NCM 111 VIDEO 1 MIDTERM
Non- Experimental
RESEARCH- is a systematic inquiry that uses
disciplined methods to answer questions or solve
problems (Polit & Beck, 2008)
NURSING RESEARCH- is a systematic inquiry
designed to develop trustworthy evidence about
issues of importance to nursing profession,
including nursing practice, education,
administration, informatics (Polit & Beck, 2008)
The choice of the research method is dictated by
the problem statement and goal of the research.
CHAPTER II-METHODS
1. Research Design
2. Locale of the Study
3. Respondents
4. Sampling Size
5. Sampling Technique
6. Instrumentation
7. Data gathering Procedure
8. Measures
9. Treatment of Data
Research Design- is the researcher’s overall Plan of
how the study will be conducted.
The plan contains such details as the:
1. Type of data to be collected;
2. The techniques or the means to be used to
obtain these data;
3. The basis for the choice of the subjects;
4. The manner of determining sample size;
5. The instruments to be used and their
validation; and
6. The data analysis scheme which includes the
application of the statistical tools for
treatment of data.
The Research Design - is the blueprint of the
study that maximizes control over factors that could
interfere with the study’s desired outcome and the
intention of the researcher to generalize the findings
(Burns & Grove, 2007)
- Direct the sampling and data processes.
These in turn influence the study results and
conclusions.
SIX KINDS OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
1.
2. Experimental
3. Qualitative
4. Quantitative
5. Mixed Method
6. Systematic Reviews
Non- Experimental- studies in which the
researcher collects data without introducing an
intervention. (No manipulation)
- The researcher does not interfere
with nature and the conditions for
research are realistic or natural.
- “Surveys” which have less control
over the study subjects and the
setting where it is conducted.
- Research situations in which the
researcher cannot control and
manipulate the independent variable
- In settings such as school, hospital
among others
TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
1. Basic or Library Research
2. Applied or “Action” Research
1. Basic or Library Research- research
designed to extend the base of knowledge in
a discipline for the sake of knowledge
production or theory construction.
- It is intended to increase knowledge
in science for the purpose of
knowing and learning the truth.
- It is also called PURE RESEARCH
for purposes “generating new
knowledge for knowledge's sake”
(Kerlinger, 2000)
Basic Research- Includes reading books and
literature, listening to discussions, journal analysis,
browsing articles from the internet and website and
teleconferencing among others.
The end product of research is PURELY
KNOWLEDGE.
2. Applied or “Action” Research- research
designed to find a solution to an immediate
practical problem.
- A scientific investigation conducted to
generate knowledge that will directly
influence or improve clinical practice. It can
provide evidence-based data.

