Organising a

2 Statistical Survey
STATISTICAL SURVEY-AN INTRODUCTION

PLANNING THE SURVEY

EXECUTING THE SURVEY

 26 STATISTICAL METHODS

STATISTICAL SURVEY-AN INTRoDUCTION

Data constitute the foundation for statistical analysis. Governments,

business houses and individuals collect statistical data required to carry
out their activities efficiently and effectively. The rate at which statistical
data are being collected is staggering and is primarily due to the
realisation that better decisions are possible with more information. When
statistical data are collected and analysed, it is usually in the context of
populations and their characteristics. It should be noted that a population
is the totality of units under study and a population characteristic is an
attribute of a population unit. Thus, if we are interested in the salaries of
Workers in a particular industry, the population is the totality of these
workers and the characteristic of interest is each worker's salary. In
collecting the salary data we may be interested in other population
characteristics as well, such as age, sex, educational level, etc. In general,
a population unit may have one or more characteristics of interest in a

particular study. The required information or data in a study may be

obtained either through a survey or an experiment.
Statistical surveys are the most popular device of obtaining the desired
data. A survey is a process of collecting data from existing population
units with no particular control over. factors that may affect the
population characteristics of interest in the study, For example, in the
study of salary of workers of a factory the "salary" may be affected by a
number of factors such as age, sex, educational level, nature of job, etc.
no control
and as we get information about a worker's salary we have
over these factors-they happen to be existing attributes of the workers.
data
In contrast to survey, an experiment is a process of collecting
all
about population characteristics when control is exercised over
some or
For
factors that may affect the characteristics of interest in the study.
we may be interested in determining the yield of a chemical
example and pressure. Different settings of
process that is affected by temperature
be selected and the chemical process r u n
pressure and temperature can
for each setting to determine the yield. It is thus possible to study
in a
controlled manner the joint effect of temperature and pressure on yield.
and
Experiments are very common in natural and physical sciences,
almost always provide. better information than do surveys. However.
they
in social
sciences it is often not possible to exercise control over factors
which may be affecting the population characteristics of interest and
hence most of the
data used in statistical analysis in business and
economics are survey data. For example, virtually all data on the
relationship between drinking and health are survey data because other
factors that may affect health like age, climate, race, sex and
not in the control of those collecting the data.
psychological properties are
To run an experiment in this case would involve controlling persons'
lives-some people in the experiment would be required to drink while
others would not. But it is neither feasible nor desirable to approach the
in this m a n n e r . Since in most statistical problems data are
problem by
obtained conducting a survey, the following few pages of this chapter
are devoted to a detailed discussion of statistical survey.
A statistical survey may be either a general purpose survey or a special

purpose survey.
In a general purpose survey, we may obtain data which
The best example of this type of survey is
are useful for several purposes.
 27
ORGANISING A STATISTICAL SURVEY

the population census taken every 10 years in India. Such a survey

but about its
provides information not only about the total population and
division into males and females, literates and
illiterates, employed
etc. A special purpose
unemployed, age distribution, income distribution, particular
are useful in analysing
a
survey is that in which data obtained
problem only. several stages before completion,
A survey passes through
statistical
the final report. These
starting from planning, and ending with writing
broad heads:
stages can be summarised under two

Planning the survey: and

Executing the survey.

PLANNING THE SURVEY

survey is of paramount
importance because the
Proper planning of a
on the preparations
made
quality of survey results depends considerably which require careful
before the survey is conducted. The matters
consideration at the planning stage are

Purpose of the survey or the statement of problem.

Scope of the survey.
.Unit of data collection.
both).
of data (ie., primary, secondary
or
Sources
census and, if sample, the
Technique of data collection (sample
or

method of sampling.
of frame, if none is available.
Choice of a frame. or construction a

Degree of accuracy desired.

