae.
fossil fuel A fuel formed from t he dead remainsof organisms over millions group A vertical column in the periodic table.
of years (e.g. coal, oil or natural gas).
guard cell One of a pair of cells t hat help to open and close a stoma.
Franklin, Rosalind Scientist whose experiment sproduced evidence that helped
Watson and Crick work out the structure of DNA. habitat The place where an organism lives (e.g. woodland).

friction A force between two objects t hat are touching. It usually acts to halogen An element in group 7 ofthe periodic table: fluorine, chlorine.
slow t hings down or prevent movement.
heating A way of transferring energy from hot substances to cooler
fruit (froot) Something used to carry the seeds of flowering plants. Can be ones.
fleshy or dry.
heat resistant A substance that is not easily damaged by heat.
fulcrum A point about which something turns. Another name for a pivot.
herbicide Pest icide that killsplant s. Also called a'weedkiller:
fungicide Pesticide that kills fungi. (herb-iss-ide)
(fung-giss-ide)
hormone A chemical messenger that isreleased from a gland into t he
fuse (fewz) When two t hingsjoin together to become one. blood and carried around t he body.
gamete (gam-meet) A cell used for sexual reproduction.
hydrocarbon A compound containing hydrogen and carbon only.
(hi-drO-car-bon)
gas exchange When one gasis swapped for another.
hygiene Keeping things clean, and killing microorganisms to reduce risk
gene (jeen) Section of the long strand of DNA found in a chromosome,
(hi-jean) of infection.
which contains instructions for a characteristic.
hypothesis An idea about how something works that can be tested using
gene bank Any facility that stores genetic material from different organisms
(hy-poth-uh-sis) experiment s. Plural is hypotheses.
(e.g. seeds, gametes, tissue samples).
immune When a person does not fall ill after infection with a pathogen
genetic engineering [definition needed)
because t heir white blood cells destroy the pathogen quickly.
genetic information The inherited instructions t hat control your characteristics.
immunisation Protecting a person from a particular disease by getting their
(jen-et-tick)
(imm-you-ny-say- body to recognise and attack t he pathogen that causes t he
genetic modification Altering the DNA of an organism. shun) disease.

genetic variation Another term for'inherited variation: implosion An object is destroyed by collapsing in on itself.
(im-plo-shun)
genus (jeen-ous) A group of similar organisms.The genus name isthe first word
in t he scientific name for a species (the second word is t he impulse An electrical signal that travels in the nervous system along
'species name'). Different closely-related species belong to the nerve cells (neurons).
same genus.
impurity An unwanted substance that is found mixed into a useful
germination When a seed st arts to grow. substance.
(jer-min-ay-shun)
incomplete When a substance reacts only partially with oxygen, such as
gland Tissue that makes and releases substances. Glands in the combustion when carbon burns in air producing carbon dioxide, carbon
hormonal system produce hormones that are released into the monoxide and soot (unburnt carbon).
blood.
index A small raised number after a unit or another number to show
global warming Increased warming of the Earth's surface asa result of increased you how many t imes to multiply it by itself. For example 103
amountsof carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in t he means multiply l Otogether 3 times(l Ox l Ox 10).
air.
infectious disease Another term for'communicable disease'.
glucose An important sugar, which is used as a react ant in respiration.lt
ingest To take in something in order to digest it.
is also a product of photosynthesis.
inherit A feature that an organism gets from a parent is inherited.
gradient A way of describing the steepness of a line on a graph in
numbers. It iscalculated by taking the vertical distance between
inherited variation Differences between organisms passed on to offspring by their
two pointsand dividing by the horizontal distance between the
parent sin reproduct ion.
same two points.
insecticide Pesticide that kills insects.
gravitational field The space around any object with mass where its gravity
(in-sect-iss-ide)
attractsother masses.
insulator A material that does not allow somethi ng to pass t hrough it (e.g.
gravitational field The force with which a gravitational field pulls on each heat, electricity).
strength kilogram of mass. The gravitational field strength (g) on Earth is
approximately 10 newtons per kilogram {N/kg). internal energy The energy stored in the movement of part icles. Sometimes
called'thermal energy:
gravitational A name used to describe energy when it is stored in objects in
pot ential energy high places that can fall down. interquartile range The difference between the lower quartile and the upper
(grav-it-ay-shon-al) quartile in a data set: interquartile range = upper quartile-
(po-ten-sha/1) lower quartile.

gravity The force of attraction between any two objects.The Earth is inverse proportion A relationship between two variables where one variable
very big and so has strong gravity that pulls everything down doubles when the other halves. We say that one variable is
towards it. inversely proportional to the other.