TYPES OF APPLIED RESEARCH
A. Historical Design- a critical investigation
and analysis of events, developments and
experiences of the past.
- Describes the past events in relation
the present situation (Tan, 2011)
- Systematic studies designed to
discover facts and relationships
about past events
- (Polit & Beck, 2012)
Example: The Evolution of Nursing Practice from
time of Florence Nightingale to the 21st Century:
Significant Indicators of Change and Transition
from Past to Present Practice of Nursing
B. Descriptive Design- a study that describes
the nature of the phenomenon under
investigation after a survey of current trends,
practices and conditions that relate to that
phenomenon (Tan, 2011)
- Research that typically has as its
main objective the accurate portrayal
of people’s characteristics or
circumstances and/or the frequency
with which certain phenomena occur
(Polit & Beck, 2012).
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
1. Descriptive Normative Surveys
2. Correlational
3. Comparative
4. Descriptive Evaluative Surveys or
Methodological Studies
5. Problem-solving
6. Decision-making
7. Case Study
8. Content Analysis
9. Feasibility Study
10. Cross-sectional
11. Longitudinal Designs
1. Descriptive Normative Surveys- are
self-reported data which are collected from
samples for purposes of exploring and
describing real-life situations. (Kerlinger,
2000)
- This method involves the
classification and enumeration of
collected data which are gatherers
using the questionnaires.
- A survey on staff nurses and
administrators to obtain their
perception on the extent of staff
nurse’s responsibility for px
education.
- Pattern of Coping among Infertile
Women (Davis & Dearman, 1991)
- Mechanism Underlying Individual
Differences in Motivation to Initiate
and Sustain Programs of Cardiac
Risk-Factor Modification (Fleury,
1991)
2. Correlational Studies- examine the extent
of relationship between variables by
determining how changes in one variable
relate to changes in another variable.
- Also called Explanatory Research
- Research that explores the
interrelationships among variables of
interest without researcher
intervention. (Polit & Beck, 2012).
- Correlation research discovers how
the phenomena under study are
related. Does A influence B, or vice
versa? Or are A and B affected by C?
Example: How is X related to Y? As X increases,
does Y also increase? Or as X increases, does Y
decrease?
Correlation Coefficient- This data determine the
extent and direction of the relationship between two
variables conducted through (+) or (-) correlation
using a range of -1.00 (perfect negative correlation)
to 1.00 (Perfect positive correlation).
- A correlation coefficient of 0.0 indicates the
nonexistence of a relationship between
variables.
- Positive or direct relationship means that as
the value of one variable increases, the value
of the other variable also increases.
- A negative relationship or inverse
relationship indicates that as the value of
one variable increases, the value of other
variable decreases.
Example: Is there any significant correlation
between anxiety and nurse licensure exams among
baccalaureate nursing graduates?
Correlation- As anxiety is higher, the score in the
licensure exam exam is lower (inverse relationship)
As anxiety gets lower, the score in licensure exams
is also lower. (positive relationship)
Example: Is there any significant correlation
between the academic performance of nursing
students and their performance as staff nurses?
Direct relationship - means that the students with
good academic performance may also have good
clinical performance.
Incorrect relationship - means good academic
performance but poor clinical performance.
Example: Philips and colleagues (2006) conducted
a descriptive correlational study to examine the
relationships among spiritual well-being, sleep
quality and health status in HIV- infected men and
women.
Correlational Studies- also called EX POST
FACTO RESEARCH
EX POST FACTO RESEARCH- Latin term
meaning “from after the fact”
- That does not attempt to elucidate
causal relationships is sometimes
described as either
RETROSPECTIVE or
PROSPECTIVE (Polit & Beck,
2008)
• RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES
- are ones in which a phenomenon existing in the
present is linked to phenomena that occurred in the
past, before the study was initiated.
Examples:
✔ Studies of the link between CIGARETTE
SMOKING AND LUNG CANCER.
⮚ In a case-control study, the researcher began
with a group of people who had lung cancer
(cases) and another group who did not
(controls).
✔ Hwang, Ryan and Zerwic (2006) conducted a
retrospective study to identify factors that
predicted the amount of time delayed in seeking
treatment for acute myocardial infarction
symptoms. The independent (predictor)
variables examined included patient's age,
ambiguity of symptoms, and living
arrangements (alone vs not alone).
• PROSPECTIVE DESIGNS/STUDIES
- also called a COHORT DESIGN by medical
researchers
- start with a presumed cause and then goes forward
in time to the presumed effect.
Example:
✔ A study on the incidence of rubella during
pregnancy (independent variable) is related to
infant abnormalities (dependent variable).
⮚ Sample of pregnant women, contracted rubella
and did not, then asses after delivery whether
women with rubella more likely to bear
malformed infants.
3. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
- examine two or more intact groups to find out the
difference in their performance between and among
them in certain dependent variables of interest
- there is no manipulation of independent variables
because characteristics of the subjects are inherent
as personality type, educational level and medical
condition.
Example:
✔ A study between College X and College Y
nursing graduates class 2010 and their
performance in nursing licensure exam.
• Comparative studies are also applicable to the
following:
A. Descriptive Study
Example:
✔ Is there any significant difference in readiness
to learn about preoperative teaching between
pre-op patients who have anxiety levels
compared to pre-op patients who have low
anxiety levels?
B. Experimental Study
✔ Is there any significant difference in the pre-op
anxiety levels of patients who were exposed to
relaxation techniques (experimental group) and
those who were not exposed to these techniques
(control group)?
4. DESCRIPTIVE EVALUATIVE SURVEYS
- or METHODOLOGICAL STUDIES
- concerned with the development testing and
evaluation of methods, procedures, guidelines and
instruments after which an evaluative judgement is
done.
- This approach is also used to revise, modify
existing programs or develop more effective
programs, methods and procedures in nursing for
more efficient and effective delivery of health care.
- this study is also known as DEVELOPMENTAL
or EVALUATIVE RESEARCH.
- this study aims to test the viability, quality or
effectiveness of a product, program, method or
procedure and answer specific questions on these.
Examples:
✔ Training Programs for New Graduate Nurses
and Their Clinical Proficiency
✔ Development of Feedback Mechanisms for
Faculty Performance
✔ Community Health Programs and the Incidence
of Dengue Fever on Sampaloc, Metro Manila
5. PROBLEM SOLVING STUDIES
- investigations leading to solutions of problems.
- one makes assessments of needs and problems and
generates alternative solutions to problems.
- The objective is to improve specific problem
situations derived from reliable and accurate data.
Examples:
✔ How much nursing care does a particular
patient needs?
✔ How often is it necessary to take vital signs of a
patient in labor?
✔ How can a nurse make the patient feel satisfied
with nursing care given to him?
6. DECISION-MAKING STUDIES
- selects the most feasible course of action from
given alternatives to solve the problem. It's not
simply solving a problem but in this one, you will
choose from the given alternatives.
- this is useful in policy making and in improving
the image of nursing as a profession.
Examples:
✔ Should salaries paid to nurses be increased?
✔ Is the 12-hour work shift more effective than
the 8-hour shift in solving staffing problems?
7. CASE STUDY
- an in-depth of a single case or limited number of
typical, interconnected cases intended to interpret
their behavior relative to the occurrence of certain
events or phenomenon of interest to the nursing
discipline.
Example:
✔ A case study of a patient with problems of
oxygenation.
✔ A specific case study of a patient with COPD.
8. CONTENT ANALYSIS
- The process of synthesizing or dissecting
information and messages embodied in
documents.
Example
The Practical Implications of the Philippine Nursing
Law (RA 9173 of 2002) provisions for nursing
Education and Nursing Service
9. FEASIBILITY STUDY
- conducted to determine the viability of an
undertaking or a business venture and establishing
an institution or constructing infrastructure.
Examples:
A feasibility study on Nursing Entrepreneurship in
the Philippine Setting
Credentialing of Nurse Clinicians and its impact to
the nursing profession and the society.
10. CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGNS
⮚ - a study design in which data are collected at
one point in time; sometimes used to inter
change over time when data are collected from
different age or developmental groups.
⮚ Cross-sectional design is used for research that
collects data on relevant variables at one point
in time only for a variety of people, subjects, or
phenomena.
⮚ The data are collected all at the same time (or
within a short time frame).
⮚ The subjects are assessed at a SINGLE POINT
IN TIME IN THEIR LIVES.
⮚ This is fast and can be done at one time with a
large number of patients at little cost or effort.
⮚ Also, the researcher does not have to worry
about patients dropping out during the course of
the study.
⮚ This study is efficient in identifying association
of relationships, but may have problems
deciding cause and effect. With data only one
point in time, the researcher is confronted with
the classic chicken or egg problem.
⮚ This design involves the collection of data at
one point in time.
⮚ It is practical, relatively economical and easy to
manage.
⮚ It provides a snapshot of the variables included
in the study, at one particular time.
⮚ It generally uses survey techniques to gather
data.
Example:
✔ Study of the Coping on Death of Loved Ones
(DABDA)
✔ Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression and
Acceptance (DABDA)
◆ Participant 1- LO1 6 months ago
◆ Participant 2- LO2 1 year ago
◆ Participant 3- LO3 3 years ago
◆ Participant 4- LO4 5 years ago
*In Cross-Sec. D. you will have to approach them
and ask them their coping mechanisms*
Example:
✔ Study on the Changes in Nursing Students’
Attitudes Toward Professionalism as They
Progress Through a 4- Year Baccalaureate
Program
✔ We could use a cross-sectional design by
surveying members of the four classes at one
point in time and then comparing the responses
of four groups.
✔ If seniors manifested more positive attitudes
towards professionalism than freshmen, it
might be inferred that nursing students become
increasingly socialized professionally by their
educational experience.
Example:
✔ A study on the Changes in Children’s Health
Promotion Activities Between Ages 10 and 13.
✔ We could use a cross-sectional design by
interviewing different children ages 10 and 13
and then comparing their responses.
✔ If 13-year-olds engaged in more
health-promoting activities than 10-year-olds, it
might be inferred that children improve in
making healthy choices as they aged.
✔ Such a design, which involves a comparison of
multiple age cohorts, is sometimes called a
COHORT COMPARISON DESIGN.
COHORT- a group of individuals having a
statistical factor (such as age, or class membership)
in common in a demographic study.
- A define group of people
11. LONGITUDINAL DESIGNS
⮚ - a study designed to collect data at more than
one point in time over an extended period, in
contrast to a cross-sectional study.
⮚ This collects data OVER LONG PERIODS
OF TIME.
⮚ Measurements are taken on each variable over
two or more distinct time periods.
Example:
● Study of the Coping on Death of Loved
Ones. (DABDA)
Participant 1 – Death of LO1 after 6 months,
after 1 year, after 3 years, after 5 years.
● Study on the Changes in Nursing Students’
Attitudes Toward Professionalism as They
Progress Through a 4-Year Baccalaureate
Program.
We could use a longitudinal design by surveying
students when they are freshmen and resurvey them
every year until they graduate.
3 TYPES OF LONGITUDINAL DESIGNS
1. TREND STUDIES
2. PANEL DESIGNS
3. FOLLOW-UP STUDIES
Trend Studies
-refer to investigations in which samples from a
population are studied over time with respect to
some phenomenon of interest to the researcher.
Example:
Small and colleagues (2009) conducted a trend
study to assess changes over time in pediatric nurse
practitioners’ ability to assess and manage
childhood obesity. Data were obtained in both 1999
and 2005.
Panel Designs
- Data are collected from the same people (a
panel) at two or more points in time.
Panel – refers to the sample of people providing
data.
Example:
✔ A panel study could be designed to explore
over time the coping mechanisms of couples
with a fertility problem.
✔ -Their coping mechanisms may be asked from
them in years 2020, 2023 and 2025.
✔ For example, at 2020 they might be considering
adopting a baby. In 2023, they finally decided
to adopt a baby. Then in 2025, they have
adjusted to a life with their adopted child and
considered him or her like their own child.
Follow – up Study
- A study undertaken to determine the
outcomes of individuals who have a
specified condition or who received a
specific treatment.
Examples:
✔ Samples of premature and normal infants may
be followed up to assess their later perceptual
and motor development.
✔ Qualitative study of patients initially
interviewed shortly after a diagnosis of prostate
cancer may be followed to assess their
experiences during or after treatment decisions
have been made.
✔ Qualitative follow – up study:
✔ Roe and colleagues (2009) followed up sample
of older patients who had fallen, and in depth
data were collected at two points in time to
examine how the fall affected their health
status, lifestyle, services use and fall prevention
efforts.
✔ Longitudinal studies are appropriate for
studying the dynamics of a phenomenon over
time, but a major problem is ATTRITION –
the loss of participants over time.
NCM 111 (2) (3) MIDTERM
Experimental Research Design - is an inquiry on
cause-and-effect relationships (Tan, 2011)
-are concerned with examination of the effect of
independent variable on the dependent variable
(Rajamani, 2020)
Independent variables are manipulated through
experiments or treatments and the effects of these
treatments or interventions are observed on the
dependent variable
