SIMPLE TEST OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis Testing – is the process of making inference or generalization on a population based on the results of the
study on samples.
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There are two types of statistical hypothesis:

1. Null Hypothesis (Ho): It is the hypothesis to be tested which one hopes to reject. It shows equality or no
significant difference or relationship between variables.
2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha): It generally represent the idea which the researcher wants to prove.

In doing a research, the first thing you should have is a research problem. From there, you can formulate your null and
alternative hypothesis. Below is the example of a research problem.

PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS OF THE FIRST-BORN AND LAST-BORN CHILDREN

Ho: There is no significant difference in the performance in mathematics of the first-born and last-born children.
Ha: There is a significant difference in the performance in mathematics of the first-born and last-born children.

Stating the null hypothesis is not much of a problem, since we just have to express that the groups being compared are
equal or have no difference at all. But in the case of the alternative hypothesis, we have to consider three things:
1. there is a significant difference between the groups being compared.
2. one group is superior to the other.
3. one group is inferior to the other.

The manner in which the alternative hypothesis is stated determines the type of hypothesis test to be used. If the null
hypothesis is rejected, the alternative hypothesis is accepted, and if the null hypothesis is accepted, it follows that the
alternative hypothesis is rejected. For this reason, all the possible values of the population parameter which are not
included in the null hypothesis should be included in the alternative hypothesis. Rejection of the null hypothesis means it
is wrong, while acceptance of the null hypothesis does not mean it is true, it means that we do not have enough evidence
to reject it. We may have an insufficient number of samples or there is an error in sampling, or some restrictions or the
test used were not followed.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING

To test the hypothesis, we may use a one-tailed test or two-tailed test depending on the alternative hypothesis.
1. One-tailed test: It is a directional test with region of rejection lying either left or right tail of the normal curve.
a. Right directional test: The region of rejection is on the right tail. It is used when the alternative
hypothesis uses comparatives such as greater than, higher than, superior to, exceeds, etc.
b. Left directional test: The region of rejection is on the left tail. It is used when the alternative hypothesis
uses comparatives such as less than, smaller than, inferior to, lower than, below, etc.
2. Two-tailed test: It is non-directional test with the region of rejection lying on both tails of the normal curve. It is
used when the alternative hypothesis uses words such as not equal to, significantly different, etc.

Using the given research problem, let us illustrate the different alternative hypothesis according to the interest of the
researcher.

Research problem 1: Performance in mathematics of the first-born and last-born children.

If the researcher feels that the first-born children perform better in mathematics than the last born children, then the null
and alternative hypotheses could be stated as follows:

Ho: The first-born children perform equally well in mathematics as the last-born children.
Ha: The first-born children perform better in mathematics than the last-born children.

Notice that the null hypothesis implies that the first-born children’s performance is just the same as the performance of
the last born. In other words, their performance in mathematics are equal. This kind of alternative hypothesis requires a
one-tailed, right directional hypothesis test. The advantage of this test over the non-directional test is that, in case the
null hypothesis is rejected, we know which one of the two groups is superior to the other.
If the researcher just wants to know if there is a difference in their performance, then the null and the alternative
hypotheses could be stated as follows:

Ho: There is no significant difference in the performance in mathematics between the first-born and last born
children.
Ha. There is a significant difference in the performance in mathematics between the first-born and last born
children.

While as before, the null hypothesis shows equality of their performance, the alternative hypothesis implies that they are
not equal. This type of alternative hypothesis required a tw0-tailed or non-directional hypothesis test. The disadvantage
of this is that in case the null hypothesis is rejected, we will not be able to tell which group performs better. The only
information we can get is that they perform indifferently in mathematics.

Research problem 2. A Comparative Study on the Consumer’s Acceptance of X and Y Toothpaste.

Ho: The consumer’s acceptance of X and Y toothpaste are the same.

Ha: The consumer’s acceptance of X and Y toothpaste are not the same. (two tailed)

Ho: The consumer’s acceptance of X and Y toothpaste are the same.

Ha: The consumer’s acceptance of X is higher than Y toothpaste (predictive) (one-tailed)

3. Competencies of Nurses from the Government Hospitals and Private Hospitals

Ho: The competencies of nurses from the government hospitals is equal to the competencies of nurses from
private hospitals.
Ha: The competencies of nurses from the government hospitals is not equal to the competencies of nurses
from private hospitals.