Miscellaneous considerations.
matters cannot be viewed in isolation from one
Obviously, these
to any one aspect is
another. To a certain extent, the decision relating'
Hence, there is a clear
bound to influence decisions on other aspects.
case for an integrated view being
taken of the various aspects of an
matters should be tentative and subject
enquiry. Decisions on particular
modification until the as a whole has been finalised.
plan
to
Determination of the precise subject on which information is required,
which the information can
the degree of accuracy desired and the way in
best be obtained often constitute the most
difficult and crucial point of
the survey and needs extreme care and skill.
planning
Specification of the Purpose

The purpose or objective of the survey should be clearly set out at the
very beginning. It will necessitate a clear statement of the problemn
indicating what we are interested in determining-the type of information
which is needed and the use to which the information obtained will be put.
For example, if the object of an enquiry is to study the nature of price
to collect data on
changes over a period of time, it would be necessary
commodity prices and it must be decided whether it would be helpful to study
28 STATISTICAL METHODS

wholesale or the possible uses to which such

retail prices, and
information could be put. The object of an enquiry may be either to
collect specific information relating to a problem or adequate data to est
a
hypothesis or verify a given proposition. Failure to set out clearly the
purpose of enquiry is bound to lead to confusion and waste of resources.
In the case of surveys which are likely to provide information that will be
of value to different organisations or government departments, a detailed
statement of the uses to which the information obtained could be put
be
may be prepared. This will be helpful to all concerned and they might
expected to make suggestions for suitable modifications before the Survey
starts.
Scope of the Survey
Once the purpose of the survey has been clearly stated, the next step is
to decide about the scope of the survey, ie., its coverage with regard to
the type of information, the subject-matter and geographical area. For
instance, an enquiry relating to industrial relations may be undertaken
with the help of data relating to trade union membership, industrial
data on the
disputes, wages of workers, etc., or only with the help ofrelate to India
frequency and severity of strikes. Likewise, an enquiry may
as a whole, or one particular State or an industrial town. The larger the
of the
COverage the more representative are likely to be the
investigation,
results. However, much will depend upon the purpOse.
Three factors exert great influence on scope, namely, the object of
enquiry, availability of time and availability of resources. The investigationa
should be carried out within a reasonable period of time; otherwise, the
information collected may become outdated, and have no meaning at all.
For example, if a Commission is set up to recommend dearness allowance
on the basis of the rise in prices and the
Commission takes two years to
submit its report there is every possibility of its findings being outdated.
Delay may also result in losses; for instance, strikes and lockouts may
take place causing considerable loss of output. Some departments of the
Government are well known for the delay in publication of information
which often serves little or no purpose because of change of conditions.
The scope of an enquiry usually fixes the limits of the enquiry.
However, a certain amount of discretion can always be exercised in this
be given to the inclusion
respect. Careful consideration should, therefore,
or omission of marginal categories of information, particularly those on
which the collection of data is likely to be difficult or for which an
adequate frame is lacking.
The Unit of Data Collection

Before organising the task of collecting data the statistical unit or units
must be clearly defined for the purpose of investigation. The unit in terms
of which the investigator counts or measures the variables or attributes
selected for enumeration, analysis and interpretation is known as a
'statistical unit. For example, in a population census the statistical unit is
a person.
Similarly, if the number of houses in a particular area is
counted, then the unit is a house. However. the problem of defining the
unit is not as simple as it appears to be. To take an example, if we are
making a study of the size of Sugar mills, we have different criteria of
measuring the size of mills, such as, capital employed, number of
 29
ORGANISING A STATISTICAL SURVEY

of
has to select o n e
total production, etc. The investigator
employees, proceed to collect necessary
these for size classification and then basis of classification,
If employed is selected a s the
iniormation. capital of rupees. If the
number of
be the rupee or the thousands The
the
unit may the statistical unit.
is the basis then a n employee will be and the
Workmen therefore, be clearly
defined
basis of determining the size must,
same definition followed throughout
the survey. in
a n enquiry, it
is useful to keep
While fixing the statistical unit for
view the following points:
of the enquiry.
() The unit must suit the purpose
understand.
(i) It should be simple to
(iii) It should be specific.
its characteris-
character. If the unit changes
(iv) It should be stable in other time, the m e a -
time and a metre a t
tics, e.g., a yard at o n e
surements and counts would be misleading.
s o that there c a n
The unit should be uniform throughout the study different
(v) units a r e defined differently at
be valid comparisons. If
would become difficult
not only comparisons
stages of the survey, or e v e n absurd
conclusions.
but also they would lead to wrong
other
or (b) conventional. In
A statistical unit may be (a) arbitrary, s e n s e prevalent ina
words, it may be used in
a special sense o r in the
whatever be the s e n s e in
which the unit is used, it
common usage. But
should be clear and unambiguous.
is essential that the meaning
classified
The statistical units can broadly be
Types of Statistical Unit.
under two heads:

Units of Collection; and

Units of Analysis and Interpretation.
terms of which data are
() Units of Collection These are units in
of measurement-the former being
collected. They involve either counting of
items and the latter in respect
employed in the c a s e of physical of collection, therefore. one may deal
qualitative attributes. In the process
events relating to them a s in the
c a s e of
with either discrete entities and number of deaths, or
number of accidents, and
persons, houses, livestock,
value units, such a s tonnes, kilograms.
with measurable quantities and
litres. o r complex. A simple
The units of collection may be simple, compound
a single condition without qualifications.
unit is one which represents
house, a child and a rupee. A compound
Examples of such units are a
of which is subject to some
unit is a simple unit the comprehension
qualification. Thus, the simple unit
'worker may be qualified a s 'skilled
know not only the meaning of 'worker'
worker in which case we should
but also that of the term 'skilled' in relation to worker. Similarly, we may
talk of 'married man', 'part-time employee and 'machine-hour'. A complex
unit is formed by adding to a simple unit two or more qualifications.
Examples of such units are: 'a unit of production per machine-hour'
value of gold reserves against bank notes'.
 30
STATISTICAL METHODS

(i0 Units of Analysis and Interpretation Statistical data are generally

collected for making comparisons. Comparisons can be made either
reierence to Wih
tine or space. Units of analysis and interpretation are those
which facilitate
comparison.
and (c) coefficients. They include (a) rates, (b) ratio and percentages,
Rates are used in those cases where comparisons are made between
quantities of different kinds. i.e.. where the numerator and the
denominator are not of the same kind, such
as birth rates and death
rates Rates are usually expressed per thousand. However, there is no
hard and fast rule about it. Ratios and
quantities to be compared are of the same kind, percentages' are used
where
for instance, "the ratio of
literates to illiterates 1 : 4 or "Literates are 20
Rate per unit is called a 'coefficient'. per cent of the population.
For example, if it is stated that the
death rate in India at
present is 16 per cent or 1.6 per thousand, it
means that the cocfficient of deaths
is 0.016. If this coefflcient (0.016) is
multiplied by the total population we obtain the total number of deaths.
Sources of Data

After the purpose and

scope have been defined, the next step is to decide
about the sources of data. The sources of
information may be either
primary or secondary. When the investigator collects first-hand data for
the purpose at hand, such data are known as data. On the other
hand, if he obtains the data from published orprimary
unpublished sources such
data will constitute secondary data for him.
make use of both the sources in a
Quite often it is necessary to
much depends upon the
particular investigation. However,
purpose and scope of investigation.
*
Technique of Data Collection

There are two

important techniques of data collection, namely ) census
technique, and (i) sample technique. A census is a complete enumeration of
each and every unit of the universe whereas in a
sample only a part of the
universe is studied and conclusions about the entire universe are drawn on
that basis. For example. if the data about the consumption pattern of the
people of Delhi are to be collected an investigator has to decide as to whether
heads of each family are to be contacted or whether heads of only a few
families are to be contacted. In the former case, it is the census
method
whereas in the latter the sample one. The census method is costlier and
more
time consuming as compared to the
sample method. The investigator must
decide which technique he will use. The choice would
depend upon a
number of factors such as: () the availability of resources, () the time
factor,
(iii) the degree of accuracy desired, and (iv) nature and scope of the
problem.
The Choice of a Frame