-An experiment is performed to accept or reject the
hypothesis to establish a causal relationship
between phenomena
In experimental studies, the researcher consciously
manipulates or controls situations r/to the study,
thus interfering with nature
-Observations are done under controlled conditions
or in a controlled environment (Abdellah, 2000)
-This is conducted in a specialized setting, such as
the laboratory, experimental unit or research center
Example:
● If students missing the most classes get lower
grades, the suggestion is that there is causal
relationship between attendance and overall
performance
● Effects of Music Therapy in the Anxiety of
Pre-op Patients
● Listening to Music During Surgery
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
1. True Experiment
2. Quasi-Experiment
True Experiment - are held under highly controlled
conditions to yield reliable evidence about cause
and effect relationship
-In this designs the researchers have complete
control over the extraneous variables and can
predict confidently that the observed effect on the
dependent variable is only due to the manipulation
of the independent variable (Kung ano man ang
effect sa dependent variable, yun ay dahil may
ginawa sa independent variable)
4 PROPERTIES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL
STUDIES (MCRV)
1. Manipulation
- involves doing something to study participants
-It also refers to conscious control of the
independent variable by the researcher through
treatment or interventions to observe its effect on
dependent variable
The experimenter manipulates the independent
variable by administering a treatment or
intervention to some subjects and withholding it
from others, or by administering some other
treatment (Polit & Beck, 2008)
Example:
● Gentle massage is effective as a pain relief
measure for elderly nursing home residents
(some patients will be having the massage,
others will not have)
● A researcher is conducting a study on the
efficacy of chlorhexidine mouthwash on the
prevention of ventilator associated
pneumonia (VAP) among pts admitted in ICU
VAP – 2 nd most common nosocomial infection
- leading cause of mortality in ICU
2. Control
- refers to the use of control groups and
controlling the effects of extraneous variables on
the dependent variable in which the researcher is
interested
-the experimenter introduces controls over the
experimental situation, including devising a good
approximation of a counterfactual-usually a
control group that does not receive the
intervention (Polit & Beck)
3. Randomization
4. Validity
The researcher imposes certain conditions over the
experimental situation such as the use of:
Study sample is divided into:
1. Control Group (CG) -is not subjected to any
experimental treatment
-It consists of subjects whose performance in
relation to a dependent variable is used as basis for
evaluating the performance of the experimental
group
2. Experimental Group (EG) - is subjected to
experimental treatment used by the researcher
whose performance is compared and analyzed
according to the performance of the control
group on a dependent variable
3 Types of Control Group
1. Negative Control - the subject neither receive
any placebo or any other type of treatment or
intervention
Placebo - a substance that has no known effects (ex.
distilled water)
Example:
● In a class of 60 students, 30 students will be
under the control group (CG), They will have
no lecture and they will not receive any study
materials
● A quiz will be given and we can usually
predict that there will be high scores in the
experimental group
2. Clear Control - the subject in this type of
control group receive placebo
Example:
● For patients with myocardial infarction (MI),
the Experimental Group will be given
Nitroglycerin tablet sublingually. The Control
Group will be given a sugar coated candy
sublingually. Then it will be observed if the
clients have been relieved of chest pain or not
● Blood Pressure Medicine Test:
CG: Placebo
EG: Real Medicine
3. Positive Control - where the subjects in
control group receive other treatment or
experimental interventions
Example:
● To reduce anxiety of pre-operative patients,
the EG will have music therapy while the CG
will have aromatherapy
TECHNIQUES OF RESEARCH CONTROL
1. Control of External Factors
● Control of Environment - subjects are to
be brought in an environment structured
by the researcher
● Control of Time - ensure constancy of
data collection at the same time of the
day
● Interactions with the subjects -
dissemination of information to study
subjects (informing schedules)
2. Control of Intrinsic Factors
MEASURES TO CONTROL INTRINSIC
FACTORS
1. Matching - a conscious “matching” of the
subject characteristics in both groups
Example:
● If age and gender are the matching variables
of interest in a two group study, and a 65-year
old woman to be recruited for the first group,
the researcher would try to find another
65-year old woman is to be included in the
second group
 ● A sample of elderly residents set to
participate in physical training program
● A comparison group of non-participating
group of residents could be created by
matching subjects on the basis of age and
gender
2. Counterbalancing - all the subjects receive all
the treatments, but the order of administration
of tx varied
Example:
● Group A
1. Lecture
2. Give study materials
3. Homogeneity by Statistical Test - use of
statistical test
-The researcher may conduct a statistical test to find
no significant difference in the basic characteristics
of subjects that may affect the dependent variables
among different groups under study
Example
● To ensure the homogeneity of the
demographical characteristics among two
groups under study, a chi-square test may be
applied on the frequency distribution
3. Randomization
-the researcher assigns subjects to a control or
experimental group on random basis, which means
that every subject has an equal chance of being
assigned to any group.
Random Selection -refers to how the sample of
people is drawn from the population. (has equal
chance to be selected)
Random Assignment -refers to how the sample
drawn from the population is assigned to diff.
groups or treatment in the study.
- everybody has the equal chance of being placed
either in the experimental group or in the control
group
It is possible to have both random selection and
random assignment in a study. For example, our
random sample of 100 clients were drawn from a
population list of 1000 current clients in the
hospital. That is random selection.
If 50 of these clients were randomly assigned to get
you additional treatment (experimental group) and
the other 50 to be without treatment (control group).
That is random assignment.
It is also possible to have only one of these, either
random selection or random assignment in a study.
Randomly assigning subjects to treatment group is
basic to experimental design.
Random assignment of subjects satisfy the internal
validity criteria of true experiments.
Method of Randomization
1. Flip a coin method
-if the coin lands on the head, subjects are assigned
to first group and with tail subjects are assigned to
second group.
-it is used in small groups
-toss a coin
2. Fishbowl Technique or Lottery Method
-begin with writing in the names of the subject on
the slips of paper, put the slips on a bowl and then
draw lots.
*The first last named subject is placed in group one
and the second lot group will be placed in group
two.
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling -lottery method writes
the names or codes on a piece of paper, puts them in
a container then randomly selects the desired
number of samples.
3. Random Table Method
-in this method, blindfolded subjects choose a
number from a table of numbers horizontally (row)
or vertically (column) till a requisite # is reached for
both experimental and control groups.
4. Computer Assisted Randomization
-this is the modern, accurate and easy method of
randomization. The random # may be generated
using several free websites s/a research randomizer.
(http://www.randomizer.org/form.hti)
4. Validity
Shadish, Cook, and Campbell (2002), in their
influential book, define VALIDITY in the context
of research design as "The Approximate Truth of an
Inference".
In experimental studies and similar types of studies,
the researcher is interested in controlling or
altogether removing extraneous variables that may
create spurious results or inaccurate findings.
Hence, the researcher must ensure the validity of
data gathered, in order to objectively test research
hypotheses and answer all research questions.
To ensure validity of data, all experimental
studies should have the ff. characteristics:
1. INTERNAL VALIDITY 2. EXTERNAL
VALIDITY
1. INTERNAL VALIDITY This means the degree
to which changes in the dependent variable (effects)
can be attributed to the independent variable
(cause).
Ex. In the results, there is change in dependent
variable only because of independent variable.
Only the intervention brings the change in the
dependent variabl
THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY - are
reasons that an inference could be wrong.
A. Selection Bias
This exists when study results are attributed to the
experimental treatment, when in fact results are due
to differences among the subjects even before the
treatment.
Ex. In a study which aims to help people stop
smoking using a "smoking cessation intervention,"
(new treatment) there were 20 volunteers who
offered to stop smoking, (experimental group), and
20 volunteers who refused to stop smoking (control
group).
However, the experimental group may have been
motivated to stop smoking even before the
treatment started, hence, the selection process may
have a biased effect on results.
B. History
This occurs when some event besides the
experimental treatment takes place during the
course of the study and affects or influences the
dependent variable.
Ex. The incidence of prenatal training among
pregnant women after 2wks of teaching program,
but during the teaching process, an article is
published on the rise of maternal complications.
This "history" factor could result in the increased
incidence of prenatal training among pregnant
women.
C. Maturation
This takes place when changes within the subjects
occur during the experimental study, thus, may
influence study result.
Ex. The subjects may have gained in height and
weight at the time when the pre- test & the post-test
were being administered.
If the nurse is interested in gain in weight and
height of malnourished children, she will keep in
mind that change in their size may occur during the
treatment or course of the study.
D. Testing
Possible testing threat in studies in which a pre-test
is a requisite. This refers to the influence of the
pre-test, which already projects the results of the
post-test scores.
Test scores of the actual study subjects may be
altered in the post-test as a result of their knowledge
of the pre- test results.
Ex. Suppose we administered to a group of nursing
students a questionnaire about their attitudes toward
assisted suicide.
We then acquaint them with various arguments that
have been made for and against assisted suicide,
outcomes of court cases, and the like.
At the end of the instruction, we give them the same
attitude measure and observe whether their attitudes
have changed.
The problem is that the first administration of the
questionnaire might sensitize students, resulting in
attitude changes regardless of whether instruction
follows.
E. Instrumentation Change
The existence of a difference between pre-test and
post-test results caused by change in the accuracy of
the instrument or the ratings, rather than the result
of the experimental treatment.
Ex. A change or breakdown of a mechanical
instrument such as the sphygmomanometer used in
taking the blood pressure affects the accuracy of
reading throughout the study.
F. Mortality
This happens when a difference exists between the
subject dropout rates of either the experimental
group and the control group. (attrition)
If a large experimental group or control group
scored very low in a pre-test, some of the subjects
may have dropped out of the study.
Thus, the average scores in the post-test of either
the experimental group/control group would be
correspondingly low.
2. EXTERNAL VALIDITY
This is the degree to which study results can be
influenced or affected by external factors or
population and settings.
The result, how much it can be generalized to the
public.
Ex. this treatment is effective in Corona virus in
India then also all over the world.
THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY
A. Hawthorne Effect - occurs when study
participants respond in a particular manner, or there
is obvious change of behavior because they are
aware that they are being observed.
Dealing with this problem is handled by having a
control group that is subject to the same conditions
as the treatment group, then administering a placebo
to the control group.
Ex. A student nurse applies correct techniques in
doing nursing procedures while the researcher
observes her.
The study is termed a Blind Experiment when the
subject does not know whether he or she is
receiving the treatment or a placebo.
Single-Blind Experiment
Scott and her colleagues (2005) compared the
efficacy of two diets before bowel cleansing with
sodium phosphates oral solution in preparation for a
colonoscopy.
The standard liquid diet was compared to a
liberalized diet that included a normal breakfast and
a low-residue lunch the day before the colonoscopy.
>Low residual diet VS Clear liquid diet
Patients knew what group they were in but the
colonoscopist did not.
B. Experimenter Effect
This refers to a threat to the study which results
when the researcher's behavior influences the
behavior of the subjects, such as the researcher's
facial expression, gender and clothing among
others.
Experimenter Effect
-Experimental research
-Researcher characteristics or behaviors influence
subject behaviors.
Examples of influential characteristics:
- Facial expression -Gender
- Clothing - Body build
- Age
C. Reactive Effect of the Pre-Test
This occurs when the subjects have been sensitized
to the treatment by taking the pre-test and thereafter
influence the post- test results.
D. Halo Effect
This is the tendency of the researcher to rate the
subject high or low because of the impression he
has on the latter.
Ex. A student nurse known to be intelligent is
exempted in taking the post test. The teacher with
that impression will give the student the highest
score.
For the researcher to minimize threats to external
validity, the Double Blind Method may be used to
remove the observer's bias.
It is an experimental design in which data are
collected from subjects only after the intervention
has been introduced.
Ex. A child had been brought by the mother in the
health center for immunization, assess only the pain
level after the immunization.

