International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks 10 (2022) 97–112

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks

journal homepage: http://www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/
international-journal-of-geoheritage-and-parks/

Therapeutic plant landscape design of urban forest parks

based on the Five Senses Theory: A case study of Stanley Park
in Canada
Mei He a,c, Yiyang Wang a, William J. Wang a, Zhong Xie a,b,⁎
a
Multidisciplinary Institute of Natural Therapy, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada
b
Energy, Mining and Environment, National Research Council Canada, 4250 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, Canada
c
Jiangxi Academy of Forestry, 1629 Fenglin West Street, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: As an important part of urban development, urban forest parks (UFPs) are critical community
Received 14 December 2021 resources for supporting physical activity of people of all ages, and are also crucial for
Received in revised form 20 February 2022 connecting people to nature, specifically for mental health benefits. During the COVID-19 pan-
Accepted 24 February 2022
demic, urban parks have experienced exponential increases in the volume of users as people
Available online 1 March 2022
have sought ways to enjoy green spaces and their benefits safely. As the park environment pro-
vides a pleasant, healthy and comfortable atmosphere for people of all ages, UFPs have a vital
Keywords: impact on human health, which has been recognized by more and more people all over the
Therapeutic landscape
world. The five senses, seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting, are the most direct
Urban forest parks
ways that humans perceive external information and assess experiences. Notably, Canada has
Five senses theory
Stanley Park a strong presence in and a long history of designing and conserving UFPs. Therefore, we
used Stanley Park in Canada as a case study to analyze the therapeutic functions of and design
methods for plant landscape in UFPs. We conducted an on-site survey of tourists to investigate
their perception, level of satisfaction, possible inadequacies, and suggestions regarding poten-
tial therapeutic plants in Stanley Park. The results show that the high plant diversity in the
park has created a functional therapeutic landscape that can be perceived by the five senses.
The overall satisfaction level of visitors and their dependency on these therapeutic landscape
components are high. The inadequacies are relatively simple vegetation structure and lack of
wetland plants. The plant species in Stanley Park were categorized according to their sensory
influences. Based on the survey results and the literature, we have provided feasible recom-
mendations for the design and management of therapeutic landscapes in UFPs.
© 2022 Beijing Normal University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

As an important part of urban green space systems, urban forest parks (UFPs) play an important role in beautifying the city-
scape and enhancing the quality of urban ecosystems (Taplin, 2002). Urban parks and green spaces are called "the heart of a city",
which are essential to alleviate ecosystem degradation caused by human disturbances, and maintain the overall ecological balance
(Chen, Qi, & Qiu, 2018). Due to an increase of the ageing and suboptimal health population, the relationship between UFPs and
human health has attracted increasing attention in public and academia. People enjoy the beautiful scenery in urban parks and

⁎ Corresponding author at: Multidisciplinary Institute of Natural Therapy, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
E-mail address: Zhongxie@ubc.ca (Z. Xie).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgeop.2022.02.004
2577-4441/© 2022 Beijing Normal University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M. He, Y. Wang, W.J. Wang et al. International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks 10 (2022) 97–112

are provided with health benefits. As an important element of urban parks and green spaces, plant landscapes could benefit peo-
ple's physical health by increasing surrounding negative air ions and oxygen released, as well as reducing harmful particulate mat-
ters and noises. Exposure to UFPs enables people to do more physical activities, which can significantly prevent obesity and
decrease the incidence of chronic medical conditions (Cohen, 2014; Liu, Li, Li, & Zhang, 2017). Moreover, it is shown that the
unique experience such as “serene”, “space” and “refuge” that people perceived in urban parks significantly increase mental res-
toration (Peschardt & Stigsdotter, 2013). Many studies have suggested that, unlike the artificial environment, natural environ-
ments, including forests, could restore physical strengths or provide mental relaxation (Hartig & Staats, 2006). Therefore,
landscape design that focuses on the positive effect of plants on health improvement in UFPs provides strong ornamental and con-
valescent functions, which have become increasingly important and irreplaceable for urban residents.
In Canada and worldwide, people are increasingly aware of the importance of urban parks as essential places for conservation,
recreation, education, as well as for people's mental and physical well-being. The COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted the
significance of accessing nature and outdoor spaces for all groups of people, regardless of where they live, work, and play. Due to
the unpredictability of the pandemic, followed by social distancing, lockdown, and restrictions to visit indoor places, adverse phys-
ical and mental health effects on people have increased, especially for marginalized groups and people with pre-existing psycho-
logical health disorders (Moreno et al., 2020). Studies have shown that forest experiences may potentially reduce perceived
anxiety and levels of depression (Zabini et al., 2020). Thus, by increasing social interaction and providing safe outdoor activities,
open green spaces play a critical role as a buffer area in maintaining a pre-COVID life and offer an effective and affordable ap-
proach to enhance people's well-being (Xie, Luo, Furuya, & Sun, 2020). Additionally, urban parks also promote diversity, inclusive-
ness, and social cohesion by bringing communities together in common places for shared goals (Powers et al., 2021).
Stanley Park is the first, largest, and most beloved UFP in Vacouver. It is a magnificent green oasis amid the urban landscape of
Vancouver and is called the "natural oxygen bar" due to its significant ecological function. The perfect integration of city and na-
ture attracts a large number of tourists every year. As one of the largest urban parks in North America, Stanley Park has rich plant
landscapes, including native forest vegetation and late plantation.. Various plant configurations have formed a variety of landscape
structures with vital health-improving effects, which is worthy of study for future reference.