The term 'frame' or population frame refers to the listing of all units in
the population under study. The identification of the unit in a
population
under study is often a difficult task. If we want to find out the capital
For details please refer to Chapter 4.
** For details please reler to Chapter 3.
ORGANISING A STATISTICAL SURVEY 31

nvested and number of workers working in small-scale industries in

Delhi, we must have a complete list of names and addresses of all the
small-scale firms. The list of names and addresses will be called a jrame.
The whole structure of enquiry is to a considerable extent determined
the frame. The
method of survey which is suitable for a by
given type of
material may not be suitable for other types because of differences in the
frame that may have to the used. Consequently, until nature and
accuracy of the available frames are
known, detailed planning of the
survey cannot be undertaken. If no frame exists. the construction of aa
frame suitable for the
purpose of the survey will constitute a major part
of planning. Various types of defects may exist in the
frames may be: () available frames
inaccurate, (i) incomplete. (ii) subject to duplication,
(iv) inadequate.(v) out-of-date. It is, therefore. essential
or
the survey to at the outset of
carry out a careful investigation of the frame that is
proposed to be adopted since defects are not
investigation has been made. Such an investigation apparent until a detaileda
commence with will naturally
a
study of the administrative
frame has been conducted and machinery by which the
also have to include a certain by which it is kept up-to-date and may
amount of field work.
Degree of Accuracy Desired

The investigator has to decide

about the degree of
to attain. It
may be poirnted out that absolute
accuracy that he wants
in statistical work because accuracy is seldom possible
() statistics are based on estimates:
measurement are not always (i) tools of
bias on the part of the perfect; and (ii) there may be unintentional
investigator. enumerator or informant. Hence, if an
attempt is made to attain 100 per cent
Even when a perfect accuracy, it may not be realistic.
accuracy is possible it
and money that would be may not be worth the time
spent in attaining it. Degree of accuracy desired
primarily depends upon the object of ernquiry. For
gold even 1/100th of a gram is material example, in weighing
rice difference of a few
whereas in weighing wheat or
grams may not be materially significant.
and Frisbee rightly
pointed out that "The Riggleman
counting or measuring depends upon the necessary degree of accuracy in
practical value of the
in relation to its cost."
However, it does not mean that oneaccuracy should
sacrifice accuracy to keep down the costs. It would
the purpose of ultimately depend upon
investigation. Quite often, the
quickly and have approximate investigator
to collect data finds it desirable
lot of time and money for
results rather than spend a
attaining
is. therefore, desirable that an
a
slightly higher degree of accuracy. It
eye be kept on the possible inaccuracies
that are likely to arise due to clerical and other
types of errors so that
they may be eliminated altogether or reduced to the minimum.

Miscellaneous Considerations

Considerations should be given to various other matters such

as whether
the enquiry is (a) official, semi-official or non-official. (b) confidential or
non-confidential. (c) regular or ad hoc, (d) initial or repetitive, and
or indirect. (e) direct
An official survey is conducted by or on behalf of Central, State
or
Local-self Governments. a semi-ofticial enquiry by such bodies which
 2 STATISTICAL METHODS

have government patronage, and a non-official enquiry by private bodies

or
individuals. The facilities available will naturally differ according to the
nature of enquiry. In a legal (official) enquiry people may be compelled to
Supply information; in a semi-officlal enquiry people may be requested
and information may be available without much difliculty, whereas in a
non-official enquiry the investigator may have to face the greatest
difficulty in collecting data.
A confidential survey is one in which the results are kept confidential
and are not made known to the general public. On the other hand, a
non-confidential survey is one the results of which are published, ie., the
results of such survey are open to the general public.
A regular survey is that in which data are collected at regular intervals
Over a period of time whereas in an ad hoc survey data are collected as
and when necessary without any regularity.
An initial survey is one that is carried out for the first time whereas a
repetitive survey is one that is conducted in continuation of previous
enquiries. In case of the former, it is necessary to formulate a plan of
data collection whereas in the latter case such a plan already exists and
may only need modification in the light of past experience.
A direct
survey is one where data are capable of directquantitative
measurement such as height, weight and income. On the other hand, in
indirect inquiry direct quantitative measurement is not possible as. for
example, intelligence efficiency and honesty. In the latter case, one has to
take up certain objective measurable phenomena which reflect the
qualitative phenomenon and then proceed to collect data.
The matters discussed above are in the nature of precautions intended
to ensure that the material obtained is reliable. Some of these
precautions
are nothing more than commonsense, but are nonetheless worth
for if they are neglected, the results may be completely useless.
noting.