This means that neither the subject nor the observer
knows the specific research objectives or the
specific subjects who belong to the experimental or
control group. Hence, the observer cannot distort
the data.
SINGLE-BLIND AND DOUBLE-BLIND
STUDY
Single blind study: Patients don't know whether
they are taking treatment or placebo (control dosage
forms), o
Double blind studies: Both, patient and doctor, are
in dark.
If the double blind method is not feasible, the
Double Observer Method may be used to determine
the extent of bias between the two observers as they
both observe and record the subjects' performance
on a dependent variable.
Post-Test Only Control Design
1. Composed of two randomly assigned groups,
i.e. EG and CG
2. Pre-test is not taken from the subjects of both
groups.
3. Treatment or intervention is given only to the
subjects of EG.
4. Post-test is carried out on both the groups to
assess the effect of manipulation.
5. This design is carried out in situations where it
is not possible to pretest the subjects.
Ex. A study to assess the effect of an educational
intervention related to urinary incontinence on the
subsequent help-seeking behaviour of older adults
2. PRE-TEST-POST-TEST DESIGN
- refers to the pre-test and post- test conducted
before and after the experimental treatment was
done to the control and experimental group.

NCM 111 Vidlec 4 Pre-Test Post-Test Design

MIDTERM 1. Composed of two randomly assigned groups
THREATS TO VALIDITY i.e. EG and CG
- are reasons that an inference or conclusion could 2. Subjects are randomly assigned to both groups.
be wrong. 3. Pre-test is done to assess the effect on the
*A key function of quantitative research design is to dependent variable on both the groups before
rule out validity threats by exercising various types the treatment.
of controls. 4. Treatment is carried out for the experimental
TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL group only.
RESEARCH DESIGNS 5. Post-test is done to assess the effect on the
1. Post-Test Only Design dependent variable on both the groups after the
2. Pre-Test Post-Test Only Design treatment.
3. One-Shot Design Ex. An experimental study to assess the
4. Clinical Trials effectiveness of cognitive behaviour therapy (on
5. Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) depression, fear and anxiety) interventions for
6. Solomon Four Group Design patients with breast cancer
7. Factorial Design
8. Randomized Block Design 3. ONE-SHOT DESIGN
9. Crossover Design - has one intact group of subjects which is given the
1. POST TEST-ONLY DESIGN / AFTER-ONLY treatment and then measured or observed.
DESIGN No attempt is made to randomly assign subjects to
-there is no pre-test, post-test only and there is a the two groups. One group will be given one
control group. treatment and one observation.
Ex.A group of patients with COPD receiving
Laqundi (Ascof) was observed and monitored
throughout the treatment process. Determine
efficacy of the drug to relieve cough and pulmonary
congestion.
4. CLINICAL TRIALS
-a study designed to assess the safety, efficacy, and
effectiveness of a new clinical intervention,
sometimes involving several phases.
Clinical trials undertaken to test a new drug or an
innovative therapy often are designed in a series of
four phases as ff:
Phase I -occurs after initial development of the drug
or therapy, and is designed primarily to establish
safety and tolerance and to determine optimal dose.
Phase II -involves seeking preliminary evidence of
treatment effectiveness and looking for signs of
possible side effects, and identifying refinements to
improve the intervention.
Phase III – is a full test of the treatment -a
Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) with
randomization to an experimental or control group
under controlled conditions.
Phase IV - studies of the effectiveness of an
intervention in a general population. The emphasis
is on the external validity of the intervention that
has shown promise of efficacy.
In pharmaceutical research, Phase IV trials typically
focus on post approval safety surveillance and on
long term consequences.
These include planned therapeutic or preventive
care involving patients concurrently receiving one
intervention and usually done in health care
settings.
These interventions may consist of a drug, treatment
or nursing intervention (EG), compared with
another intervention such as placebo or no
intervention (CG), to determine their efficacy and
safety.
These are required by regulatory agencies such as
hospitals or government health care agencies to
approve new treatments and, as such are designed to
assess the efficacy and safety of interventions
(Benner & Ketefian, 2008).
Ex. Effect of Positioning Pregnant Clients to Their
Blood Pressure Readings
EG stays in SUPINE position while CG stays in
SIMS LEFT position. After 30 minutes blood
pressure is checked to determine safety of
positioning to both mother and fetus.
5. RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL
(RCT)
-a full experimental test of an intervention,
involving random assignment to treatment groups;
sometimes, phase III of a full clinical trial.
These are experimental studies done to evaluate a
proposed new treatment option against the best
standard treatment currently available.
To avoid potential bias, patient samples are
randomly selected and assigned in equal numbers
both to the CG and EG.
The researchers are not just passive observers but
plays an Active Role in manipulating the variables
of the study under controlled conditions to establish
causality. The primary strength of RCT design is its
power in establishing causality.
Ex. Effect of Music Therapy on Preoperative
Anxiety on the Day of Surgery
TYPES OF RCT
A. Treatment or Intervention Research
- the nurse researcher must introduce an
intervention to produce an outcome or effect.
Ex. Effect of Massage on Pain and Anxiety During
Labor
The EG received massage treatment while the CG
did not. The intensity of pain and anxiety between
two groups are compared during the stages of labor.
Studies showed that the EG subjects reported that
massage was helpful in providing pain relief and
psychological support during labor.
B. Placebo Effect
- changes in the dependent variable attributable to
the placebo condition- because of participant's
expectations of benefits or harms.
Placebo -a sham or pseudo intervention, often used
as control group condition.
It is an experiment to determine a patient's response
to intervention regardless of whether it is a real
thing or a placebo.
Ex. Clients used to taking narcotics are randomly
assigned to CG using the same narcotic drug while
the EG was given a placebo to camouflage the
prolonged effect of narcotics.
Both groups shall be observed and compared for
physiological and psychological change.
C. Single-Blind and Double Blind Techniques
-the subject is unaware of which treatment is being
received, but the researcher has this information.
Single-blind study
A type of clinical trial in which only the researcher
doing the study knows whether a patient is
receiving the standard treatment or the new
treatment being tested.
It can be used to reduce potential BIAS in
experimental research.
Ex. Polkki and colleagues (2008) tested an
imagery-induced relaxation intervention to reduce
postoperative pain in 8- to 12- year-old children.
The nurse who! collected the data did not know
whether children were in the intervention group or
the usual care control group.
Double-blind study
-a study in which two groups are blinded with
respect to the group that a study participant is in.
Often a situation in which neither the subjects nor
those who administer the treatment know who is in
the experimental or control
Single-Blind vs. Double-Blind
• Single-Blind study: participants do not know
whether they are in the experimental or control
group
• Double-Blind study: both subjects AND
experimenters are kept uniformed
• Why conduct a blind studies? -to reduce
experimenter bias
Ex. CG clients receive type A treatment while EG
clients receive type B treatment.
In the initial phase of treatment the client does not
know the treatment given but the researcher does.
On the second phase of treatment, CG receive type
C drug while EG group receives type D
Both the clients and the researcher do not know the
type of treatments received by both groups. Effects
of all treatment to both were then compared and
evaluated.
6. SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
- involves two control groups and two experimental
groups.
One CG and EG take the pre- test before treatment
while the other two groups do not.
However, both sets of groups will get the post- test
after the treatment, thereby segregating the effects
of pre-test measure and intervention before and
after treatment.
Note: Solomon involves 4 Group Design = 2
experimental group and 2 control group
Ex. Effects of Genetic Counseling and Prenatal
Supervision on the Incidence of Maternal
Complications in High Risk Women
Example of a Solomon four-group design:
Swanson (1999) used a Solomon four-group design
in her study of the effects of a caring-based
counseling intervention on the cmotional wellbeing
of women who had had a miscarriage. Swanson
adopted this design because of a concern that "the
potential existed that participating in a longitudinal
control group with carly focused attention on loss
might, in itself, serve as a form of recognition,
support, and validation"
7. FACTORIAL DESIGN
There is simultaneous manipulation of two or more
independent variables which permit testing of
multiple hypotheses in a single experiment.
The researcher manipulates two or more
independent variables simultaneously to observe
their effects on the dependent variables.
A separate analysis is done on the effects of the
independent variables on the dependent variables
and the interaction effects b/w these variables.
Ex. An experiment to determine the performance of
male and female in the relief of pain under the
effects of varying amounts of same drug dosage
measured in milligrams.
The researcher is concerned with differences in pain
relief related to:
a. sex;
b. the amount of drug taken; and
c. interaction effect of sex and drug
In this experiment, there is a two-way classification
of data; data according to sex, and classification of
the same data according to the drug dosage.
8. RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN
-there are two independent variables, but one
independent variable is not experimentally
manipulated due to heterogeneous randomized
assignment of subjects. This is called the Blocking
Variable.
Ex. Effects of Touch and Music Therapy on the
Heart Rates and Respiratory Rates of Premature and
Full term Newborn
The blocking variable could be the birth status of
the newborn. The full-term newborn is not
manipulated since premature and full-term newborn
will respond differently to the touch and music
therapy.
Hence, the premature newborn will be the only one
manipulated.
9. CROSSOVER DESIGN / SWITCHING
REPLICATIONS DESIGN
- same subjects are exposed to two or more
different treatments or conditions.
This type of within-subjects design has a high
equivalence advantage since the participants or
subjects of the study are exposed to the same
treatments or conditions.
Ex. Both Premature and Full- term Newborn will be
exposed to Touch and Music Therapy
Results will be analyzed according to how each
group responds to both treatments.
SHARING OF UPDATE
In an article by Alice Park dated April 14, 2020 in
TIME magazine entitled "Vaccines, Antibodies and
Drug Libraries. The Possible COVID-19
Treatments Researchers Are Excited About"
Potential Coronavirus Treatment
Hydroxychloroquine Sulfate Tablet
As researchers studied hydroxychloroquine in the
lab in recent decades , they learned it can block
viruses, including coronaviruses, from infecting
cells.
"The problem is that what happens in the lab often
doesn't predict what happens in a patient," says Dr.
Otto Yang, from the department of microbiology,
immunology and molecular genetics at the David
Geffen School of Medicine at the University of
California Los Angeles
In fact, in the case of influenza, the drug wasn't as
successful in stopping infection in animals or in
people. Similarly, when scientists brought
hydroxychloroquine out of the lab and tested it in
people, the drug failed to block infection with HIV
and dengue as well.
That's why doctors are approaching
hydroxychloroquine with healthy skepticism when
it comes to COVID-19 and are only using it on the
sickest patients with no other options.
Doctors at a number of hospitals, including Johns
Hopkins, the University of California Los Angeles,
and Brigham and Women's, for example, are
starting to use hydroxychloroquine to treat patients
with severe COVID-19 symptoms when they don't
improve on current supportive treatments.
It's not ideal, but "If someone is sick in the ICU you
try everything possible you can for that person,"
says Dr. David Boulware, a professor of medicine at
the University of Minnesota, who is conducting a
study of hydroxychloroquine effectiveness both in
treating those with severe disease and in protecting
health people from infection.
Other researchers are attempting to trace the same
path with other repurposed drugs, including a flu
treatment from Toyama Chemical, a pharmaceutical
division of the Japanese conglomerate Fujifilm,
called favipiravir, which Chinese researchers used
to treat patients with COVID-19.
More rigorous studies of both remdesivir and
favipirivir against SARS-CoV-2 are ongoing; all
researchers can say at this point is that they are
worth studying further, and that they appear to be
safe.
NCM 111 TOPIC 5
2. Quasi-experiment
-bears resemblance to true experimental research
but different as it lacks one or more of the four
properties of the true experiment.
The missing ingredients is either randomization, or
the control group of the validity component.
Quasi experiment
-No random assignment of participants may or may
not have a control group
Example
Administering a drug to a group of infants whose
mothers are heroin addicted, to see if the treatment
or decrease of low birth weight infants
The study used only an experimental group, the
“Infants of heroin addicted mothers”
No control group was used such as administering a
drug to those “infants whose mothers are not heroin
addicted”.
May or many not have control over manipulation of
independent variables
(i.e gender, smokers and non-smokers)
Quasi-experiments are also called controlled trials
without randomization
Quasi-experimental design is generally used to
demonstrate a causal relationship.
Example
-suppose we want to investigate the effect of
playing violet video games to the aggressiveness of
young children
It could be that parents would only be willing to
allow their children to participate in the study if
they could decide on whether their child is exposed
to violate games or puzzle games.
This parent-selected assignment is obviously not
random. So n this example random assignment is
lacking.
In other cases, the independent variable is of
individual difference variable and cannot be
manipulated.
Suppose that we want to investigate the effect of
gender on aggressiveness.
This automatically entails a quasi-experimental
design since we cannot assign children to be a boy
or a girl for the purpose of our study.
The term COMPARISON GROUP is generally
used in lieu of the CONTROL GROUP
Comparison group
-refer to the group by which performance outcome
of the compared and evaluated (Louiselle, 2008).
Types of quasi-experimental design
A. Non-equivalent Control Group before and after
design
B. Cohort series Design
A. non-equivalent control group before and after
design
-Is identical to the Pretest-Posttest Control Group
design, with the exception of randomization.
It involves use of the two or more groups of
subjects observed before and after treatment was
done.
Example
Effect of Primary Nursing on staff Nurses
Satisfaction
Primary Nursing
-A method of providing nursing services to
inpatients whereby one nurse plans he care of
specific patients for a period of 24 hours.
Primary nursing includes scheduling of activities,
tests, and procedures.
For example, there is a medicine nurse whose sole
responsibility is administering medications.
E.g medicating nurse, table nurse
Primary nursing method of assignment is
implemented throughout Hospital A.
No randomization is possible since all nurses are
involved in the study.
Data of staff satisfaction is gathered before
implementing primary nursing and again after
implementation of primary nursing
Data is collected and compared with Hospital B not
using primary nursing.
Example
Yuan and colleagues (2009) tested the effectiveness
of an exercise intervention on nurses’ physical
fitness.
The research used nurses from different units of a
medical center in Taiwan to be either in an
intervention group or comparison group. All nurses
became participants.
B. COHORT DESIGN
-the chosen comparison group is another group with
similar characteristics with that of the experimental
group.
The strength of this design depends on the extent to
which both groups are similar in key characteristics
such as age, gender, educational level and previous
experience.
Example
If the researcher examines the effects of a new
curriculum on nursing students (EG), a previous
group of students from the old curriculum could be
used to compare with the new group of students on
the new curriculum.
Cohort studies examine patterns of change,
sequences of events, growth or trends overtime.
The researcher attempts to identify risks factors for
particular diseases, health conditions or behaviors.
Cohort study is cross-sectional if done at a single
point in time, it is longitudinal if done over a period
of months or years.
C. TIME SERIES DESIGN
-is an epidemiological research design in which a
single population group defined size is studied over
a period during which preventive or therapeutic
interventions are taking place, with, measurements
of factors and variables of interest done at specified
time intervals.
It is quasi-experimental design involving the
collection of data over an extended time period,
with multiple data collection points both prior to
and after an intervention.
In the design, both treatment group (EG) and
comparison group are used without randomization,
in another instance there is neither the comparison
group nor randomization.
The researcher collects data over an extended
period of time and introducing the treatment during
that period.
The aim is to detect trends such as the variations in
incidence rates of disease or other health-related
phenomena in response to particular intervention.e
Example
Community Health nurses assessed and evaluated
the health programs that implemented to determine
incidence of Dengue infection.
Example
Suppose that a hospital implemented rapid response
team (RRTs) in its acute care units. ( e.g Code Blue
teams)
Administrators want to examine the effects on
patients outcomes (e.g unplanned admissions to the
ICU, mortality rate) and nurse outcomes (e.g stress).
For the purposes of this example assume no other
hospitals could serve as a good comparison.
The only kind of comparison can be made is a
before-after contrast
Advantages of non-experimental Research
1. Retrospective and less expensive
2. Adequate time
3. Cooperation is easy to obtain and
4. Funding may be available for a representative
target population.
Disadvantages of Non-experimental Research
1. Not capable of estimating causal relationship in
the same degree as experimental research
2. Not applicable to a new product or procedure
3, Is not useful in the development of theories
principles and concepts
4. Oftentimes not considered as true research and
may not get financial support
Advantages of Experimental Design
1. Explains and establishes causal relationships of
variables
2. Increases purity of observations
3. Create conditions in the experimental setting that
approximates the natural setting and
4. Free from the pressures of daily life when
conducted in a controlled unit
Disadvantages of Experimental Design
1. Dangerous, particularly if human beings are used
as subjects
2. Difficult to create conditions
3. Time constraints
4. Non-cooperation of subjects
5. Population constraints and
6. A generalization may not be reliable if done in an
artificial setting.
NCM 111
Topic 6
3.QUANTITATIVE RESARCH
-The investigation of phenomena that lend
themselves to precise measurement and
quantification, often involving a rigorous and
controlled design.
-It manipulates and controls research situations and
verify results, using empirical data gathered through
the senses.
-It concerned with the objective meaning experience
to an individual.
Quantitative research uses measurement.
● It has large scale meaning more participants.
● It is statistical- How many? How often?
How much?
THIS USES PROBABILITY SAMPLING SUCH
AS RANDOM AND QUOTA.
Quantitative research is also considered as “hard
science” characterized by replicable and reliable
data.
Quantitative research applies to both experimental
and non-experimental studies that yield numerical
data which can be subjected to statistical analysis.
A.SURVEYS
-Non-experimental research obtains information
about people’s activities, beliefs, preference, and
attitudes via direct questioning.
-These gathered primarily quantitative data such as
what people do, how or what they eat, how to meet
their health needs, their compliance in taking
medications, and what family planning behaviour
they engaged in, among others.
-They are usually based on answers given by the
respondents to questions of the researcher.
-It is also called SELF-REPORTS.
-Survey data can primarily be collected through
interviews and questionnaires.
-The most respected method is through personal
interviews (or face-to-face interviews), in which
interviewers meet in person with respondents to ask
them questions.
-A key advantage of personal interviews is that
refusal rates tend to be low.
-TELEPHONE INTERVIEW are a less costly than
person interviews but respondents may be
uncooperative in the telephone.
-QUESTIONAIRES, unlike interviews are
self-administered.
-They are sometimes called SAQs, that is,
self-administered questionnaires.