2. Related concepts

2.1. Urban forest parks

UFPs are the main component in urban greenspaces and are essential for the urban ecosystem and landscape. They meet the
leisure needs of urban residents and provide places for rest, sightseeing, exercising, socializing, and cultural activities. With the
development of urban tourism, modern UFPs serve not only local residents but also foreign visitors.
As an important aspect of urban greenery, UFPs can be viewed as "the lung of the city" and "the oxygen bar of city". Some
studies have shown multiple benefits of nature and parks through their preventative and restorative impact upon human health
and well-being, as well as their functions in conserving biodiversity (Keniger, Gaston, Irvine, & Fuller, 2013; Sandifer, Sutton-Grier,
& Ward, 2015).

2.2. Therapeutic plant landscape

The concept of the therapeutic landscape was first introduced to define places with natural and historical features from the
perspective of maintaining health and well-being (Velarde, Fry, & Tveit, 2007). This type of landscape is generally a plant-
dominated environment purposefully designed to facilitate interaction with the healing elements of nature that promote
human health and well-being. Some examples of the therapeutic landscapes include healing gardens, restorative landscapes,
and other green spaces. Notably, the term therapeutic plant landscape in this article is defined based on the concept of therapeutic
landscape.
Therapeutic plants can be defined as plants that possess therapeutic properties and positively affect people's physical and psy-
chological conditions by stimulating their different senses. Therapeutic plant landscapes is an important design element in ther-
apeutic landscapes. Plants with different health-improving functions are distributed and arranged in this environment in a
manner that integrates science and art. Therapeutic plant landscape designs are nature-based and ecologically friendly to promote
humans' health conditions and ensure the sustainability and resilience of greater ecosystems.

2.3. Five Senses Theory

The five senses (sight, smell, taste, hearing, and touch) are generated by the eyes, nose, tongue, ears and skin. The sense organs
transport information to brain to help people understand and perceive the external environment. Moreover, the five senses are
important channels for us to communicate with the outside world. Human beings' five senses constitute their own perceptual
body. Through these senses, human beings can understand and experience the external world, and furthermore produce a certain
behavior. Thus, the Five Senses Theory is a good technique to understand how therapeutic landscapes can be designed for gener-
ating and promoting humans' multi-sensory experiences.
All landscapes can stimulate the five senses, however, therapeutic plant landscapes do at a greater degree than others. In the
design of therapeutic plant landscapes, plants and other design elements are specially selected with the intention of providing

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Fig. 1. Relationship between plants and human health (adapted from Zhang et al., 2019).

experiences for the five senses organs. For example, color, visual, texture, form, movement, light and shadow of plants all stimu-
late the sense of sight, the use of aromatic plants can stimulate the sense of smell, wind rushing through the leaves, knocking
stems together or rustling grasses bring sound to therapeutic plant landscape, the taste-buds can tingle from edible fruits, vege-
tables, herbs, and spices in a therapeutic plant landscape, and some plants are chosen for their durability and textural variety all
stimulate the sense of touch.
As an indispensable element in the landscape, plants play a positive role in promoting people's physical and mental health. In
the long process of human evolution, people and plants have formed an inherently close relationship of mutual influences and
restrictions (Zhang et al., 2019). Plants have the functions of cooling and humidifying, sterilizing and repelling insects, fixing car-
bon, releasing oxygen and increasing negative air ions. Healthy plants can also provide human beings with a healthy environment.
The colorfulness and beneficial volatiles of plants can promote physical and mental health of humans. However, it is notable that
certain plants can also produce harmful substances and adversely affect human health (Fig. 1).
As shown in Fig. 1, plants release substances beneficial to human health. Moreover, the positive stimulations caused by color,
morphology, and texture improve people's physical and psychological conditions. In terms of indirect benefits, plants regulate the
temperature and moisture levels, purify the environment, fix nitrogen, and release oxygen and negative air ions. The compounds
released that have negative impact on humans include glycosides, alkaloids, phenols, and some toxic proteins released from the
roots, stems, leaflets, or flowers. These substances could cause allergies or other diseases.
The impact of plants on human health in UFPs is mainly reflected in the following two aspects:

(1) Plants provide people with direct sensory effects (sight, taste, hearing, smell, and touch) to alleviate people's physiological,
emotional, and psychological pressures.
(2) Plants improve the surrounding air quality by releasing oxygen, absorbing pollutants, and inhibiting the growth of bacteria
and viruses. The environmental temperature and humidity are adjusted by plants' transpiration, enhancing the comfort
level and indirectly affecting human health through improving the surrounding environment.

We should fully understand the featured functions and habits of plants and the relationship between plants and human health
to develop a science-based and applicable landscape design, especially for therapeutic plant landscapes.

Fig. 2. Aerial view of Stanley Park (photo retrieved from Vancouver Park Board).

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Fig. 3. The survey sites in Stanley Park.

Note: Map retrieved from the City of Vancouver website.