greenhouse effect The warming effect on t he Earth's surface caused by ion (i-on) An atom that hasa tiny electrical charge.
greenhouse gases absorbing energy emitted from the warm
surface of the Eart h and re-emitting it back to the surface. ionic bond (i-on-ick) A strong force between oppositely charged ions.
ionic compound A substance containing ions from two or more elements. metal Any element that is sh iny when polished, conducts heat and
(i-on-ick) electricity well, ismalleable and flexible and often has a high
melting point.
journal (scientific) A scientific magazine in which scientists publish their findings
by writing articles called scientific papers. metallic bonding The type of bonding found in metals. We can t hink if it as
positively charged ions in a sea of negatively charged electrons.
kilometresper hour Unit for speed when the distance is measured in kilometres and
(km/h) the t ime is measured in hours. method A description of how an experiment is carried out, written in
simple, well-organised steps.
kinetic energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored in moving
(kin-et-ick) things. metres per second A unit for speed. Someone travelling at 1 m/s coversa distance
(mps) of one metre every second.
latent heat The energy needed to break t he bonds between particles in
melting or evaporating, or the energy released when these microorganism An organism too small to be seen with the naked eye.
bonds form in condensing or freezing.
migration When animals move to different areasdepending on the
lattice structure An arrangement of many atoms or other particles, which are (my-gray-shun) season.
(latt-iss) bonded together in a fixed regular (grid-like) pattern.
miles per hour (mph) A unit for speed. Someone travelling at 1 mph coversa distance
law of conservation The idea that energy can never be created or destroyed. Only of one mile every hour.
of energy transferred from one store to another.
mineral/mineral salt A compound containing an important element (e.g. calcium)
law of conservation A law stating that the massof the reactants in a chemical that is needed in small quantities for health. Plants get their
of mass reaction equals t he mass of the products. mineral salts from the soil, animalsget them from food.

lever A simple machine that consistsof a long bar and a pivot. It can model A way of showing or representing somethi ng t hat helps you to
increase the size of a force or increase the distance t he force think about it or to find out about it.
moves.
moment The turning effect of a force. lt iscalculated by multiplying t he
light A way of transferring energy waves. Light waves can travel force by the perpendicular distance of the force from the pivot.
through transparent materials and through empty space.
monomer A small molecule that can join with other molecules like itself to
limiting factor A variable that prevents the rate (speed) of a process from form a polymer.
becoming any faster.
motor effect The force produced when a wire carrying a cu rrent is placed in a
linear relationship A relationship between variables that produces a straight line magnetic field.
when plotted on a scatter graph.The line does not have to go
through the (0,0) point. nanopartkle A particle of substance with a diameter of 1 - 100 nanometres.

lipid Fats (and oils) are part of a large group of similar substances
called lipids.
load The weight orforce on something. For a machine, the load isthe
weight t hat is being moved.
lung An organ used to take oxygen out of the air and into t he blood.
Lungs also put wast e carbon dioxide into the air.
lymphocyte A type of white blood cell t hat makes antibodies.
machine A device, such asa lever or ramp, which makes it easier to move
something by multiplying a force or a distance.
native Naturally found in a certain area.
native state When a metal is found in the Earth as an element.
natural selection A process in which an organism is more likely to survive and
reproduce than other membersof the species because it
possesses a certain inherited variation.
negative charge The type of electric charge on electrons.
nerve An organ that is made of nerve cells (neurons) that carry
impulses between the spinal cord and all other part sof the
body (not t he brain).

magnetic field The space around a magnet where it can affect magnetic nervous system An organ system that contains the brain, spinal cord and nerves,
materials or other magnets. and carries impulses around the body. This system helps us to
sense and respond quickly to changes inside and outside t he
malleable Able to be beaten and bent into shape. body.

mammal Animal that has hair and produces milk to feed it soffspring. neutral (new-tral) A substance that is neither an acid nor an alkali. It has a pH of?.

mass The amount of matter t hat something is made from. Mass is neutralisation A reaction in which an acid reacts wit h an alkali or a base to
measured in grams (g) and kilograms (kg). Your mass does not reaction produce a salt and water.
change if you go into space or to another planet.
neutron A sub-atomic particle found in an atom's nucleus. It has no
massnumber The number of protons and neutrons in an atom. electrical charge.

mean speed The total distance something travelsdivided by the total time newton(N) The unit for force.
taken is the mean (or average) speed for a journey.
newton metre (N m) The unit for the moment of a force.
median The middle value in a set of numbers that has been written in
order. nitrate (ny-trait) Mineral salt needed by plants to make proteins.