-Most major TELEPHONE SURVEYS now use
computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI)
and growing numbers of in-person surveys use
computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI)
with laptop computers.
-With AUDIO-CASI (computer-assisted
self-interview) respondents sits at a computer and
listen to questions over headphones. Respondents
enter their responses (usually simple codes like 1 or
2) directly onto the keyboard, without the
interviewer having to see the respondents.
EXAMPLE OF A MAILED SURVEYS
-Miller and colleagues (2008)
mailed a survey to nearly 5,000 randomly selected
nurses in 6 states.
*A major PURPOSE of the survey was to document
rates of obesity and weight in nurses, and to explore
whether nurses address obesity issues with patients.
B.METHODOLOGICAL RESEARCH
-Concerned with the development of an instrument
of procedure that measures effect or change on the
dependent variable.
*This is also known as METHODOLOGIC
STUDIES.
Many methodologic studies focus on instrument
development
EXAMPLE
-Competence evaluation Instrument using Nursing
Process indicators to assess the Clinical
Performance to nurses.
-Develop and test new instrument to measure
patient’s satisfaction with nursing care.
*The goal is to develop a high-quality instrument
for others to use in clinical or research applications.
C.EVALUATE RESEARCH
-Is applied research that aims to find out how well a
program, practice, produce or policy is working out.
-It is also known as EVALUATION RESEARCH.
-Evaluation research focuses on developing
information needed by decision makers about
whether to adopt, modify, or abandon a program,
practice, procedure or policy.
KINDS OF EVALUATION RESEARCH
1. Process or Implementation Analysis.
2. Outcome Analysis
3. Impact Analysis
4. Cost Analysis
IMPLEMENTATION ANALYSIS
-Provides descriptive information about the process
by which a program gets implemented and how it
actually functions.
-A process analysis may be undertaken with the aim
of improving a new or ongoing program (a
formative evaluation).
EXAMPLE OF IMPLEMENTATION NALYSIS
-Donaldson and colleagues (2009) did an
implementation analysis of a multisite initiative to
implement rapid response teams in acute care units.
-The researchers examined RRT composition, the
manner in which activation to the team occurred,
nurse reactions to the teams, and factors associated
with successful implantation.
OUTCOME ANALYSIS
-Evaluation often focus on whether a program or
policy is meeting its objectives.
-Evaluation that assess the worth of a program are
sometimes called SUMMATIVE EVALUATION.
EXAMPLE
-A program may be designed to encourage women
in a poor rural community to obtain prenatal care
like conducting health teaching on the importance
of prenatal care.
-In an outcome analysis the researchers might
document the percentage of pregnant women who
had obtained prenatal care and perhaps compare this
information with existing pre-intervention
community data.
EXAMPLE
-Clinical training program for newly hired nurse
and their clinical performance proficiency.
IMPACT ANALYSIS
-Assess a program’s net impacts that can be
attribute to the program over and above effects of a
counterfactual (e.g. standard care)
-Impact analysis use an experimental or strong-
quasi- experimental design because their aim is to
permit causal interference about program effects.
-In the example cited earlier, suppose that the
program to encourage prenatal care involved having
nurses make home visits o women in rural
communities to explain the benefits of early care.
-If the visits could be made to prevent women
randomly assigned to the intervention, the labor and
delivery outcomes of the group of women receiving
the homes visits and of those not receiving the
could be compared to assess the interventions net
impacts that is the percentage increase in receipt of
prenatal care among the experimental group relative
of control group.
COST ANALYSIS
-Evaluations to determine whether the benefits of
the program outweigh the monetary costs.
-This is also known as ECONOMIC ANALYSIS.
EXAMPLE OF COST-EFFECTIVENESS
ANALYSIS
-Olson and colleagues (2009) compared the hospital
costs associated with a new patient-centered
integrated care pathway for patients with hip
fracture, compare with cost for the usual care
system.
-They found a 40% reduction in the total cost of
treatment with the new care system, as well as
improved clinical effectiveness.
D. CONTENT ANALYSIS
-Refers to the quantification of narrative data of a
research report, published articles or any form of
communications for purposes of analysis and
evaluation.
EAMPLE
-The position of congress to the “MALPRACTICE
BILL” of Physicians.
E. CLINICAL TRIALS
-Designed to assess the safety and effectiveness of a
nursing intervention.
F. SECONDARY ANALYSIS
-Involves the use of data gathered in previous study
to test new hypothesis or explore new phenomena
or relationship.
-Secondary data analysis is also known as
SECOND-HAND ANALYSIS.
-It is simple the analysis of pre-existing data in a
different way to answer a different question than
what was originally intended.
EXAMPLE OF A QUANTITATIVE
SECONDARY ANALYSIS
-Chasems and colleagues (2009) studied the effect
of excessive sleepiness on functional outcomes in
older adults with diabetes, using data from a
subsample of people with a diagnosis of diabetes
who participated in a survey of older adults
sponsored by the National Sleep Foundation.
NCM 111 TOPIC 7
4. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
-The investigation of phenomena, typically in an in
depth and holistic fashion, through the collection of
rich narrative materials using a flexible research
design.
-It focuses on insights into and understanding of
individual of perceptions on the phenomenon under
study.
-This really requires active listening and primary
observation
-It is considered as “SOFT SCIENCE” concerned
with the “Subjective” meaning of experience to an
individual.
-However it may also be used to enhance the
interpretability of quantitative findings.
-It generally uses empirical data starting from
simple (observe) to complex (theory) data or the
inductive approach.
-Qualitative studies use an emergent design the
evolves as researchers make ongoing decisions
reflecting what has already been learned.
BRICOLEUR
-Is a person who is immersed in a study situation
and has the experience in performing qualitative
research.
BRICOLAGE
-The tendency in qualitative research to derive a
complex array of data from a verify of sources,
using a variety of methods.
-This is ranging from interviewing to observing to
interpreting personal and historical data to intensive
reflection and introspection.
-Qualitative studies are not intended to be
generalized to a study population (no
generalizability) and are not used to test the cause
and effect relationship.
GENERALIZIBILITY
-The degree to which research findings can be
generalized to individuals other than those who
participated in the study.
-Researchers must consider the SATURATION
point in qualitative studies.
SATURATION
-The collection of qualitative data to the point
where a sense of closure is attained because new
data yield redundant information.
-It is the key consideration for the sample size in
qualitative studies.

-Saturation is reached when themes become
repetitive suggesting no new inputs is needed.
-Five or six informants is a point of saturation and
this must be determined or reported by the
researcher (Creswell, 2003)
-Qualitative research is based on trustworthiness
rather than reliability or validity.
-Source of qualitative data include interviews,
focus, groups, observations and documents.
-If qualitative design deals with numbers,
qualitative usually uses words as one gets the
verbatim answers or responses of the informants.
TIP:
*When checking the accuracy of transcribed data, it
is critical to listen to the taped interview while
doing the cross-check
-This is also a good time to insert in the
transcription any nonverbal behaviour you recorded
in your field notes.
-The actual transcribed data taken through focus
group discussion (FGD) for example, should be
placed in the appendix part of the research paper.
-With regard to timeframes, qualitative research can
be either cross-sectional with one data collection
point or longitudinal with multiple data collection
points over an extended time period.
EXAMPLE OF A LONGITUDINAL
QUALITATIVE STUDY.
-Sarenmalm and colleagues (2009) explored how
women with recurrent cancer adjusted to their
illness.
-To described the evolution of the process the
researchers conducted between two and five
interviews with 12 women over a 2 year period
following the recurrence of their breast cancer.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Phenomenological studies
2. Ethnographic Studies
3. Grounded Theory Studies
4. Historical Studies
5. Case studies
PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDIES
- or PHENOMENOLOGY
- is an approach to understanding people’s everyday
life experiences.
-The goal of phenomenological studies is to
describe the ‘LIVEDEXPERIENCES AND LIVED
HUMAN RELATIONS OR BEING IN THE
WORLD OF PEOPLE” that are of interest to the
researcher or to phenomenologists.
Example:
-“Live experience of Sexually Abused and
Abandoned Children”
“Physiological and Emotional trauma Experience
by Children of Separated Parents and Overseas
workers”
-Phenomenologists view human existence as
meaningful and interesting because of people’s
consciousness of that existence.
-The phrase “being-in-the-world” (or embodiment)
is a concept that acknowledges people’s physical
ties to their world-they think, see, hear, feel and are
conscious through their bodies interaction with the
world
-In qualitative research samples are referred to as
“informants”, respondents or participants.
-The researcher indentifies the inclusion criteria of
the informants specific to the research variables
investigated.
Researchers help informants to describe lived
experienced without leading the discussion.
For some, the inquiry includes not only gathering
information but also efforts to experience the
phenomenon through participation, observation and
introspective reflection.
Introspection
-a looking into one’s own thoughts, feelings, etc.
Hermeneutics
-a qualitative research traditional that focuses on the
lived experienced of humans, and on how they
interpret those experiences.
Steps involved in Phenomenological studies
1. Bracketing
2. Immersion
3. Intuiting
4. Data reduction
5. Analyzing
6. Describing
Bracketing
-is the process of identifying and holding in
abeyance preconceived beliefs and opinions about
the phenomenon under study.
The purpose of bracketing is to limit the researchers
bias of the phenomenon.
Immersion
-refers to the data collection process on which the
researchers “lives” with the data overtime.
Intuiting
-the researchers is open to meanings attributed to
the phenomenon by those who experienced it.
Data reduction
-the researchers begins to simplify the large amount
of data obtained from interviews and from other
sources.
Analyzing
-The researchers dissects significant meanings of
statements and events.
The analysis of qualitative materials typically
begins with a search for broad categories or themes.
Theme
-is an abstract entity that brings meaning and
identity to a current experience and its variant
manifestation.
Thematic analysis often relies on the similarity
principle and the contrast principle.
Describing
-The researchers defines and interprets the meaning
of the phenomenon under study.
Example of a conceptual category of scheme.
-A category scheme was developed by beck (2006)
to code data from her internet interviews on the
anniversary of birth trauma.
Beck’s Coding Scheme for the Anniversary of Birth
Truama
Theme 1. The prologue: An agonizing time
A. Plagued with an array of distressing thoughts and
emotions
B. Physically taking a toll
C. Clocks, calendars, and seasons playing key roles.
D. Ruminating about the day their babies had been
born
Theme 2. The Actual Day: A Celebration of a
birthday or Torment of an Anniversary
A. Concept of time taking center stage
B. Not Knowing how to celebrate her child’s
birthday
C. Torment by power emotions
D. Schedule birthday party on a different day\
E. Consumed with technical details of the birthday
party
F. Need to physically get away on the birthday
Theme 3. The Epilogue: A Fragile State
A. Surviving the actual anniversary took a heavy
toll
B. Needed time to recuperate
It is sometimes Recommended that a single person
code the entire data set to ensure the highest
possible coding consistency across interviews or
observations.
Coding
-The process of transforming data into standardized
form for data processing and analysis.
In qualitative research, coding is the process of
identifying and indexing recurring words, themes,
or concept within the data.
2. Ethnographic studies
-or Ethnography
-Focuses on the culture of a group people, with an
effort to understand the world view of those under
study.
These refer to the collection and analysis of data on
the lifestyle and daily activities of a culture or a
group of people in a particular group or system.
The primary aim is to understand the participations
world view and how their culture is communication
and portrayed
Ethnograhic rey the searchers sometimes refer to “
emic” and “ etic” perspective
Emic perspective
-is the way the members of the culture envision
their world it is the insiders view
The emic is the local language, concepts, or means
of expression used by the members of the group
under study to characterize their experiences.
Etic perspective
-is the outsiders interpretation of the experiences of
that culture it is the language used by those doing
the research to refer to the same phenomena.
Examples:
“ The lifestyle, beliefs and Health habits of the
Aetas of Nt. Pinatubo”.
“ The Parental Style, Attitude and child rearing
practices of the Mangyans in Oriental Mindoro”.
Many nurse researchers have undertake
ethnographic studies. Indeed, Leininger coined the
phrase ethnonursing research.
Ethnonursing Research
-the study and analysis of the local or indigenous
people’s viewpoints, beliefs, and practices about
nursing care behavior and processes of designated
cultures.
Example
Aga and colleagues (2009) conducted and
ethnonursing study focusing on the concepts of care
among the family caregivers of persons living with
HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia.
Four Themes emerged using Leininger’s phrases of
ethnonursing analysis:
-Nourishing the ill family members while struggling
with poverty
-Maintenance of cleanliness and hygiene of the ill
family members and the surroundings.
-Conforting
-Sacrificing self to care dor nthe relative with
HIV/AIDS
NCM 111 Video 8
3. GROUNDED THEORY STUDIES
- are concerned with the analysis of data leading to
the development of theory.
- data include in-depth interviews and observation
of the study participants to generate comprehensive
explanations of a phenomenon grounded in reality.
- Grounded theory was formulated by two
sociologists, Glaser and Strauss (1967).
- Grounded theory has contributed to the
development of many middle-range nursing
theories.
- Grounded theory uses the constant comparative
method of analysis.
CONSTANT COMPARATIVE METHOD
- this method involves a comparison of elements
present in one data source (e.g. in one interview)
with those in another to determine if they are
similar.
- commonalities are identified.
- the concept of fit is an important element in
Glaserian grounded theory analysis.
FIT
- by fit, Glaser meant that the developing categories
of the substantive theory must fit the data.
- Fit enables the researcher to determine if data can
be placed in the same category or if they can be
related to one another.
Examples:
- the experience of caring for a woman with
high-risk pregnancy, during which the theory of
Newman (1986) is developed with the nurse and the
client as partners in relationship of care,
characterized by negotiation, reciprocity, and
empowerment.
- Kohara and Inoue (2010) used a grounded theory
approach to study the decision-making process in
patients considering participation in cancer phase I
clinical trials.
- using data from both interviews and observations,
the researchers identified the core problem as
“searching for a way to live to the end”
Example of a Contructivist Grounded Theory :
- Kean (2010) used constructivist grounded theory
methods to explore the experience of families of
brain-injured ICU patients.
- Data from nine family interviews revealed that
“ambiguous” loss reflects the loss of a family
member who is physically present but
psychologically absent.
4. HISTORICAL STUDIES
- involved in identification, location, critical
evaluation and synthesis of past events n order to
shed light on present behavior, trends or practices.
- the data for historical research are usually found in
documents or in relics and artifacts.
Examples:
- “Florence Nightingale’s Political Power in the 19th
Century Which Effected Change in Nursing
Practice.”
- “Significant Historical Indicators of Change and
their impact on Present Nursing Care Modalities”
5. CASE STUDIES
- involve in-depth examination and analysis of
people or groups of people in relation to nursing
issues or problems that are important to the client
and the researcher.
- among the data that case studies cover are the
client’s history, their patterns of growth and
development, and other relevant circumstances
affecting the client under study.
- the results of the case analysis are used as basis for
formulating a suitable nursing care plan and as a
guide for its implementation.
Example:
- Case study of the Needs and Problems of Patients
with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease”
6. FIELD STUDIES
- investigate problems as they occur in their natural
setting as in the nursing homes, housing projects
and clinical wards, among others.
- data are collected from individuals in their usual
roles.
- the aim is to understand practices, behavior and
beliefs of these individuals or groups as they
normally function in real life.
7. BIOGRAPHIES
- explore the life of an individual
- data are derived from documents that describe the
turning point or significant moments in the life of
an individual.
- Data also include personal history, growth and
development patterns, significant accomplishments
and the implications of these to the individual and
to society.
Examples:
The Life and Ideals of Dr. Jose Rizal
Benigno Aquino, A Portrait of a True Filipino
8. CRITICAL THEORY
- an approach to viewing the world that involves a
critique of society, with the goals of envisioning
new possibilities and effecting social change.
- it is action-oriented.
- it also involves a self-reflective aspect.
- it aims to integrate theory and practice such that
people become aware of contradictions and
incongruities in their culture, beliefs and social
practices so they become inspired to change them.
- can advance nurses’ understanding of the social
organization of everyday practice and how they
might be reorganized.
- Critical ethnographers address the historical,
social, political, and economic dimensions of
cultures and they value-laden agendas.
Examples:
1. DISENGAGEMENT THEORY
- the use of the “aging process” which
necessitates practical intervention
concerning daily activities of elderly clients.
- These activities can be done independently
or requires continuous institutional care.
2. An Investigation on the Process of
Decision-Making Concerning the Discharge
of Elderly Patients from the Hospital.
9. FEMINIST RESEARCH
- focuses on gender domination and discrimination
characteristics of patriarchal societies.
- specific feminist research issues which could be
relevant to nursing research include: gender
stereotyping, gender issues based on gender
stereotypes of research and potential benefits of
feminist research approaches in nursing care.
- the scope of feminist research ranges from studies
of the subjective views of individual women to
studies of social movements, structures, and broad
policies that affect (and often exclude) women.
- the aim is to ameliorate the “invisibility and
distortion of female experience in ways relevant to
ending women’s unequal social position”.
Example:
Using feminist methods and theory, Van den Tillart
and colleagues (2009) studied Canadian women’s
experiences of living with a mental health
diagnosis, and the interpersonal and organizational
challenges they confronted as women interfacing
with the healthcare system.
10. PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH
(PAR)
- a collaborative research approach between
researchers and participants based on the premise
that the production of knowledge can be political
and used to exert power.
- the aim is to raise community consciousness to the
problems that they face and empower them to
discover their solutions.
- both participants and researchers are involved in
all phases of the research process from the
determination of the problems, the choice of
research methods, the analysis of data, and how the
study results will be utilized.
- in PAR research, methods take second place to
emergent processes that can motivate people and
generate community solidarity.
Example of PAR:
Namura and colleagues (2009) conducted a PAR
project designed to empower older persons with
early dementia and they family caregivers in Japan.
The PAR lasted 5 years and consisted of three
cycles: one focused on an individual level, the
second on a group level, and the third at community
levels.
11. FOCUS GROUP
- is a form of in-depth qualitative interview in
which a group of people are asked about their
attitude towards a particular subject matter which
could be a product, a service, a concept, nursing
care, idea, or academic experience.
- questions are asked in an interactive group setting
where participants are free to talk with other group
members.
Focus Group Interview
- Or Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
 - An interview with a group of individuals
assembled to answer questions using a topic
guide.
- the participants can discuss personal experiences
- the discussions in focus groups can be videotaped
or recorded. This needs the consent of the
participants.
Types of Focus Groups
1. Dual Moderator Focus Group
2. Dueling Moderator Focus Group
3. Respondent Moderator Focus group
4. Client Participant Focus Group
5. Mini Focus Group
6. Teleconference Focus Group
7. Online Focus Group
8. Two-way Focus Group
1. DUAL MODERATOR FOCUS GROUP
- one moderator ensures that the session progresses
smoothly, while another moderator ensures that all
the topics are covered.
2. DUELING MODERATOR FOCUS GROUP
- two moderators deliberately take opposite sides on
the issue under discussion.
3. RESPONDENT MODERATOR FOCUS
GROUP
- one or more of the respondents are asked to act as
the moderator temporarily.
4. CLIENT PARTICIPANT FOCUS GROUP
- one or more client representatives participate in
the discussion, either covertly or overtly.
5. MINI FOCUS GROUP
- this group is composed of four or five members
rather than six to twelve.
6. TELECONFERENCE FOCUS GROUP
- telephone network is used.
7. ONLINE FOCUS GROUP
- computers connected via the internet are used.
8. TWO-WAY FOCUS GROUP
- one focus group watches another focus group and
discusses the observed interaction and conclusions.
NCM 111 Topic 9
MIXED METHODS
5. Mixed Methods (MM) Research
⮚ Research in which both qualitative and
quantitative data are collected and analysed,
to address different but related questions.
⮚ Research study that combines qualitative
and quantitative methods to answer a
research question.
⮚ Integrates both qualitative and quantitative
data in a single study or coordinated clusters
of studies.
⮚ Best involves not only the collection of
qualitative and quantitative data but also the
integration of the two at some stage of the
research process, giving rise to
meta-inferences.
Meta Inferences
- It is a conclusion generated by integrating
inference obtained from the results of the
qualitative and quantitative strands of an
MM study.
- This method is commonly used in social,
behavioural and health sciences.
Two Important Characteristics:
1. Mixed-methods Research Questions
2. Mixed-methods Design
While the research questions try to inform what we
are trying to learn about a phenomenon, they also
inform the design to be selected to carry out the
study.
Generally speaking, a mixed method study based on
explanatory and exploratory research question will
use a sequential design which means that both the
quantitative or qualitative data will be collected first
and then the other data will be collected.
MIXED METHODS ELEMENTS
Mixed methods Research Questions
1. Explanatory
2. Exploratory
3. Convergent
Mixed methods Designs
1. Sequential Explanatory
2. Sequential Exploratory
3. Concurrent Convergent
Similarly, a convergent research question would
typically calls for a concurrent convergent design in
which the quantitative and qualitative data are
collected at about the same time.
3 TYPES OF MIXED-METHODS RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
1. Explanatory
2. Exploratory
3. Convergent
1. EXPLANATORY