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Study area

Located in the heart of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Stanley Park is one of the most famous urban parks in the world.
It covers 405 ha, is the third largest one among urban parks in North America (Pregitzer et al., 2019). Over 8 million visitors are
attracted to the park annually (Chiu, 2017). The park is surrounded by water on its three sides, including Burrard Inlet and English
Bay. Typical west-coast natural rainforest with high biodiversity covers around 400 ha of the park. Stanley Park is connected to
the North Shore by the Lions Gate Bridge (Fig. 2). Because of the relationship between its natural environment and cultural ele-
ments developed over time and its relatively large size among Canadian's UFPs, Stanley Park is regarded as one of the greatest
urban natural landscapes worldwide. It provides recreational spaces for people of all ages and backgrounds.
Stanley Park has a long and meaningful history. It was designated as a Canadian National Historic Site in 1988 due to its
unique historical artifacts, famous landmarks, works of art, and monuments. The land was used by indigenous peoples for thou-
sands of years before British Columbia was colonized by the British during the 1858 Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. It was one of the
first areas to be explored in the city. For many years after colonization, the future park with its abundant resources would also
become home to many settlers (Mawani, 2005). After Vancouver officially became a city in 1866, the government decided to
use the land as a park, which was then turned into Vancouver's first park, Stanley Park.
Compared to most parks in the city, Stanley Park has a much higher natural forest coverage, which enriches the biodiversity of
the landscape and provides various benefits for the city's residents. After the thoughtful design and years of construction and im-
plementation, many facilities have been incorporated into the parks as recreational amenities and tourist attractions. Natural land-
scapes and artificial elements create multi-layer, diverse, and stable vegetation communities, which endow the park landscape
with many functions as therapeutic landscapes.

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Table 1
Categories of therapeutic plants and their sensory influences.

Category Types of therapeutic plants Description of the therapeutic plant landscape

Plants with unique foliage, flowers, fruits, and branches. Multiple layers, color compositions, morphologies and textures of plants
Visual
Most plants are visually attractive stimulate people's visual sense
Plants that attract bees and butterflies or plants that produce The landscape produces soundscape and attracts organisms that generate
Auditory
sound sounds, please people's auditory senses
Except for poisonous or thorny plants, most plants can
Tactile The texture and veins of plants stimulate people's sense of touch
stimulate people's sense of touch
Olfactory Plants with aroma The smell and aroma released by the landscape please and benefit people
Gustatory Fruits and vegetables or other edible plants Edible plants are included in the landscape, or places are created for a picnic

3.2. Research methods

The purpose of the field research in the park is to understand the basic conditions of the park, examine the plant species and
landscape configuration, and identify landscape plants that have the potential for therapeutic elements. This paper investigates the
management strategies, design principles, and methods related to therapeutic plant landscapes in UFPs through the lens of the
five senses.

3.2.1. Investigation of plant species

A field investigation was conducted to understand the historical development, current facilities, amenities, and, most impor-
tantly, the plant species composition, so as to document the components of the visitors' experiences based on the five senses.
Five popular sites with a relatively high visitor volume and utilization in Stanley Park were selected for the survey (Fig. 3, Sites
A, B, C, D, and E).
Photographs were taken for identification and analysis purposes. All the data and information were categorized and analyzed
based on the Five Senses Theory (Table 1).

3.2.2. Visitor survey of therapeutic plant landscape

We randomly chose 100 visitors (adults aged over 18 years old, including 50 females and 50 males) for short semi-structured
interviews on June 15th, 2021 and September 15th, 2021(50 visitors per survey). The visitors were asked in detail about their
perceived five-sense experiences regarding plant species and the park. The contents of the mini-interviews were included but
were not limited to (1) basic personal information of the visitors, including age, gender, occupation, physical condition, and ed-
ucation level; (2) the perceived hearing, visual, touching, smelling, and tasting experiences in the park; (3) the demand and sat-
isfaction with the therapeutic plant landscape. The results of the survey were used to evaluate the beneficial functions of plants in
the park and the adequacies/inadequacies of the therapeutic plant landscape.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Investigation and analysis of plants

4.1.1. Basic composition

The forests in Stanley Park comprise 256 ha (65%) out of the 395-ha total land area in 2010 (Fig. 4). This forest is part of the
Coastal Western Hemlock (CWH) Biogeoclimatic Zone and is made up of different tree stands in various successional stages (ages)
and with different species compositions (Worcester, 2010).

Fig. 4. The results of an inventory of land uses in Stanley Park in 2010 (Worcester, 2010).

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Fig. 5. Comparison of tree cover in Stanley Park in 2013 and 2018. (Comeau, 2020).

As shown in Fig. 4, the proportion of forest accounts for more than half of the parkland, laying a solid foundation for the over-
all effect that the park has upon health. The forest provides several environmental and economic benefits, including climate reg-
ulation and valuable ecosystem services. Twenty-seven kilometers of trails meandering through evergreen forests are surrounded
by a rich diversity of plant communities. Centuries-old western red cedars, moss-dripped bigleaf maples, and dense cathedral-like
stands of Douglas firs towering over 50 m tall can be found in this park (Daniels & Russell, 2007; Dunham, O’Dell, & Molina,
2006).
According to the State of the Park Report for the Ecological Integrity of Stanley Park 2020 (SOPEI 2020), the current tree coverage
in Stanley Park is considered sufficient to ensure an increase in tree coverage during that period (average of 1.6% per year). The
total tree coverage was 65.0% in 2013 and 73.0% in 2018 (Fig. 5) (Comeau, 2020). Notably, major increases in blowdown areas
occurred since the 2006 windstorms, and 15,000 trees and shrubs were planted in the two subsequent years to help the forest
recover. Native and planted vegetation provides a great variety of therapeutic plant landscapes.
According to a field investigation (Comeau, 2020), there are at least 266 native plant species, 36 species of marine algae and
seagrasses, and 368 ornamental plant species in the park. The park has rich species diversity and stable plant communities,
forming a diverse landscape. There are 13 major tree species, including 5 conifer, 4 deciduous, and 4 rare species (Table 2).
As a healthful natural source, plant phytoncides are volatile organic compounds released by plants that are beneficial to the
human body. In addition, negative oxygen ions are negatively charged gas ions in the air that are very beneficial to human health
and are known as “air vitamins”. Many plants produce plant phytoncides and negative oxygen ions; they are a natural by-product

Table 2
Major tree species in Stanley Park.