medicine A drug that helps the body to ease t he symptoms of a disease or non-biodegradable Not decomposed (broken down) by organisms in the soil.
(med-iss-in) cure the disease.
non-communicable A disease t hat cannot be passed by the person who has it to
memory cell A type of lymphocyte that is able to produce specific antibodies disease other people around them, such asdiseases caused by poor diet
that will help to destroy a certain pathogen. or unhealthy lifest yle, or diseases that are inherited.

menstrual cycle A series of eventslasting about a month, happening in the non-contact force A force that can affect something from a distance. Examples are
(men-strew-a/} female reproductive system. The cycle causes ovulation and the static electricity, gravity and magnetism.
lining of the uterus is replaced.
non-metal Any element that is not shiny, and does not conduct heat and period A horizontal row in the periodic table.
electricity well.
periodic table A table showing all t he elements in order of atomic number.
non-renewable Any energy resource that will run out because we cannot renew
resource our supplies of it (e.g. oil). persistent A chemical substance that does not get broken down in nature
very quickly is persistent. It st ays around for a long t ime.
normal distribution When many individuals have a middle value for a feature, with
fewer things having greater or lesser values. This sort of data pest Any organism that damages a crop.
forms a bell shape on chartsand graphs.
pesticide Chemical substance that kills pests.
north pole The name for one end of a magnet - the north pole of a magnet (pest-iss-ide)
will point to the Earth's north magnetic pole if the magnet is
allowed to swing freely. phagcx:yte A type of white blood cell that can ingest pathogens.

nuclear energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored inside phloem tissue/vessel Tube made of living phloem cells that transportsdissolved
materials. (flow-em) substances (e.g. sugars) around t he plant.

nucleus(chemistry) The cent ral part of an atom, where protons and neutrons are photosynthesis A process that plants use to make t heir own food. lt needs light
(new-clee-us) found. (fO-tow-sinth-e-sis) to work.

nutrient A substance needed in the diet to provide raw materials for physical change A change in which no new substances are formed (e.g. changes
(new-tree-ent) making new substancesand for energy release. (ti-zi-kal) of state).

offspring The new organisms produced by reproduction. physical model A model t hat you can touch or a model that you could build.
(ti-zi-kal)
ohm (O) The unit for measuring resistance.
physical property A description of how a material behaves and responds to forces
oil (biology) A liquid fat. (ti-zi-kal) and energy. Hardness is a physical property.

orbit The path that one body in space takes around another. pivot A point about which something turns. Another name for
fulcrum.
organ A large part of a plant or animal that does an important job.
Organsare made of different tissues working together. plastic A description of a substance that can be moulded into different
shapes.
organicfarming Producing foods without the use of lots of artificial chemical
substances. pollination The transfer of pollen from an anther to a st igma.
(po/1-in-ay-shun)
organism A living thing.
polymer A substance made up of very long molecules containing
organ system A collection of organs working together to do an important job. repeating groups of atoms.

osmosis The type of diffusion that describes the overall movement of population The number of a certain organism found in a certain area.
(os-mo-sis) solvent molecules in a solution across a partially permeable (pop-U-/ay-shun)
membrane.
positive charge The type of electric charge on the nucleus of atoms.
oxidation Reaction in which a substance gains oxygen.
(ox-i-day-shun) potential difference A way of saying how much energy is transferred by electricity.
(po-ten-sha/1) Energy will only be transferred if there is enough difference
oxidising agent A substance that provides oxygen to oxidise another substance. between the charges in two places to make the charges move
(ox-id-eyes-ing) from one place to the other asa current. Another term for
'voltage'.
oxygen debt An older term for'EPOC:
predation A biotic factor in which an animal (the prey) is killed and eaten
palisade cell Tall cell found in leaves that contains many chloroplasts. by another (the predator).

pandemic An infectiousdisease that spreads to many people in more than predator (pred-att-er) An animal that catches and eatsother animals.
one country in a short time.
probability The likelihood of something happening.
parallel circuit A circuit with branches that split apart and join up again.
product A new substance made in a chemical reaction. In a word
(prod-uct) equation, product sare written on the right side, after the arrow.
parent An organism that has produced offspring.

partially permeable A membrane, such as the cell surface membrane, that lets some property A description of how a material behaves and what it is like.
membrane particles cross through it but not others. Hardness is a property of some solids.

proton A sub-atomic particle found in an atom's nucleus. It has an

particle (part-ick-al) A tiny piece of matter that everything is made out of.
electrical charge of+ 1.
particle model Another term for particle theory.
(part-ick-al) proton number The number of protons in an atom's nucleus. Another term for
atomic number.
particle theory (part- A theory used to explain the different properties and
ick-al) observationsof solids, liquids and gases. puberty (pew-bert-ty) A time during which big physical changes happen in t he body.