Ho: Nurses from government hospitals are as competent as nurses from private hospitals.
Ha: Nurses from government hospitals are more competent than nurses from private hospitals. (predictive)

STATISTICAL ERRORS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

There are two types of possible errors which may be committed in hypothesis testing, the type I and type II errors.
They are best illustrated using the following instances:
“Maria has two suitors, Ricardo and William. Ricardo showers her with gifts, takes her out every weekend for
lunch, and always by her side. On the other hand, William visits her once in a while, gives her gifts only when there
are special occasions, and never brought her out to dine. Maria’s conservative family, believes that William is a good
choice; however she feels otherwise”

If Maria rejects William when he is really a good man, then she commits a Type I error.
However, if Maria accepts William when in fact he is not good, she commits a Type II error.

Type I error is the error committed when the null hypothesis is rejected when in fact it is true and the alternative
hypothesis is false.
Type II error is the error committed when the null hypothesis is accepted when in fact it is false and the alternative
hypothesis is true.
This can best be explained by the table below:
Decision
Facts Accept Ho Reject Ho
Ho is true Correct decision Type I error
Ho is false Type II error Correct Decision

LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
A 5% significance level means that we can accept about 5 chances in 100 that we could reject the null hypothesis
when it should be accepted. Furthermore, a 5% significance level implies that we are 95% confident that we have
made the right decision. The same argument follows for α= 0.01.
 STEPS IN TESTING HYPOTHESIS:
1. Formulate the null and alternative hypotheses.
2. Determine the level of Significance.
3. Choose an appropriate test statistic and determine the critical value of the test statistic.
4. Find the value of the test statistic using the sample data.
5. Make the decision. Reject Ho if the absolute computed value of the test statistic is greater than the absolute
critical value, otherwise accept Ho.
6. Formulate your conclusion.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Inferential statistics deals with the analysis and interpretation of data. This statistics consists of different
statistical tools/ tests used in the analysis of interval, ratio, nominal and ordinal data. These tests are used in
making inferences from or conclusions on larger groups, populations, or more samples. The extent to which the
use of this statistics can be done with accuracy depends on the goodness of samples. The sampling techniques/
procedures are also of great importance with regard to the use of these different statistical tests.

KINDS OF STATISTICAL TESTS

Statistical tests can be grouped into two. The parametric and the nonparametric tests.

The parametric tests. To use the parametric tests, there are some conditions that should be met. The
data must be normally distributed and the level of measurement must be either interval or ratio.

The data are said to be normal when the value of skewness equals zero and the value of kurtosis is 2.65.

The interval data provide numbers that reflect difference among items. With interval scales the
measurement units are equal. Examples are scores of intelligence tests, and time as reckoned from the calendar.
They have no zero value.

The ratio scale is the highest type of scale. The basic difference between the interval and the ratio scales
is that the interval scale has no true zero value while the ratio scale has an absolute zero value. Common ratio
scales are measures of length, width, weight, capacity and loudness and others

The nonparametric tests. The nonparametric tests do not require normality of the distribution. Since
skewness is the measure that will tell whether the data is normal or abnormal. If the value of skewness is either
positive or negative, the distribution is said to be abnormal. Aside from skewness, there is kurtosis that also tells
whether the data is normal or abnormal. If the value of kurtosis is greater than or less than 2.65 then the
distribution is said to be abnormal.

Under these test, the levels of measurement are the nominal and ordinal data.

Nominal data are data such as male and female, yes or no responses, political affiliations like LP, LDP,
Lakas, and religious groupings Christian and non-Christian and other organizations.

Ordinal data are data such as Strongly Agree, Agree, No Opinion, Disagree and strongly
Disagree and also other data which employ rankings.
The Parametric Test
Parametric tests are tests that require normal distribution and the levels of measurement are expressed in
interval or ratio data.

Types of parametric tests are the t-test, z-test, F-test(analysis of variance) for the test of difference and
the r, Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation for the tests of relationship / association, and the tests
for prediction and forecasting are the Simple Linear Regression Analysis and the Multiple Regression Analysis.

Non-Parametric
H-test
U-test