Category English name Species name Regeneration type

Western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla Natural regeneration

Western red cedar Thuja plicata Planted and natural regeneration
Conifers
Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii Planted and natural regeneration
Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis Predominantly planted regeneration
Grand fir Abies grandis Planted regeneration

Bigleaf maple Acer macrophyllum Natural regeneration

Deciduous Black cottonwood Populus trichocarpa Natural regeneration
Chokecherry Prunus virginiana Natural regeneration
Red alder Alnus rubra Planted and natural regeneration

Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia Planted regeneration

Cascara Frangula purshiana Planted regeneration
Rare
Pacific dogwood Cornus nuttallii Planted regeneration
Arbutus Arbutus unedo Planted regeneration

(Adapted from The Trees in Stanley Park: https://vancouver.ca/parks-recreation-culture/trees.aspx)

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Table 3
Classification of representative therapeutic plants in Stanley Park based on the theory of five senses.

Category Representative species

Tsuga heterophylla， Thuja plicata， Picea sitchensis， Abies grandis， Pseudotsuga menziesii， Acer macrophyllum， Acer griseum， Populus
trichocarpa， Prunus virginiana， Albizia julibrissin， Alnus rubra， Taxus brevifolia， Frangula purshiana， Cornus nuttallii， Arbutus unedo，
Corylopsis Sinensis， Enkianthus campanulatus， Davidia involucrata， Camellia ‘Donation’， Ginkgo biloba， Kalmia latifolia， Magnolia
dawsoniana， Pinus ponderosa， Prunus serrulata ‘Ukon’， Pinus jeffreyi， Sorbus vilmorinii， Viburnum plicatum ‘Lanarth’， Lonicera japonica，
Visual
Wisteria floribunda， Robinia pseudoacacia ‘Frisia’. ， Aesculus hippocastanum， Hydrangea macrophylla， Carya ovata， Liriodendron tulipifera，
Ficus carica， Osmanthus heterophyllus ‘Variegatus’， Syringa velutina， Platanus×acerifoia， Malus coronaria， Prunus cerasifera ‘Pissardii’.，
Rubus biflorus，Salix babylonica，Lavandula angustifolia，Mentha canadensis，Rhododendron simsii，Malus pumila，Rosa chinensis，
Rosa rugosa，Tulipa gesneriana，Gardenia jasminoides

Tsuga heterophylla， Thuja plicata， Picea sitchensis， A. grandis， Pseudotsuga menziesii， Magnolia dawsoniana， Pinus ponderosa， Prunus
serrulata ‘Ukon’， Pinus jeffreyi， Sorbus vilmorinii， H. macrophylla， Osmanthus heterophyllus ‘Variegatus’， Syringa velutina， Crataegus
Auditory
monogyna， Rubus biflorus， Salix babylonica， L. angustifolia， Rosmarinus officinalis， Rhododendron simsii， M. pumila， Rosa chinensis，
Rosa rugosa， G. jasminoides

Tsuga heterophylla， Thuja plicata， Picea sitchensis， A. grandis， Pseudotsuga menziesii， A. macrophyllum， A. griseum， Populus trichocarpa，
Prunus virginiana， A. julibrissin， A. rubra， Taxus brevifolia， F. purshiana， C. nuttallii， A. unedo， Corylopsis Sinensis， E. campanulatus，
Davidia involucrata， Camellia ‘Donation’， G. biloba， K. latifolia， Magnolia dawsoniana， Pinus ponderosa， Prunus serrulata ‘Ukon’， Pinus
Tactile jeffreyi， Sorbus vilmorinii， Viburnum plicatum ‘Lanarth’， L. japonica， Wisteria floribunda， Robinia pseudoacacia ‘Frisia’. ， A. hippocastanum，
H. macrophylla， C. ovata， L. tulipifera， F. carica， Osmanthus heterophyllus ‘Variegatus’， Syringa velutina， Platanus× acerifolia， M.
coronaria， Prunus cerasifera ‘Pissardii’.， Salix babylonica，L. angustifolia，M. canadensis，Rhododendron simsii，M. pumila，Rosa chinensis，
Rosa rugosa，Tulipa gesneriana，G. jasminoides

Tsuga heterophylla， Thuja plicata， Picea sitchensis， A. grandis， Pseudotsuga menziesii， Corylopsis Sinensis， Magnolia dawsoniana， Pinus
ponderosa， Pinus jeffreyi， Viburnum plicatum ‘Lanarth’， L. japonica， Wisteria floribunda， Robinia pseudoacacia ‘Frisia’. ， Osmanthus
Olfactory
heterophyllus ‘Variegatus’， Syringa velutina， L. angustifolia， Rosmarinus officinalis， Mentha Canadensis， Rosa chinensis， Rosa rugosa，
G. jasminoides