pathogen A microbe that causes disease, such aspolio virus, cholera
(path-o-jen) bacterium, malaria protoctist, mould fungus.
peer review An evaluation of the quality of a scientific paper carried out by
other scientists who work in the same area of science.
pulley A simple machine consisting of a wheel that can turn on an axis
with a rope running around it. Using more than one pulley with
a rope allows a force to be multiplied.
quartile The values of one-quarter (lower quartile) and t hree-quarters
(upper quartile) through a set of values that have been
written in order.
ramp A sloping surface. A ramp isa force multiplier: it needs less force root hair cell Cell found in plant roots that hasa large surface area to get
to pull something up a ramp than it does to lift it directly. water out of t he ground quickly.

random When there isan equal chance for one event occurring as there
is for any other events in the same set.
rate The rate at which something happens is its speed.
rate of reaction The speed of a reaction is known as its rate.
sacrificial protection Using a more react ive metal to protect iron from rusting.
salt An ionic compound produced in a neutralisation reaction.
sample A small part of something t hat is being investigated. You use a
sample to draw conclusionsabout what the larger whole is like.

raw material A substance used to make other substances. sand Fine particles of rocks, mainly made of quartz (silicon dioxide).

scientific paper An article written by scientistsand published in a science

reactant (ree-act-ant) A substance that takes part in a chemical reaction. Reactantsare
magazine called ajournal. It is like an investigation report but
written on the left side, before the arrow, in a word equation.
usually shows the resultsand conclusions drawn from many
Graph showing the changes in energy of reactants and experiment s.
reaction profile
products during a react ion.
seedling A newly germinated plant.
reactive A substance that reacts with many other substances or reacts
selective breeding When humans choose an organism that has a certain
(ree-ak-tiv) very easily is reactive.
characteristic and breed more of these organisms, often making
that chosen characteristic more and more obvious.
reactivity series A list of metals that shows them in order of their reactivity, with
the most reactive at the top.
selective (herbicide) A herbicide t hat only ki lls certain types of plants.
receptor cells Cells t hat detect stimuli, such as cells in the eye that detect
sense organs Organs that contain receptor cells, such as the eye, ear, nose
(re-sep-tor) changes in light.
and skin.
recycling Using a material again, often by melting it and using it to series circuit A circuit in which there isonly one loop of wire.
(ree-sy-cling) make new objects.
sex chromosome Chromosome that determines the sex of an organism. In
redox reaction A reaction in which one reactant is reduced and anot her is (krow-mO-sOwm) humans, males have one X sex ch romosome and one Y sex
oxidised. chromosome, while females have two Xs.

reduced If a substance has lost oxygen then it hasbeen reduced. sexual reproduction Reproduction t hat needs two individuals to produce a new
(ree-prod-uck-shun) organism of the same type.
reducing agent A substance that removes oxygen from another substance.
significant figure The first significant figure in a number is the digit with the
redox reaction A reaction in which oxidation and reduction occur. highest place value, the second significant figure has the second
highest place value and so on.
references Acknowledgement of any outside sources of information used
when writing a scientific paper. solar energy Energy from the Sun.

reflect To bounce off a surface inst ead of passing through it or being soluble Describes a substance that can dissolve in a certain liquid.
absorbed.
solution When a substance has dissolved in a liquid. Solutionsare
refracted A light ray that has changed direct ion asit passed from one (sol-oo-shun) transparent.
medium to another.
sound Vibrations in a solid, liquid or gas that are passed on asa wave.
relationship A link between two variables, so that when one thing changes
so does the other. Best seen by using a scatter graph. Also called sound waves A wave isa way of transferring energy. A sound wave is
a 'correlation'. vibrations in particles of a solid, liquid or gas, which are detected
by our ears and 'heard' as sounds.
relative (speed) The speed of one object compared to another- both objects
could be moving. south pole The name for one end of a magnet.

relay A switch that is turned on and off without a person touching it.
One type of relay uses a small current to make an electromagnet
closet he contacts in a circuit that carries a much larger current.
renewable resource An energy resource that will never run out (e.g. solar power).
species (spee-shees) or A group of organisms t hat can reproduce with each other to
(spee-sees) produce offspring that will also be able to reproduce.
specific heat capacity The energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1•c.

replicate To make copies. Viruses replicate (make copies of t hemselves) specular reflection When light is reflected evenly, so t hat all reflected light goes off
when they enter a living host cell. (speck-you-Jar) in the same direction. Mirrors produce specular reflection.