When the research question is explanatory mixed
method, the quantitative data are collected first.
The qualitative data are generally collected after the
quantitative data and are meant to serve the purpose
of providing explanations for the results of the
quantitative data.
With these three types of questions, the quantitative
and qualitative data are collected at different times
but they work together in answering same
research question.
EXAMPLE OF EXPLANATORY DESIGNS
Sevelius (2009) used QUAN and then QUAL
Explanatory Design to study HIV-related risk
factors and protective behaviours among
transgender men who have sex with
non-transgender men.
In the first phase, QUAN data were collected in
structured interviews with 45 transgender men.
In depth interviews were conducted with 15 of those
men in the second phase.
2. EXPLORATORY
When the question is Exploratory mixed method,
the qualitative data are collected first.
The qualitative data are analysed and the results are
used to form the collection of quantitative data.
EXAMPLE OF AN EXPLORATORY DESIGN
Kalish and Williams (2009) used an Exploratory
Design QUAL the QUAN to develop and test an
instrument to measure missed nursing care.
In the first phase of the study, 17 focus group
interviews identified specific areas of missed
nursing care and the reasons for missing care.
3. CONVERGENT
When the research question is convergent
mixed-method, the quantitative and qualitative
data can be collected at about the same time and are
the used together to triangulate the findings and
answer the research question.
EXAMPLE OF A CONVERGENT DESIGN
Jurgens and colleagues (2009) used a QUAN +
QUAL concurrent convergent design to study why
elders delay responding to heart failure symptoms.
The most frequently reported symptoms were
dyspnea and fatigue.
Dyspnea duration ranged from 30 minutes to 90
days before action was taken.
Data from the qualitative component shed light on
some reasons for long delays.
All three types of questions rely on both the
quantitative and qualitative data but the three differ
in the order in which the data are collected.
They also differ on how the quantitative and
qualitative data are used once they have been
collected.
One of the challenges research is faced is the
extent to which they can or should be confident in
the results of the study.
One of the best ways to increase researcher’s
confidence in the findings is to provide evidence to
the validity of the results.
Triangulation is the practice of doing just that,
trying to come up with conclusions from more than
one data set.
Mixed method utilizes triangulation approach to
data analysis since data are synthesized from
multiple sources.
Triangulation
- Refers to the use of multiple sources to
draw conclusions about what constitutes
the truth.
- Using data collected from different sources
(samples), or at different times, or using
different methods or modes to reach the
same conclusion.
- By examining information collected by
different methods, by different groups and
in different populations, findings can
corroborated across data sets, reducing the
impact of potential biases that can exist in a
single study.
Example:
Assessing extent of needs and problems of
eclamptic patients, data on demographics are
incorporated with prevention and care program
data, to make use of expert judgment.
- Triangulation can also answer questions on
risk groups, program effectiveness, policy
and budget planning, and the state of
epidemics in a changing environment.
 - It is a powerful tool when a rapid response is
needed, or when good data do not exist to
answer a specific question.
6. Systematic Reviews
- A rigorous synthesis of research findings on
a particular research question, using
systematic sampling and data collection
procedures and a formal protocol.
- Explicitly aim to avoid reaching incorrect or
misleading conclusions that could arise from
a biased review process or from a biased
selection of studies included in the review.
- Systematic reviews of evidence from
quantitative studies especially those that
assess the effects of an intervention are
likely to use meta-analytic technique.
Meta-Analysis
- It is a technique for quantitatively
integrating the results of multiple similar
studies addressing the same research
question.
- In a meta-analysis, reviewers use a common
metric for combining evidence statistically.
- Most of the reviews in the Cochrane
Collaboration, for example, are
meta-analyses.
EXAMPLE OF A QUESTION FROM A
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Cortes and colleagues (2009) conducted a
meta-analysis that addressed the following question;
“Is there an impact on mortality and re-infarction
rates among patients receiving early mobilization
after AMI (Acute Myocardial Infarction)”.
Early mobilization, the independent variable, was
“defined as programmed changes of position from
bed to chair, bed t standing, or bed to walking added
to conventional care”.
NCM 111 (10) MIDTERM
IDENTIFYING THE POPULATION TO BE
STUDIED
In order to ensure validity and reliability of research
findings, the researcher must come up with subjects
that are representative of the target population.
In studying a population, it is not necessary that the
entire population be covered by the study.
It would suffice to investigate a sample drawn from
that population to be able to adequately know
something about the target population.
However, the samples must be chosen in
accordance with some parameters.
Sampling Plan
- A plan that specifies in advance how
participants are to be selected and how many
to include
Population
- is the entire aggregation of cases in which a
researcher is interested.
For instance, if we were studying American nurses
with doctoral degrees, the population could be
defined as all U.S. citizens who are registered
nurses (RNs) and who have a PhD, DNSc, DNP, or
other doctoral-level degree.
Other possible populations might be all male
patients who had cardiac surgery in St. Peter's
Hospital in 2010, all women with irritable bowel
syndrome (IBS) in Sydney, or all children in
Canada with cystic fibrosis.
Populations are not restricted to humans.
A population might consist of all hospital records in
a particular hospital or all blood samples at a
particular laboratory.
It is useful to make a distinction between target and
accessible populations.
Accessible Population
- is the aggregate of cases that conform to
designated criteria and that are accessible for a
study.
Target Population
- is the aggregate of cases about which the
researcher would like to generalize.
A target population might consist of all diabetic
people in the United States, but the accessible
population might consist of all diabetic people who
attend a particular clinic.
Researchers usually sample from an accessible
population and hope to generalize to a target
population (generalizability).
In so far as possible, the researcher must consider
the exact criteria by which it could be decided
whether an individual would or would not be
classified as a member of the population.
Eligibility or Inclusion Criteria
- the criteria that specify population
characteristics.
Sometimes, a population is also defined in terms of
characteristics that people must not possess. This is
called exclusion criteria.