G. biloba，L. japonica，Robinia pseudoacacia ‘Frisia’. ， C. ovata， F. carica， Osmanthus heterophyllus ‘Variegatus’， C. monogyna， M. coronaria，
Gustatory
Prunus cerasifera ‘Pissardii’.，Rubus biflorus，Rosmarinus officinalis，M. canadensis，M. pumila，Rosa rugosa，G. jasminoides

of plant metabolism. Plant phytoncides and negative oxygen ions eliminate fatigue, enhance physical strength, and purify the air,
representing essential compounds that have beneficial effects on human health. Pine and fir trees release large amounts of plant
phytoncides and negative oxygen ions. These species account for a large proportion of the tree species in Stanley Park (Table 3),
contributing to the health-improving effects of the therapeutic landscapes in the park upon humans.

Fig. 6. Results of visitor survey. (a) Visitors' awareness of therapeutic plant landscapes (n = 100). (b) Visitors' satisfaction with the park's therapeutic plant
landscapes (n = 77). (c) Visitors' perception of the need for therapeutic plant landscapes (n = 100).

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Table 4
Suggestions by respondents to improve the sensory experience of therapeutic plant landscapes.

Category Suggestions

Respondents suggested to:

① Increase the numbers of species and flowering plants, especially those with bright colors and unique characteristics
Visual
② Enrich wetland plant landscape and increase the number of aquatic plant species
③ Enrich the plant configuration of the landscape and create richer types of visually pleasing plants

Respondents suggested to:

Auditory ① Create a rich plant sound landscape with artistic features
② Plant more plants that attract birds

Respondents suggested to:

Tactile ① Add plants with a special touch
② Increase the tactile experience of the wetland plant landscape

Respondents suggested to:

Olfactory ① Increase aromatic plant species
② Avoid the use of pungent odor plants

Respondents suggested to:

Gustatory ① Increase the number of edible plants
② Provide general scientific information on edible plants to guide visitors' taste experience

4.1.2. Plant classification based on the five senses

Fifty plant species were recorded in the field investigation in the main scenic spots in the park. They were classified based on
their sensory influence on humans (Table 3).
The results of the investigation and classification show that the majority of plants in Stanley Park are beneficial regarding their
sensory influences on the human physiological system. These plants have many benefits, i.e., they are ornamental and visually at-
tractive as greenery, can purify air, some are edible or have medicinal functions, and many have ecological value. All plants pro-
vide visual and tactile stimulation, especially those with bright leaves and flowers or unique textures of leaves and branches.
There are relatively few plant species that stimulate people's hearing, smell, and taste. Plant species with specific functions can
be selected in landscape design according to their sensory influence to meet specific needs.

4.2. Analysis of the visitors' perceived experiences, demand, and satisfaction

The visitors' experiences related to various therapeutic plants were analyzed. The results show that visitors desire to
be exposed to a therapeutic plant landscape, and their five-sense experiences are closely related to the quality of the
therapeutic plant components in the park. These results imply that the potential five-sense stimulations offered by the
plant landscape should be considered in the design and planning of UFPs to enhance the visitors' overall experiences
and benefits.
Among the 100 surveyed visitors, 35 indicated they were familiar with the concept of therapeutic plant landscape, 42 had
heard about it, and 23 did not know it(Fig. 6a). In terms of the level of satisfaction with the therapeutic landscape design in
the park, among 77 visitors who were familiar with the concept, 17 indicated a high satisfaction, 38 were satisfied, 11 were un-
satisfied, and 3 were not concerned with the experience (Fig. 6b). Regarding the perceived need for a therapeutic plant landscape,
28 out of 100 surveyed visitors believed it was very necessary to have therapeutic plants as part of their park experience, 62 be-
lieved it was necessary, 4 stated it was unnecessary, and the remaining 6 had no comment on it (Fig. 6c). These outcomes show
that the majority of visitors are satisfied with the current therapeutic plant landscape in Stanley Park and believe this landscape is
necessary.
The suggestions provided by the visitors to improve the sensory experience of the therapeutic plant landscapes in the park
were summarized in Table 4.

4.3. Analysis of therapeutic plant landscapes

Stanley Park has a highly functional landscape due to its natural old-growth forests and comprehensive park design
and implementation. It has high biodiversity, landscape structural richness, and provides excellent sensory experiences
through the reorganization of natural and artificial elements. Various plant landscapes, scattered native plants,
and planted vegetation communities have been created by combining natural and artificial elements, enhancing
tourists' sensory experiences (Fig. 3). The undulating terrain in the park provides different landscape spaces, and various
gardens and the skilled use of plants creates a unique landscape with various health effects, stimulating the tourists'
five senses.

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Fig. 7. Therapeutic plant landscape in the Rose Garden based on the visual sense.

4.3.1. Therapeutic plant landscape based on vision

As the main sensory organ for the human to obtain information, vision is the subjective image generated by stimulating the
visual organ through objective things (Spence, 2020). It is the main means of recognition and cognition. Green is an ideal color
for visual nerve regulation and rest. Research shows that green plants have a great relationship with the recovery speed of con-
valescent personnel (Park & Mattson, 2009). In addition, different colors and forms of plants can trigger people's physiological re-
sponses, producing beneficial health effects. Therefore, in terms of healthy plant landscape design, green should be the main tone,
and different colors should be used for enrichment and decoration, so as to meet the psychological and physiological needs of

Fig. 8. Therapeutic plant landscape in the Shakespeare Garden based on the visual sense.