resistance A way of saying how difficult it is for elect ricity to flow t hrough
something.
resistor A component t hat makes it difficult for electricity to flow.
Resist ors are used to reduce the size of t he current in a circuit.
resource Something needed by an organism. For example, plants need
(rez-ors) light asa resource and animals need food asa resource.
response A reaction to something (e.g. t he release of hormone by a gland
isa response to another hormone in the blood).
resultant (force) The difference between forces in two opposite directions.
reversible reaction A chemical reaction that can easily be reversed.
speed How fast somethi ng is moving. Often measured in metres per
second {m/s), miles per hour (mph) or kilometres per hour
(km!h).
speed- time graph A graph that shows the speed at different timesduring a
journey. Horizontal lines show constant speeds, and sloping
lines show accelerations.
spinal cord The large bundle of nerves that runs through the vertebrae
(backbone). Nerve cellsin the spinal cord carry electrical
impulses to and from t he brain to many other part sof the body.
standard form A very large or very small number written as a number between
1 and 10multipliedbya power of 10.Ax 10"whereA is between
1 and 10 and n is the power of 10.
starch A type of insoluble carbohydrate found in plants. The glucose unbalanced (forces) When two forces act ing in opposite directionson an object are
made in photosynthesis is used to make starch. not the same strength. Unbalanced forces change the motion
of objects.
state symbol Letters in brackets after a formula in a chemical equation to
show t he state of a substance: (s = solid, I = liquid, g = gas, aq = Universe All the galaxies and t he space between them.
dissolved in water).
unreactive A substance that react s with few other subst ances, or reacts
static electricity A positive or negative charge on an insulating material caused (un-ree-yak-tive) very slowly or not at all.
when rubbing transfers electrons from one material to another.
upthrust A force that pushes things up in liquids and gases.
sterilisation Making somethi ng free from living microorganisms (usually by
killing t hem). vaccine A substance int roduced into the body to make a person
immune to a certain pathogen.
stimuli Changes inside and outside t he body that the body detects and
(stim-you-Jie) responds to. variation The differences between t hings.
(vair-ee-ay-shun)
stoma A tiny hole in a leaf through which gases can diffuse into and
(sto-ma) out of the leaf. Plural isst omata. variety A group of plants that has different characteristics from other
plants of the same species.
strain energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored in stretched or
squashed things that can change back to t heir original shapes. villus A small finger-like part of the small intestine. These increase t he
Another name for'elast ic potential energy: surface area so that digested food is absorbed more quickly.
Plural is villi.
sub-atomic particle The smaller particles of which atoms are made (electrons,
protons, neutrons). virus A non-living particle that is formed from an outer protein coat
(vy-rus) surrounding genetic material. It can change how a living cell
sugar A type of small, soluble carbohydrate molecule. Glucose and functions when it entersa cell and causes t he cell to make
sucrose are an examples of sugars. copies of the virus.

superposition When two waves meet and their effects add up or cancel out. volt (V) The unit for measuring voltage.
(soup-er-poz-ish-un)
voltage A way of saying how much energy is transferred by electricity.
surface area The total area of all t he surfaces of a three-dimensional object.
voltmeter A piece of equipment that measures how much energy is being
surface area : volume The surface area of a t hree-dimensional object (such as an transferred by a current.
ratio organism) divided by it s volume. Also written as SA:V ratio.
vulcanisation When rubber isheated with sulphur. The sulphur forms cross-
sustainable Developing the things humans need, without destroying links between the rubber molecules, changing the material's
development habitats and ecosystems. properties.

symbol equation A way of writing out what happens in a chemical react ion using water resistance A force that slows things down that are moving through water.
(eck-way-shun) symbols to represent the substances involved. It iscaused by frict ion and by the object pushing the water out
of the way.
symptom Changes in the way the body works when it is affected by a
(simp-tom) disease, which help a doctor to work out what is wrong with Watson, James Scientist, who along with FrancisCrick, worked out the structure
you. ofDNA.

systematic error An error that is the same for all readings, such as when weed killer Another name for a 'herbicide:
(sis-tem-at-ick) forgetting to zero a balance before using it to measure a series
of masses. weight The amount of force with which gravity pulls t hings. It is
measured in newtons (N). Your weight would change if you
target cell/organ Cells or organs that respond to hormones by changing what went into space or to another planet.
they are doing.
white blood cell A cell found in the blood t hat helps to destroy pathogens.
temperature How hot something is, usually measured in degrees Celsius.
Wilkins, Maurice Scientist whose experiments produced evidence to support our
terminal velocity A maximum speed reached by a falling object. This happens current understanding of the struct ure of DNA.
when the air resistance has increased to the point where it
balances the weight of the object. wilting When a plant droops because it has too little water.