Exclusion Criteria
- are the characteristics of the population that
are not specified in the study and are therefore
disqualified to participate in the study.
For example, the population may be defined to
exclude people who cannot speak English
Example of inclusion and exclusion criteria:
Hafsteindottir and colleagues (2010) studied
malnutrition in hospitalized neurologic patients.
Study participants had to be diagnosed with a
neurologic or
neurosurgical disease and speak Dutch.
Patients were excluded if they were bed-bound or
bedridden and if their health condition made
participation impossible.
Sampling
- is the process of selecting representative
portion of the population to represent the
entire population.
Sample
- is a subset or portion of population from
which data will be solicited for purposes of
the research.
Elements
- The most basic units about which data are
collected.
These refer to entities that make up the sample and
the
population.
Example: patients, student nurses, staff nurses
BSN IV or the graduating student nurses of X
College of Nursing
Subjects
- of the study who will receive treatment or
intervention in an experimental studies.
Key Informants
- Individuals chosen to provide the most vital
information in qualitative studies like
barangay health workers, doctors and elders
(qualitative)
These are the people who have the experience and
can articulate the phenomenon under study and are
willing to talk at length with the researcher.
Sampling Bias
- a distortion that arise from the selection of a
sample.
Sampling Design
- is the scheme that specifies the number of
samples drawn from the population, the
inclusion and exclusion criteria for their
choice and the sampling technique used.
Sampling Size
- is the total number of samples who will
participate in the study after the sampling
design was completed.

Stratum
- This term describes a mutually exclusive
segment of the population, distinguished by
one or more traits or qualifications.
(Grouping)

For instance, suppose our population was all RNs in Example

the United States. This population could be divided N = 1,000 people
into two strata based on gender. e = 05
Or, we could specify three strata of nurses younger n = 1,000/1+ 1,000 (.05)2
than 30 years of age. nurses aged 30 to 45 years, n = 1,000/1+1,000 (.0025)
and nurses 46 years or older. n = 1,000/ 1+2.5
n = 1,000/ 3.5
Example: n = 286 participants
Age - youngest to oldest
Civil Status - single or married Types of Sampling

Representative Sample 1. Non-Probability Sampling

- is one whose key characteristics closely 2. Probability Sampling
approximate those of the population.
Respondent Population Non-Probability Sampling
- or Subjects - elements are selected by non-random
- is the group of individuals or objects chosen to methods.
provide actual data and information needed in Probability Sampling
a research. - involves random selection of elements.
Example:
Kinds of Non-Probability Sampling
A. Accidental or Convenience
B. Quota Sampling
C. Purposive or Judgments
D. Snowball or Network or Chain
E. Consecutive Sampling
F. Modal Instance Sampling
A. Convenience Sampling
- or Accidental Sampling
- uses the most readily available or most
convenient group of people as study
respondents.
They are called as Volunteer Samples.
Examples:
- A faculty member who distributes
questionnaires to nursing students in a class
- Stopping people at a street corner to conduct
an interview
- Researchers seeking people with certain
characteristics place an advertisement in a
newspaper, put up signs in clinics, or post
messages in chat rooms on the Internet.
These approaches are subject to bias because people
select themselves as pedestrians on certain streets or
as volunteers in response to posted notices.
B. Quota Sampling
- divides the population into homogenous
sub-populations to ensure the presence of
representative proportions of the various strata
in the sample.
The researcher establishes desired populations for
some variables of interest to be able to elicit
homogenous data.
Examples:
A researcher wishes to study the effects of stress
management on the immune systems of nurses with
ovarian cancer.
A sample of 50 females from the accessible
population of 200 females between the age of 45
and 60 can be considered as samples.
Suppose we were interested in studying nursing
students attitude toward working with AIDS
patients.
The accessible population is a school of nursing
with 500 undergraduate students; a sample of 100
students is desired.
The easiest procedure would be to distribute
questionnaires in classrooms through convenience
sampling.
We suspect, however, that male and female students
have different attitudes and a convenience sample
might result in too many men or women.
We can, however, establish "quotas" so that the
sample includes the appropriate number of cases
from both strata like 50 males and 50 females.
C. Purposive or Judgment Sampling
- The subjects are Handpicked to be included in
the sampling frame based on certain qualities
for purposes of the study.
When using this method, sampling is done with a
Purpose in mind.
Example:
A person walking on the street carrying a clipboard
and approaching various passersby and even homes,
seeking to conduct interviews regarding certain
information personal to the interview subjects.
Such samplers may be looking for specific subjects.
for example dark-skinned females between 30-40
years old.
They size up the people passing by and anyone who
looks to be in that category they stop to ask if they
will participate.
One of the first things they are likely to do is verify
that the respondent does in fact meet the criteria for
being in the sample.
D. Snowball Sampling
- consists of identifying few persons who meet
the inclusion criteria of the study and who in
turn refer other individuals who may be
interviewed. This process continues until the
desired number of respondents is reached.
- It is also called Network or Chain Sampling.
The selection of participants through referrals from
earlier participants.
This is used to gain access to people who are
difficult to identify.
This process continues until the desired number of
respondents is reached.
With this approach, early sample members (called
seeds) are asked to refer other people who meet the
eligibility criteria.
It is called snowball sampling because in theory
once you have the ball rolling, it picks up more
snow along the way and becomes larger and larger.
Example:
Researcher looking for people who are afraid of
hospital.
Homosexual with HIV
E. Consecutive Sampling
 - involves recruiting all of the people from an
accessible population who meet the eligibility
criteria over a specific time interval, or for a
specified sample size.
For example, in a study of ventilator-associated
pneumonia (VAP) in ICU patients, if the accessible
population were patients in an ICU of a specific
hospital, a consecutive sample might consist of all
eligible patients admitted to that ICU over a
6-month period.
Or it might be the first 250 eligible patients
admitted to the ICU, if 250 were the targeted
sample size.
Consecutive samples can be selected either for a
retrospective or prospective time period.
For example, the sample could include every
patient who visited a diabetic clinic in the previous
30 days. - Retrospective
Or, it could include all of the patients who will
enroll in the clinic in the next 30 days.
F. Modal Instance Sampling
- is used when one wishes to investigate
thoughts and actions of 'typical' people and
when the researcher fears that significant data
about this group of people might be lost in a
more general study.
This can be done together with purposive or
snowball sampling method.
Types of Probability Sampling
A. Simple Random Sampling
B. Stratified Random Sampling
C. Cluster Sampling or Multi-stage Sampling
D. Systematic or Sequential Sampl
A. Simple Random Sampling
- the selection of samples on random basis from
a sampling frame.
Each element has an equal chance or probability of
being chosen as subjects of the study.
It involves the use of a sampling frame, listing all
the elements in the population from which the
sample is drawn, using the table of random numbers
or a lottery.
Methods of Randomization
1. Flip a Coin Method
2. Fishbowl Technique or Lottery Method
3. Random Table Method
4.Computer Assisted Randomization
Example of Simple Random Sampling:
Lipman and colleagues (2009) documented nurses'
practices in an urban children's hospital with regard
to whether children's height was measured and
plotted on growth charts.
Using a random numbers table, a simple random
sample of 200 hospital charts was selected for
review.
B. Stratified Random Sampling
- divides the population into homogenous
subgroups from which elements are selected at
random. (by group)
This is done to ensure representativeness of the
sample size by grouping elements with similar
strata and select the desired number of elements.
Stratified sampling designs subdivide the
population into
homogeneous subsets (e.g. based on gender or
illness severity categories from which an
appropriate number of elements are selected at
random.
For example, a study on Level 3 nursing students.
They could be divided into sections and then
randomly select participants by fishbowl technique.
Example:
Pick out 200 samples from a 5,000 elements in a
population, then group them according to age, sex,
civil status and occupation.
C. Cluster Sampling
- is the successive selection of random samples
from larger to smaller units by using either
simple random or stratified random methods.
It involves several stages in drawing the samples
from the population.
Example:
Province-municipality-village-individual
respondent
At each stage, simple random, systematic and
stratified techniques may be used
D. Systematic Sampling
- is the selection of samples in sequence
according to a predetermined modality such
as: every 10th name in a list of patients in odd
or even numbered rooms every 5th house on
the block; every 6th baby in the nursery.
Example:
Houghton and colleagues Wat (2008) surveyed
nurse Bega anesthetists about their practices and
attitudes regarding smoking intervention.
Using the membership list of the American
Association of Nurse Anesthetists, every 30th name
in the alphabetized list was selected for the sample.
NCM 111 (11) MIDTERM
SPECIFYING METHODS TO MEASURE,
GATHER, ANALYZE AND ASSESS
VARIABLES/DATA
Remember that one defining characteristic of
scientific inquiry is that it involves observation.
The point of quantitative measurement is to
objectively measure characteristics, features, or
variables of interest.
Two measurement traits are important in achieving
the quantitative measurement task: measurement
validity and measurement reliability.
Measurement validity is about the extent to which a
measurement tool or instrument adequately
measures the concept, construct, or variable of
interest.
The measurement tool should measure what it needs
to measure.
One should use the appropriate measurement tool in
measuring variables of interest.
If you want to measure frequency, for example, you
may use the scale on responses such as:
4 -Always
3 - Often
2 - Sometimes
1 -Never
If the researcher wants to assess the attitude of
respondents towards the variables being
investigated, he/she may use the scale:
4 - Strongly Agree
3 – Agree
2 – Disagree
1 – Strongly Disagree
In measuring performance, one may use the scale:
5 – Excellent
4 - Very Good
3 – Good
2 – Fair
1 – Poor
For example, if you want to measure the degree of
stress you experienced while giving care to patients,
you may use the scale:
5 - Extremely severe stress
4 - Severe distress
3 - Moderate distress
2 - Very little stress
1 - No distress at all
Research is concerned either how confident we
were in the results of the study (internal validity) or
the conclusions of the study being generalizable
(external validity).
As a complement to measurement validity,
measurement reliability indicates the degree of
accuracy or precision in measuring the construct or
variable of interest
This accuracy indicator is concerned with stability
in measurement, for one thing: if you use the tool or
instrument to measure the same thing multiple
times, you would hope to get the same result.
MEASUREMENT
- is a procedure for assigning numerical
values to variables such as objects, events or
situations, symbols, letters, or numbers to
empirical properties according to rules.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
- are determining factors of the type of
statistics to be used in analyzing data.
It is important to understand the level or
measurement of variables in research, because the
level of measurement determines the type of
statistical analysis that can be used, and therefore,
the type of conclusions that can be drawn from the
investigation.
QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT OF
VARIABLES
Data are defined in such a way that they can be
explained according to the Scale of Measurement.
SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
 - refers to a device that assigns code numbers
to subjects in order to place them in a
continuum with respect to the attributes QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF
being measured such as height, weight, VARIABLES
temperature and nursing care among others.
- or Descriptive Analysis Phase
CODING

- is the process of transforming data into A. NOMINAL SCALE

numerical symbols that can be easily entered
into the computer.
For example, religion "catholic" as 1 and
"non-catholic" as 2.
- Nominal measurement is used to classify
variables or events into categories but
cannot be ranked.
Nominal data are categorized and can be named but
not measured on a scale.