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Fig. 9. Therapeutic plant landscapes in Stanley Park based on the auditory sense.

different people. The richness of plant species and colors in Stanley Park provides a rich visual experience. Furthermore, the ver-
tical vegetation structure and color combination of plants, small trees, shrubs, and vines create a colorful and natural landscape.
Rich plant species and diverse vegetation patterns provide positive experiences for people with different landscape preferences.
The Stanley Park Rose Garden has over 3500 rose bushes, as well as a stylish west-coast-inspired arbor supporting a combi-
nation of climbing roses and clematis, creating a visually diverse and aesthetic landscape (Fig. 7). In addition, flower beds slope
downward towards the causeway and extend up to the Stanley Park Pavilion, providing showy seasonal colors. The annuals
and perennials blooming from June to October and the flowering bulbs in bloom from March to May also ensure that blooming
flowers are present in many seasons. A great variety of vegetation characteristics and interesting combinations can be found in the
garden, enriching people's visual experiences and inspiring spatial imagination and logical thinking.
Located on the perimeter of the Rose Garden, the Shakespeare Garden has many diverse functions. Forty-five tree species men-
tioned in Shakespeare's works have been planted in the park, and relevant information is provided on the tree trunks (Fig. 8). The
visual stimulation from the trees and their cultural meaning enables visitors to connect with the landscape. This garden is a great
example of visual stimulation of the therapeutic landscape in Stanley Park.

4.3.2. Therapeutic plant landscape based on hearing

Hearing is essential for people to obtain information and fully perceive the surrounding environment. The concept of the
soundscape was first proposed by the Finnish geographer Granö in 1929 (Granö, 1997). Many studies have shown that sound
can evoke many feelings; thus, we should make more use of natural sound to create pleasing auditory landscapes (Irvine et al.,
2009; Schulte & Dubois, 2006; Yang & Kang, 2005). The overall atmosphere of the landscape in national urban parks is static
(Payne, 2008). Therefore, plant landscape design based on sound should attract bees and butterflies so that people can hear
bird calls and humming insects. Adding animals increases the dynamic visual effect of the landscape and enriches the auditory
aspect of the plant landscape.
Because of Stanley Park's rich plant composition, it is home to a diversity of wildlife species, including at least 236 birds. Many
of the plants in Stanley Park attract birds, bees, and butterflies. These plants include Cerasus x yedoensis ‘Somei-Yoshino’ (Fig. 9),
Rosa rugosa, Rhododendron simsii, and other colorful plants. Additionally, there are fragrant plants, such as Syringa velutina,
Lavandula angustifolia, and Lavandula angustifolia, as well as fruiting plants, such as Malus coronaria, Prunus cerasifera ‘Pissardii’,
and Rubus biflorus. In addition, the acoustic vibration generated by the movement of different plants and natural sounds, such
as raindrops falling on plantain, the wind in a pine forest, and the sound of waves, evokes emotional responses in people.

4.3.3. Therapeutic plant landscapes based on touch

Tactile is a physical factor from the outside, which acts on the nerve endings of nerve cells on the skin and triggers the cor-
responding nerve response (Abraira & Ginty, 2013). People constantly make direct contact with the external environment, so as to
resonate with the natural environment. Plants with different textures provide a variety of tactile stimulations. For example, the
flowers of Albizia julibrissin are woolly and soft. In addition, sculptures, rocks, steel frames, and other garden ornaments also en-
rich tactile experiences.

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Fig. 10. Therapeutic plant landscapes in the Rock Garden based on the tactile sense.

The rich plants and various horticultural assemblages in Stanley Park provide a tactile experience for the plant landscape. An
example of a therapeutic plant landscape in Stanley Park based on touch is the Rock Garden located in the southeast corner. It
was created in 1911–1920 by the master gardener John Montgomery using boulders excavated during the construction of the ad-
jacent Stanley Park Pavilion. Visitors can touch the flowers, leaves, fruits, and branches of various plants and different types of
rocks with various shapes (Fig. 10).

4.3.4. Therapeutic plant landscapes based on smell

Plant phytoncides typically have a strong smell. They regulate the neurohumoral fluid and affect the nervous and secretory
systems (Peñuelas & Llusià, 2004). Plant phytoncides are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a strong aroma. Their main components
are terpenes, alcohols, phenols, ketones, and esters (Table 5). In addition, negative oxygen ions released by plants can regulate the
central nervous system, stimulate bone marrow hematopoietic function, reduce blood pressure, kill bacteria, and improve the im-
mune system.
The temperate-zone coastal rainforest in Stanley Park includes Western hemlock, Western red cedar, and Douglas fir, which
are rich in plant phytoncides. These trees create an optimal environment for forest therapy (Fig. 11).

4.3.5. Therapeutic plant landscapes based on taste

Taste is a sense that individuals distinguish the flavour of objects. It is a chemical reaction that makes us have a unique feeling,
induction and understanding of the external world. A therapeutic landscape based on the gustatory sense contains edible fruits
and flowers. Taste often evokes psychological feelings, reminds people of the ups and downs of life, and evokes memories and
emotional responses.
Fruit trees and berry shrubs, such as apples, raspberries, ginkgo and pears, and herbs, such as mint and rosemary, have been
planted in Stanley Park (Fig. 12). Visitors can sample these fruits and berries, increasing the interactive experience between peo-
ple and plants.