testis A male reproductive organ. Produces sperm cells. Plural = testes.
thermal Breaking down a compound into simpler substances using heat.
decomposition
thermal energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored in hot objects.
The hotter something is the more thermal energy it has.
thermite reaction Highly exothermic displacement reaction between aluminium
and iron oxide t hat produces molten iron.
word equation An equation in which t he names of the reactant(s) are written
(eck-way-shun) on the left side, t here is an arrow pointing from left to right, and
the names of the product(s) are written on the right side:
reactant(s) ~ product(s)
A word equation isa type of model.
work The energy transferred when a force moves an object. It is
calculated using t he size of the force and the distance moved by
the force.The unit for work is the joule (J).

tissue A part of an organ that does an important job. Each tissue is xylem tissue/vessel Tube that carries water (and dissolved mineral salts) in plants. It
(tish-you) made up of a group of the same typeofcells all doing the same (zy-lem) is found in stems and rootsand is made of xylem cells.
job.
yield The amount of useful product that is obtained from a crop.
transfer When energy moves from one place to another.
zygote (zY-goat) Another term for'fertilised egg cell:
transgenic An organism is transgenic if genetic modification has added
DNA from another species into it.
 H
1

hydrogen
He
2

helium
•
3 4 D metal 5 6 7 8 9 10
Be D sem i-metal
c Ne
Li D non-metal
8 N 0 F
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg AI Si p s Cl Ar
sodium magnesium alum inium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti v Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon

55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta w Re Os lr Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium lanthanum hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon

87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Me Lv Ts Og
francium radium actinium n.rtherfordum dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium nihonium fterovium moscovium livermorium tennessine oganesson

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
cerium raseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Th Pa u Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendele.tium nobelium lawrencium
STEM Skills
The STEM pages in each unit focus on key STEM skills. These skills are listed and described below.