EXECUTING THE SURVEYY

After a plan of data _collection has been prepared. the next step is to
execute the survey. The various phases of the work subsequent to the
planning stage may be enumerated as follows:
Setting up an administrative organisation.
Design of forms.
Selection. training and supervision of the field investigators.
Control over the quality of the field work and field edit.
Follow-up of non-response.
Processing of data.
Preparation of report.
Setting up an Administrative Organisation

The administrative organisation required for

an enquiry will depend very
much on the nature and scope of the enquiry. Every opportunity should be

Careful attention should be given to the designing of various forms that wil1
be used in the course of the enquiry, specially the questionnaire.
 ORGANISING A STATISTICAL SURVEY 33

taken to utilise existing administrative and office organisation. When the

enquiry covers a large area, supervision from a central office is likely to
be difficult and in such cases it is best to establish
regional offices. Very
frequently, some existing organisation can be used for the purpose.

Design of Forms

Careful attention should be given to the designing of various forms that

will be used in the of the
enquiry, specially the questionnire.
course

Selection, Training and Supervision of Field Investigatorss

In most
surveys the data are to be collected through enumerators who
work part time or full time. The nature of the
enumerator's job is such
that great care has to be exercised in his selection. In fact
the since very
success of survey depends largely upon the field investigators it is
essential that they are properly selected, thoroughly trained and their
work closely supervised. Field
investigators may be specially appointed, or
they may consist of the existing staff appointed for other work, and may
be requested to undertake the
survey work on a voluntary basis or on a
Small honorarium.
The enumerators should be honest,
to create intelligent, hard working and able
friendly atmosphere and make the respondent feel at ease. He
must speak the
language of the respondents, ask questions properly andd
intelligently and record the response accurately and completely. By his
friendly and courteous attitude he should be tactful
irrelevant conversation and elicit response from thoseenough discourage
to
who are apparently
unwiling to co-operate. Since field work is a strenuous job, there should
be adequate provision for rest and the
Suitable tests like intelligence test and
salary should also be attractive.
selecting the right type of enumerators.
aptitude test can be employed
After having selected the enumerators
through suitable tests, the next
problem is that of making arrangements for the proper training of the
enumerators. The enumerators should know the
and how the results nmay purpose of the survey
possibly be used. The manner in which the
data are to be collected and the interviews to be
conducted should
explained in detail with examples. They should know the definitions be
of
the terms used in the questionnaire or schedule and the intricate
problems involved in using them in the field. Mock interviews can be
used in the classroom, the instructors and the
students assuming the
roles of respondents and interviewers
respectively. The instructor
brings
up difficult situations and the whole class fills
questionnaires
later discussed at length. The enumerators are then
which are
sent to the fields
to test the
questionnaires. The data collected under supervision are
examined by the instructors, who determine whether
standards have been maintained. Those who are found reasonable
up to the
standard can be asked to begin their job.
The training may also be given with the
help of instruction manuals.
These manuals explain clearly the job of the enumerator at
each step. For
example, how to make a list of the sample units, say households, in the
selected areas, the application of definitions, the handling
cases, etc., are all explained.
or borderline
 34

1s also STATISTICAL METHODS

necessary
ere presence to watch
periormance.
Detter
of
supervisors in carefully
The
the
the ield haswork of the enumerators.
paid, better supervislon should be carriedwholesome effect on The
a

Supervisory staff
the difficulties qualified,
should itselfand more experienced. Frombytime
involved. out
superior their
undertake field work in to timestalt,
Control Over the order to the
appreciate
Quality of the Fleld Work
Ssteps
that
must be
taken to
and the Fleld
Edit
the ensure that the
causes oferrors to which it is survey is under
statistical control.
variation subject are
random and
Supervisors
be
carried
should also
are
be
present. A
system of field checks no
assignable
out on introduced. The field check by the
conducted such a random
a
should
knowledge of the work manner to sub-sample
in of units, and preferably
that should be
enumerator is not honestgoing investigators
be checked. do not have
If it is found prior
returns should and is not
be following that the
After the work reviewed and he should the
be removed instructions, all his
of collection
or
schedules are handed over of data is complete and from
in the the
the îield.
field, the by the enumerators to the questionnaires
inconsistencies, supervisor should scrutinise supervisor while
on to the illegible writing and other errorsthese to check omissions,
headquarters.
reasons. First,
unless the
This editing is before they are
passed
highly useful because of several
for further questionnaires
information to correct some of edited on the spot, the need
are
discovered when the team has the wrong entries
the errors are moved to another may only be
not to make discovered at area; and
this stage, the enumerator can secondly, if
such errors in future. be instructed
corrected at this stage without Also most of the
obvious errors can be
fresh in themaking
the interview is still a reference to
the
mind of the respondent since
enumerator.
Follow-up of Non-response
In spite of best efforts,
desired information. A suitable of the respondents may not supply the
some