Table 5
Components and functions of plant phytoncides.

Category Component Function

Limonene, alpha-Pinene, Myrcene Camphene, Phellandrene, etc.

Terpenes (monoterpenes)
α-Terpinene, Germacrene, Farnesene, etc. (sesquiterpenes)
Alcohols Linalool, Geraniol, Terpineol, Menthol, etc.
Phenols Isoeugenol, Carvacrol, Thymol, etc.
Ketones Camphorquinone, Menthone, Pinocarvone etc.
Esters Ethyl acetate, Cinnamyl propionate, etc.
Anticancer, antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-hyperglycemic, analgesic,
anti-inflammatory
Antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-infection, hepatoprotective
Immuno-modulatory, expectorant, promote digestion, analgesic
Antifungal, analgesic, expectorant, promote digestion, immuno-modulatory
Heat-clearing detoxification, anti-inflammatory

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Fig. 11. Therapeutic plant landscapes in Stanley Park based on the olfactory sense.

Fig. 12. Therapeutic plant landscapes in Stanley Park based on the gustatory sense.

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4.3.6. Inadequacies of therapeutic plant landscapes

The field investigation of the therapeutic plant landscapes in the park and the evaluations by tourists indicate that Stanley Park
has a large variety of plant species and stable plant communities, which endows therapeutic plant landscapes with many health
effects. However, the therapeutic plant landscapes can be improved. There are relatively few aquatic plants with therapeutic
values. Thus, there should be more emphasis on wetland areas and their ecological value.
In addition, there are some potential safety hazards in the therapeutic plant landscape. For example, although children's enter-
tainment areas should stimulate the children's five senses, toxic or thorny plants should not be planted in these areas. There are
relatively few plant landscapes contributing to smell and taste experiences in the park. Also, visitors do not have a deep under-
standing of plant characteristics, in a result, they do not have much knowledge of plant science, nor do they have enough land-
scape experience of plant smell and taste..

5. Principle, method, and strategies of therapeutic plant landscapes

According to our research, we summarized the principles, methods, and strategies for improving the five senses experience of
therapeutic plant landscapes in UFPs.

5.1. Planning and design principles

According to the literature (Deng et al., 2020; Liu, 2013; Seyed-Kalal, 2000; Yang & An, 2016) and the functions of therapeutic
plant landscapes in UFPs, the following principles have been proposed for design.

5.1.1. People-oriented
We should select appropriate therapeutic plants according to the needs of different groups of people to improve their physical
and mental health and to create a healthy environment and pleasant surroundings.

5.1.2. Overall planning

The design should consider the surrounding environment of the urban park, make sure it matches the existing landscape pat-
tern, and takes local conditions into account to create a landscape that focuse on health benefits.

5.1.3. Resource-oriented
The natural and cultural elements should be integrated to create a personalized therapeutic plant landscape, including native
vegetation, natural scenery, healthful plants, folk customs, and other resources.

5.1.4. Sustainable development

It is essential to focus on ecological protection and restoration, maintain species diversity, and create a stable and resilient
plant community for the purposes of maintaining the ecological functions of the landscape, preventing environmental degrada-
tion, and ensuring sustainable development.

5.2. Planning and design methods

The planning and design of therapeutic plant landscapes in UFPs should be based on the principle of maintaining biodiversity
to ensure that visitors can enjoy the scenery in all four seasons and flowers in three seasons. Color therapy, aromatherapy, audi-
tory therapy, taste therapy, and touch therapy should be used to create a healthful plant environment for green, colorful, and
beautiful modern UFPs.

5.2.1. Protection and utilization of native vegetation

Native plant communities are the result of long-term natural selection and are highly adaptable. Local tree species should be
integrated into the landscape. The appropriate utilization and protection of native vegetation results in high adaptability of the
ecosystem. It is also crucial to protect unique geographical and cultural features to form a stable plant community.

5.2.2. Comprehensive use of five senses

The landscape design should meet people's visual preferences. However, people's perception of landscape has multiple aspects.
So the landscape design should be visually please and positively affect people's other feelings. This improves people's perception
of landscape, such as the vegetation structure. Therefore, it is essential for planning and designing therapeutic plant landscapes to
consider the five senses.

5.2.3. Construction of a stable plant community

A stable plant community is a basis for sustainable park development. A sustainable and therapeutic plant landscape can be
created by following the principles of ecology, selecting suitable plant species, and creating a multi-level, multi-structural, and
multi-functional plant community.

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5.2.4. Focus on human elements

The protection of local traditional culture is an important objective in planning and construction of urban parks to represent
the city's image and improve the quality of life. Historical features should be incorporated into the design of a therapeutic land-
scape to focus on human elements and reflect the city's image.

5.3. Strategies for improving the five senses experience of plants and for therapeutic landscape planning and design in UFPs

We recommend the following strategies for improving the therapeutic plant landscapes in urban parks. These suggestions are
based on the design principles of therapeutic plant landscapes addressed in the previous section, the results of the field investi-
gation, and the suggestions provided by survey participants.