STEM skill STEM skill description STEM pages

developing skill
Numeracy and use of Using maths ?H, 71, 7K
maths 88,8C
9A,9C
Generation and analysis Design ways of collecting and analysing data 7F, 7G, 7L
of data to reach answers. 8C, 8J, 8K
9E
Critical analysis and Give reasons why data (or proposed solu- 7C, 7H
evaluation tions) are or are not good enough (e.g. to 8C
answer questions, solve problems). 9G, 91, 9K
Application of Apply knowledge to unfamiliar contexts to 78,70
knowledge reach answers. 8L
Understanding of the principles of science 9A
and mathematics
Communication Use language and maths to communicate 7E, 7G, 7L
ideas effectively. 8E, 8F, 8H, 81, 8J
98
Innovation and invention Combine ideas to reach answers. 7F
8A, 80, 8G
Problem-solving Use reasoning and systematic approaches to ?A, 71, 7J
reach answers. 8H
9F, 9J
 abiotic factors 6, 48 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 72 efficiency 113 f ulcrum 120
abstract models 152 chlorophyll 22 elastic materials 61 f ungicides 28
abundance 48 chloroplast s 22 elastic potential energy 113 f using of gametes 8
acceleration 110, 159 chromosom es 12, 13 electric current s 130-1
accident al bias 35 sex chromosomes 13 electric field 129 Galilee Galil ei 146
accuracy 49 classification 7 electric mot ors 139 gametes8
acid rain 68 clea r writing 53 electrical engineering 132 gas exchange 25
adaptations climate change 68 electricians 132 Geiger-Muller detect or 147
organisms 16 collagen 55 electricity 112, 128-9, 130-1 gene banks 17
plants 24-5 coltim eter 131 measuring 131 genes8, 12-13, 14,16-17
add ition polym er 61 combust s 75 working with 132-3 genetic counselling 14-15
add ition polym eri sation 61 communicable diseases 38 electrolysis 107 genetic disord ers 44
aerobic respiration 23 community 49 electrom agnet s 138-9 genetic information 8, 16
aggregate 65 compa rison of syst ems 43 electron 77 genetically engineered bacteria 45
air resistance 111 competition 48 electrons 128 genetically modified bacteria 45
algae 32 competition for resources 16-17, 28 endangered species 16 genus5
allergies 55 composite materials 64-5 endothermic reactions 61, 65, 79, 95 germination 27
aluminium 85 computer games 154-5 energy g land cells 42
amino acids 27 concentration gradient 51 conservation 123 g land s 43
ammeter 131 concrete 65 from chem ical reactions 78-9 g lass recycli ng 70
amperes 131 recycling 71 resou rces 112 g lobal warming 33
analogy 152 conservation of energy 113, 123 storage 113, 127, 144 g lucose 22
animal smuggling 54 continuous variation 7, 46 supply 124 g radient 118
animals, treating 41 control syst ems 42-3 transfer in chemical reactions 95 g raphs 150-1
antibiotics 37 convection currents 143 energy transfer 79 drawing 118-19
antibodies 39 correlation 10, 146-7 energy t ransfers 94-5 g ravitational field strengt h 127
Aristotle 22, 146 Crick, Francis 12 environment 6 g ravitational fields 127, 144
Arrhen ius, 5vante 88 criteria for farming 21 environmental factors 6 g ravitational potential energy (GPE)
art and chemistry 89 crops 21, 28, 33 environmental variation 6-7 113, 127, 144-5
aseptic p recautions 45 cross-breeding of crops 29 enzymes 45, 55 g reenhouse effect 68
atoms 77 crude oil 61 epid ermis cell s 25 g roup 77
attraction 129 cryst als 59 equations 98-9, 118-19, 150 guard cell s 25
autoimmune d iseases 44 current electricity 130-1 equilibria, chemical! 02-3
average speed 116 cuticle 25 equilibrium 103,121 habit at 48
equilibrium of forces 121 half-life measurement 41
balanced forces 11 0 Dalton, John 63 estimates 10, 48 heat resistant 58
balancing equations 99 Darwin, Cha rles 19 eutrophication 32 heating 112
Bapt ista van HeImont, Jan 22 decimal places 136 evolution 19 herbicides (weed killers) 28
bias 34-5 decomposers 28 exot hermic reactions 61, 65, 79, 95 hormonal system 43
biod egradability 69 deficiency diseases 50 explosions 74-5 hormones43
biodiversity 17,49 deformation 113 explosives 73, 88 humans in space 140
biomagnification 69 demolition 73 extinction 16-17 hydroca rbon 79
bionic ears and eyes 158 densit y 143 resto ring species 20 hygiene 37
biotic factors 6 diagnosis 40 extracting metals 84-5 hypothesis 62
bonds 59 diet 37 eyes 158 Hyung-ln Moon 63
bones difference91, 142-3
d inosaurs 5 diffusion 25, 51 farming21 immunisation 37
hum an 7 dinosaurs 5 farming problems 32-3 immunity39
brittle materials 58 discontinuous variation 7 fat s 26 implosion 73
Buckland, William 5 diseases 37, 38-9 ferment ers 4 5 impulses42
treating 44-5 fertili sation 8 impurities 68
carbohydrates 26 displacement 116 fertili sers 28, 32 in equilibrium 121
carbon capture technology 68, 106 displacement reactions 82-3 fibres 64 incomplete combustion 68
carbon dioxide 25 dissipated energy 113 fields 144-5 index numbers 100-1
causal link 148 distance multipliers 120 finite resources 70 infectious diseases 38
cause and effect 146-7 distance-time graphs 116, 150 flammable74 ingestion 39
cell division 13 distribution 49 fluid s 111 inheritance 11
cells 5, 25 DNA5,12-13 food webs 17 inherited variation 8-9
cellulose 26 drag 111 force fields 126-7 insect pest s 28
cement65 dynamic equilibrium 103 force multiplier 120 insecticid es 28
cent ral nervous system 42 forces 110-11 insulat ors 58
ceramics 58-9 ears 158 t urning 120-1 intentional bias 34-5
changing rates 97 eclipses 152-3 form ulae98 internal energy 113
charact eristics of an o rganism 6 ecological audits 30-1 fossil f uel 112 International Union for Conservation
chemical equations 98-9 ecology 48-9 Franklin, Rosalind 12 of Nature (IUCN) 30