should be set up. One method ofmachinery for dealing with such cases
is to make a list of
the
dealing with the non-response problem
them. Then with the non-respondents and take a small
sub-sample of
made for securing
help of
supervisory staff vigorous efforts can be
It
response.
is important to see that
substitutions for those not found.enumerators are not allowed to make
If this practice is
enumerators will not take followed the
pains to persuade the
non-respondent to
co-operate and there will be a tendency to substitute for any one who is
not considered to be a good
survey results.
respondent which will introduce bias in the

Processing of Data

After the data have been collected the efforts shift from the field to the
office. The data are to be given a thorough check, coded, transferred to
cards or tape and tabulated. These operations are in no
way less
important than the collection of data. There are chances of errors arising
at every step and hence one has to be cautious. While editing it is
, 85
, 1
5
36 STATISTICAL METHODS

should be given of methods of weighing and of any supplementary

information utilised, for example, to obtain ratio estimates.

(u) Accuracy Attained A general indication of the accuracy attaine

should be given and a distinction should be made between sampling and
non-sampling errors.

(vi Miscellaneous Considerations It is also important to touch upon

such aspects as: the period to which the data refer and the time taken
for the field work; whether the survey is an isolated one or is one of a
series of similar surveys; an indication of the cost of the survey under
such headings as preliminary work, field investigations, analysis. etc.: the
extent to which the objects of the survey were fulfilled. It is also desirable
to give reference of any available reports, papers or other publications
relating to the survey.
regards technical report, the following aspects should be clearly
brought to light:

( Specification of the Frame A detailed account of the specification of

the frame should be given providing such information as the geographic
areas and categories of material included and the data and source of the
frame.

(i Design of the Survey The sampling design should be carefully

specified including details such as types of sampling units. partieulars or

stratification, etc.

Personnel and
(tii) Equipment It is desirable to give an account of the
organisation of the personnel employed in collecting. processing and
tabulating data. Arrangements for training, inspection and supervision of
the staff should be explained.

u) Statistical Analysis and Computational Procedure The statistical

tables fromn
techniques followed in the compilation of the final summary
the primary data should be described. It is also desirable to reproduce the
formula used.

reasonable effort
(u) Comparison wvith other Sources of Information Every sources of
should be made to provide comparisons with other independent
with the other
information. Such comparisons should be reported along
discussed. The obiect of this is
results, and the significant difference be
not to throw ight on the sampling error, since a well-desigiied survey
such errors, but rather to gain
provides adequate internal estimate of errors.
knowledge of bias and other non-random
Observations of Technicians The critical observations of technicianss
(vi) the survey, or any part of it, shoulad be given. These
in regard to
observations will help others to improve their operations.

It should be noted that

a survey demands utmost care at each phase
work in one phase may ruin a survey in which
of the activity; poor
done well.
everything else is
ORGANISING A STATISTICAL SURVEY 37

GLOSSARY

Elementary Units: The individual items in a population are called elementary

units.
Frame: It refers to the listing of all units in the population under study.
Primary Data: Primary data are measurements observed and recorded as part of
an original study. These are data not available elsewhere.
Popúlation: A population (or universe) is the totality of items or things under
consideration. It is a collection of all measurements of a particular type of
interest to the decision-maker. Population may be finite or infinite.
Finite: A population that is not infinitely large or that contains only a
finite number of items.
(ti Infinite Population: A population that includes an infinitely large number
of elementary units.
Survey: Survey or experiment is a device of obtaining the desired data.
Statistical Design: It involves identifying a decision problem and choosing an
approach to solving the problem.
Sample: A sample is any group of measurements selected from a population for
analysis.
Statistical Unit: The unit in terms of which the investigator counts or measures
the variables or attributes selected for enumeration, analysis and
interpretation, is known as a statistical unit.
Secondary Data: Secondary data are compiled by someone other than the user.