5.3.1. Recommended strategies for creating therapeutic plant landscapes based on the visual sense
(1) An increase in vegetation biodiversity

The higher the biodiversity of plants, the greater the visual stimulation is. Moreover, the use of more species will lead to a
variety of plant combinations with higher vertical and horizontal structural diversity. The increased heterogeneity of the plants
enriches the pattern and morphology of the landscape, and improves the visitors' visual experiences.

(2) Taking advantage of the seasonality of plants

Plant color represents the dominant visual influence on visitors. As the seasons change, the different colors in the landscape
showcase the seasonality of nature, which adds high aesthetic value to the landscape and increases the therapeutic experiences
of the visitors. Thus, it is essential to utilize plant species with apparent or subtle seasonal changes in colors and morphology
to increase the ornamental value and attractiveness of the landscape. Additional colors should also be considered while adding
brick, gravel, or stone to the landscape. The designers should strive for a balance between energizing colors and restful, soft colors
to avoid over-stimulation.

(3) Rational design and planning of plant configuration

The rational design of plant composition and structure is vital for the ecological sustainability of the community. A multi-
structural vegetation configuration is recommended with trees in the upper layer, shrubs in the middle layer and grass in the
lower layer.. This design provides an aesthetic landscape with a structural gradient, improving the visual experiences of visitors.

5.3.2. Recommended strategies for creating therapeutic plant landscapes based on the auditory sense
(1) Introduction of natural sounds

People have a positive physical response to natural sounds, which is beneficial to human health. Sound is also an important
feature of the sensory landscape. Aside from the sounds of birds and insects, certain ornamental grasses can also create unique
sounds. The rustling of leaves in the rain is soothing. Moreover, adding wind chimes and water fountains enhances the sounds
of the landscape.

(2) Avoiding undesirable noise

Traffic noise tends to be loud, especially at the interface between roads and parks, and can potentially impact the visitors' au-
ditory experience. The thickness of the vegetation layer can be increased to address this problem. Dense plantings of trees and
shrubs reduce noise transmission. Specifically, plants with large and thick leaves and a compact morphology can be selected to
minimize undesirable noise.

5.3.3. Recommended strategies for creating therapeutic plant landscapes based on the tactile sense
Tactile experiences in the landscape can have therapeutic effects. Designers should use plants with a variety of textures to im-
prove the tactile experiences. For instance, plants with various leaf textures can be incorporated so that visitors can feel soft or
leathery leaves.

5.3.4. Recommended strategies for creating therapeutic plant landscapes based on the olfactory sense
Designers should create an aromatic atmosphere in certain places by increasing the types of aromatic plants. In addition, uti-
lizing tree species that can release a large number of negative oxygen ions and plant phytoncides improves the therapeutic effect
of the environment.

5.3.5. Recommended strategies for creating therapeutic plant landscapes based on the gustatory sense
Planting vegetation with edible parts enables visitors to taste the plants, enhancing the therapeutic effects. However, signage
should be implemented so that visitors can distinguish between edible and non-edible flowers.

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6. Conclusion

UFPs provide citizens with functional and natural landscapes which have multiple psychological and physical benefits. They
are essential components of urban green infrastructures and public open spaces. The design of therapeutic plant landscapes is ex-
tremely important. These landscapes can improve people's living environment, provide them with comfortable and pleasant ex-
periences, and represent an ornamental and high-value aesthetic space. Thoughtful and integrative planning and design strategies
should be applied to the therapeutic plant landscapes in urban parks. Thus, the air and noise pollution caused by the the densi-
fication of urban environment can be buffered, and people can fully enjoy the benefits of plants while conducting leisure and rec-
reational activities in the park.
Rich species diversity and stable plant communities are the solid foundation for Stanley Park to exert its overall health effect of
the park and provide a great variety of therapeutic plant landscapes. Notably, the field study showed that Stanley Park has highly
functional landscapes that can stimulate the tourists' five senses. Moreover, the survey results of tourists show that the majority of
visitors are satisfied with the current therapeutic plant landscape in Stanley Park and believe it is necessary.
The development of UFPs aims to improve the overall experiences and life quality of citizens, strik a balance between the nat-
ural and urban environment, as well as create a sense of community. Thus, it is essential for the design of therapeutic plant land-
scapes in a UFP to integrate important scientific results, consider the essential needs of the communities, adopt a holistic view,
and take advantage of local resources to achieve the sustainable development of the park and the urban ecosystem. The design
of therapeutic landscapes in UFPs should be people-oriented and resiliency-focused, emphasizing ecological functions, and consid-
ering the visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory aspects of plants to improve the physical and mental health of people.
Therapeutic plant landscapes have extremely high value to modern urban residents as well as the greater ecosystem. Mean-
while, people's perception of the landscape has multiple aspects. Therefore, it is necessary for the design and implementation
of therapeutic plant landscapes in UFP to combine science and art based on the five senses theory, which can optimize people's
experiences and meet their spiritual needs. We believe that the future landscape design of UFP will include more and more ther-
apeutic plant landscapes to better play its ecological role and enrich people's experiences.

Credit author statement

All authors have participated in (1) conception and design, or analysis and interpretation of the data; (2) drafting the article or
revising it critically for important intellectual content; and (3) approval of the final version.
This manuscript has not been submitted to, nor is under review at, another journal or other publishing venue.
The authors have no affliation with any organization with a direct or indirect financial interest in the subject matter discussed
in the manuscript.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.

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