lljtr'"''"'. ."
chemical reactions 22-3, 74, 78-9,95 ecosystem 16 f rescos 104 interquartile range 46, 47
effectors 42 f riction 110 inverse proportion 149
ionic bond 91 normal distribution 9, 46 relative speeds 117 va lidity 35
ionic compounds 91 nucl ear energy 113 relays 138 va riation 5
ions90-1 nucleus (of an atom) 77, 90, 128 renewab le resources 113 environmental6-7
iron84 nucleus (of a cell) 8, 13 replicating viruses 44 inherited 8-9
numbers 136-7 repul sion 129 va riety of crops 33
j ournals, scientific 5 nutrients 32 resistance, electrical1 34-5 va riety of p lants 29
resisto rs 134 veterinary science 40-1
kilo m etres per hour 116 o bjective 1OS resources 6 vets 40
ki netic energy 112 offspring 8 renewa ble 113 virt ual reality 154
Kwolek, Stephanie 62 ohms 135 resultant force 110 virus40
o ils 26 results 62 voltage 91, 131
landfill sites 70 o rganicfarming 21, 36 reversible reaction 102 volts 131
lat ent heat 142 osmosis 51 root hair cells 24 vulcanisation 60
latt ice structure 59 oxidation 76 rounding numbers 136-7
law of conservation of mass 80, 99 oxidi sing agent 78 Wallace, Alfred Russel 19
levers 120 salt 98 water 24
Iife expectancy 3 7 palisade cells 25 salty seas 18-19 Wat so n, James 12
light 25 pandemics 52 samp les 10, 48 wave mod els 153
limiti ng factor 22 paper recycling 71 scientific j ournals 5, 62 weather co ntrol92-3
linear relationship 148-9 parent s 8 scientific papers 5, 62 weather co ntrol engineer 92-3
lipids 26 partially permeable membranes 51 seeds 27 weed kill er (herbicid es) 28
load 120 particle model 75 selective b reeding of crops 29 weight of t he o bject 127
lymphocytes 39 particl e t heory 152 selective herb icides 28 white blood cell 39
pat hogens 37, 38 sense organs 42 Wilkins, Maurice 12
machines 122-3 peer reviews 62-3, 157 separati ng charges 128 w ilts 24
McNamara, DrTracy40 percentage change 80-1 sex chromosomes 13 word eq uations 98
magnetic field s 126 percentage gain or loss 80 sexual reproduction 8 work 123
magnetism 138 periodic ta ble 77 ships 114-15 writing cl early 53
malleable94 period s 77 significant figu res 137
Mars mission 125 pesticides 28, 32-3 solar energy 112 yield28
ma ss number 77 pests of crops 28 solvent 51
mat erials phagocytes 39 sound 113 zygote 8
choosing 66-7 phloem vessels 23, 26 space flight 140 zylem vessels 24
failures 72 photosynthesis 22, 23 species 5, 48
management 86-7 physical changes 74, 94-5 specific heat capacit y 143
new 57 physical environmental facto rs 6 speed 111, 116-17, 159
p roblems with 68-9 physical m od el 152 speed limits 160
mat erials manager 86 physicist s 141 speed-time g raphs 119
materials science 66 physics research 156 spinal co rd 42
mean 10 pivot 120 standard form 100-1
mean speed 116 plant s starch 26
median 10, 46 ad aptations 24-5 state symbols 65, 98
medicines 44 products 26-7 static electricit y 128-9
memory cells (lymphocytes) 39 protection 30-1 statistics 10-1 1
metallic bonding 90 reactions 22-3 sterilisation 45
metals plastic materials 61 sti muli 42
cond uctivity 91 Plot, Robert 5 sto mat a 25
extraction 84-5 polymers 26, 60-1 strain energy 113
recycli ng 70 recycling 71 sub-ato m ic pa rticles 77
method62 population size 48 surface area 24, 97
metres per second 116 positive charges 128 surface area:volume (SA:V) 50-1, 97
m iles per hour 116 potential difference 91, 142 sustainable development 33
m ineral salts 24 predation 48 symbol equations 22, 98
m inerals84 pressure 73, 75 symptoms of disease 38
mode 10 pressure d ifference 143 syst ematic error 35
models 152-3 probability 1D-1 1 syst ems
motor effect 139 inheritance 11 comparing 43
movem ent 110-11, 112-13, 122-3 products of a reaction 22 hormonal43
moving t hings 109 proportional relationship 148-9 nervous 42
m uscl e cell s 42 proteins 27
proton number 77 t arget cells 43
nanoparticles 108 protons 77, 90, 128 t arget o rgans 43
native species 16 pulleys 122 t eamwork 157
native state 84 t eeth 56
natural selection 18-19 quartil es 46-7 t emperat ure differences 142
negative charges 128 t erminal velocity 11 1
nervous system 42 ramps 122 t hermal d ecomposition 16-17
neurons 77 random sa mpling 35 t hermal energy 113
neutralisation 79 rates of reaction 22, 78, 96-7 t herm ite reaction 82
neutralisation reaction 98 raw material s 61,86 t op speed 111
neutrons 90, 128 reactants (raw mat erials) 22 t oxic substances 69
newt on metres 121 reaction, chemical! 02 transferring energy 113
Newton, Sir Isaac 146 reaction p rofi le 95 tra nsgenic bacteria 45
Newton's Third Law 147 reactivity 76-7,95 tra nsgenic o rganisms 44-5
nitrates 27 reactivity series 76, 82 t urning forces 121
No bel, Alfred 88 receptor cells 42
non-biodegradable 69 recycling 70-1 unba lanced forces 110
non-communicab le diseases 38 reducing agent 84 unreactive materials 58
non-contact force 126 reduction 84
non-renewable resources 112 references 62 vaccines 39, 44
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