The code numbers ranges from zero (0) or none to Variables amenable to nominal measurement
l00 include:

Gender - 1 Male, 2 Female

Example: Civil Status - 1 Married, 2 Single, 3 Others

Definition of patient's satisfaction is measured by

the number of times a day the call bell rang or the
number of times the patient went out of bed
Variables àre grouped into discrete categories, and
the frequency of occurrence of each class is
measured by counting the number of times the
phenomenon occurs according to the frequency
scale.
1. Bell - 2 classes
a. Bell rang
b. Does not ring the bell
Here, the next step is to record the number of
frequency of occurrence of all bell ringing at the
end of the day.
B. ORDINAL SCALE
- Ordinal measurement is used to show
relative rankings of variables or events.
This is used in ordering observations, according to
magnitude or intensity.
Ordinal data are categorized and ranked ordered
from "most to
least" or "highest to lowest" according to frequency
of occurrence or values.
One type of ordinal scale which is most commonly
used is the Likert Scale.
LIKERT SCALE

Another example of scale of measurement is the
Pain Assessment using a "Pain Rating Scale" to
evaluate the effectiveness of analgesics and nursing
care, for example.
Pain Rating Scale:
- Respondents are asked to indicate the degree
to which they agree or disagree with the
ideas expressed by the indicator A
It is used to assess the attitude of respondents
towards the variables being investigated.

0- No Pain to 10Worst Possible Pain Example:

Variables on sanctity of marriage

Some descriptive scales:
5 – SA - Strongly Agree
⮚ No Pain 4 - A - Agree
⮚ Mild Pain 3 - U - Uncertain
⮚ Moderate Pain 2 - D - Disagree
⮚ Severe Pain 1 - SD - Strongly Disagree
⮚ Worst Possible Pain
 participants (from one participant to another) under
Note: different circumstances.

Update - nowadays, we no longer use the
"uncertain" as this may be a playing safe answer
according to some sources.
It would change into 4,3,2,1 without the uncertain.
6. The instrument should be constructed in such a
way that cheating is minimized, if not discouraged.
Subjects must not be influenced by the responses of
others.

DEVELOP RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS 7. The instrument should be easy to administer.

Research instruments serve as measurement tools. Directions should be specific and simply stated.

A research instrument must be reliable or consistent 8. The scale of measurement must be appropriate
and valid that can measure what it intends to and reliable.
measure and contribute to the scientific integrity of
a research paper
Example:

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS Measuring Frequency

Scale:
- are specially prepared tools or devices used 1 - Never
to collect needed data or information and 2 - Sometimes
facilitate observation and measurement of 3 - Often
research variables, consistent with the 4 - Always
purpose of the study.
Measuring Perception
It must be VALID (with appropriate measurement Scale:
tool) and RELIABLE (accurate) to avoid inaccurate 1 - Strongly Disagree
data and consequent spurious results. 2 - Disagree
3 - Agree
These are administered to the participants after 4 - Strongly Agree
being proven valid and reliable by means of
pre-tests or dry runs. Measuring Performance

1 - Poor
GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING 2 - Fair
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS 3 - Good
4 - Very Good
5 - Excellent
1. The instrument must suit the purpose of the
study. It must help solve problems raised in the
study.

N: Find solution or answer to the statement of the TYPES OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

problem
1. Questionnaire
2. The instrument must be able to gather needed 2. Scanning Questionnaires
data for testing the hypotheses and answer research 3. Interview
questions raised in the study. 4. Scales
5. Self-reports
3. Indicators in the instrument must be valid, 6. Anecdotal Records
arranged logically and relate to the problems and 7. Mechanical Instruments
the hypotheses of the study.

4. Indicators should be so stated that participant's 1. QUESTIONNAIRE

perceptions or reactions will not be biased.
- is a paper and pencil approach in which the
5. The instrument should be reliable and can participants are asked to answer a set of
produce comparable data when used on different printed questions.
It is a document used to gather self-report data via
self- administration of questions.
It measures information levels, opinions, attitudes,
beliefs, ideas, feelings and perceptual assessment of
thee respondents regarding the variables of the
study.
2. SCANNING QUESTIONNAIRES
- is a method of data collection that can be
used with questionnaires that have been
administered in face-to-face interviews, mail
surveys completed by an interviewer over
the phone.
The interviewer is free to direct the course of the
interview.
4. SCALES
- are devices designed to assign a numeric
score to people to place them on a
continuum with respect to attributes being
measured.
Likert Scale
- consists of declarative statements or items
that express a viewpoint on a topic.

The survey system produces paper questionnaires Example:

that can be scanned.
Measuring Frequency
Scale:
3. INTERVIEW 1- Never
2 -Sometimes
- A data collection method in which an 3 - Often
interviewer asks questions of a respondent, 4 - Always
either face-to-face or by telephone.
Measuring Perception
The researcher may use the following devices or Scale:
methods to ensure that data are accurately recorded 1 - Strongly Disagree
such as video camera and tape recorder. 2 - Disagree
3 - Agree
A researcher assistant may help record the questions 4 - Strongly Agree
and answers during the interview.
Measuring Performance
Interview Schedule
1 - Poor
- The formal instrument that specifies the 2 - Fair
wording of all questions to be asked of 3 - Good
respondents in structured self-report studies. 4 -Very Good

TYPES OF INTERVIEW 5 Excellent

1. Structured Interview
2. Unstructured Interview 5. SELF-REPORTS

Structured Interview - is a measure where a person is asked to

- Specifically, this kind of interview is a
dialogue in which the interviewer is guided
by prepared questions to gather needed data
with ease from respondents or interviewees
of the study.
report his or her own behavior or mental
contents
Self-report measures include questions like "How
happy are you on a scale of 1 to 10?"

Unstructured Interview

- Here, the interviewer asks the questions at

random but makes sure that needed data
from the respondents will give holistic 6. ANECDOTAL RECORDS
information on the subject of the interview.
 - are personal accounts of the researcher
written on a notebook or typewritten for
recording purposes.
Documentary materials supplements the primary
data gathered to enhance the veracity of the
variables investigated.
7. MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS
- These include diagnostic machines e.g. X
rays, ultrasound, computed tomography scan
or CT scan, MRI among others.
NCM 112 TOPIC 12
TYPES OF QUESTIONS ASKED
1. Open-ended
-Respondents are given enough flexibility to answer
questions of specific indicators on their own words
other than those listed in the questionnaire.
-This technique is most appropriate for the
exploratory research but is more difficulty to
administer and analyze.
2. Closed-ended
-Respondents answer a number of fixed alternative
response called dichotomous items. This also refers
to a forced choice questions since the respondents
has to select from the options provided by the
researcher.
Types of close-ended Question
A. Dichotomous Items
-these allow respondents to choose between two
response alternatives such as yes or no, married or
unmarried pregnant or not pregnant.
Dichotomous questions are useful in gathering
factual data but may yield limited information about
the respondents. This are also hard to analyze hence
can only use when no other types of questions is
appropriate.
Example: Have you ever been pregnant?
( ) yes ( ) no
B. Multichotomous items
-these allow respondents to answer questions with a
range of responses as in a multiple choice test.
Example: How favorable is it to you to become
pregnant at this time?
( ) Very favorable
( ) Favorable
( ) Not sure
( ) Unfavorable
( ) Very unfavorable
C. Fixed alternative or multiple Choice items
-Respondents are allowed multiple response
alternatives. These type of question are good when
the possible replies are few and clear-cut.
D. Projective Questions
This approach uses vague question or stimulus and
attempt to project a person’s attitude from the
response. This technique uses word association and
fill in the blank sentences projective methods are
difficulty to analyze and are better used for
exploratory research than for descriptive or
experimental research.
E. Cafeteria Questions
Respondents are asked to respond according to their
own viewpoint.
Example: People have different views on family
planning which of the following best represent your
views?
1. FP is necessary to quality life.
2. FP is immoral and should be totally banned.
3. FP has undesirable side effects that suggest need
for caution
4. FP has beneficial effects that merits its practice.
5. FP moral and should be practiced.
F. Rank-Order Questions.
Respondents are asked to rank answers from “
most” to “least” important, reasonable, frequent or
beneficial.
Example:
Why must family Planning be practiced? Rank your
answers from the 1-most to the 5-least reasonable.
_____Limits maternal disabilities
_____Gives parents more time to meet family needs
_____ Helps maintain financial viability of the
family.
______affords more working house for couples.
______Ensures family capability to educate all the
children in the future.
G. Checklist
-also called “matrix questions” items in this
instrument are presented in a two-dimensional
pattern. Questions are written horizontally while
respondents answers are written vertically.
-The researcher should consider hat respondents
may not able to answer some questions accurately.
The following are the types off response error.
A. Telescoping error
-An error resulting from the tendency of people to
remember events as occurring more recently than
they actually did.
B. Recall loss. This occurs when people forget that
an event occurred.
-For recent events, telescoping errors dominates and
for events that happened in the distant past, recall
lass dominates. The researcher, therefore may verify
or validate data through observation and interview
to determine extent of error and rectify the same for
purposes of accuracy and objectivity of data.
Characteristics of Good Questions
1. They should specifically answer the research
problems and focus only on the variables or
phenomenon under study.
2. They are clearly and briefly stated.
3. They are objective and detached from the
researcher’s own judgement.
4. The responses they contain are easy to interpret
and tabulate
5. The language used therein in appropriate to
respondents level of understanding
6. They are neatly printed or typed on clean, quality
paper
7. They should bear the researcher’s signature.
Ways of stating Research Questions
1. Questions should be stated in the affirmative
rather than in a negative manner
Example. Words such as” never” can be overlooked
by the subjects who might respond contrary to the
intended answer.
2. Questions should be neutrally worded to avoid
biased responses
Example: Do you believe that smoking is a
disgusting habits?
3. Ambiguous questions must be avoided. Use of
words with multiple meanings may result in
confused interpretations.
Examples:
Many, usually, always several, large, sometimes
regularity.
“ Do you always agree that birth control devices
prevents unwanted pregnancy?
4. Doule negative questions which are difficulty for
respondents to answer are likewise not advised.
5. Similarity, double barreled questions or two
questions stated as one could yield confusing
answers.
Example: Do you plan to get married and work as a
staff nurse upon graduation?
-A cover letter should go with the questionnaire
sating the purpose and the benefits the study can
give to the respondents, the profession and to
society itself. It should explain the need for the
respondents to answer all questions. The retrieval
date of the questionnaires and the guarantee of
confidentiality and anonymity of responses. Finally
respondents cooperation and support must be
acknowledged.
NCM111 Topic 13
EMPIRICAL PHASE/IMPLEMENTATION
PHASE
- Data Gathering for Quantitative and
Qualitative Data
Data Collection
- is a precise, systematic process of gathering
information relevant to the research purpose or
specific objectives, questions or hypotheses of the
study.
Data
- refer to the kinds of information researcehrs obtain
on the subjects of their research.
Types of Research Data
1. Cross-sectional Data
2. Retrospective Data
3. Prospective Data
1. Cross-Sectional Data
- the researcher dips into study setting at a
given point after the study design is completed,
then gathers present data on events occurring
at that time.
- such data is limited to the subjects at one
point in time, and is best gathered when the time
frame is of short duration.
Example:
A study is conducted on the amount of nursing care
a patient receives on a certain day according to
categorization of need and problems.
2. Retrospective Data
- frequently called ex-post facto studies
- in this particular type, data are collected on
events in the past before a study design is
completed, or data collected “after the fact”.
Example:
Fear responses of children during physical exam
The data will expectedly indicates previous
unpleasant experiences with health workers that
could have influenced the children’s behaviour.
3. Prospective Data 4. Use of Delphi Technique
- this refers to future data or events that
occurred after the study design has been
completed, but the study is pursued over a
relatively long period of time into the future.

Example: USE OF ALREADY EXISTING OR

What will happen to Cancer Patient who are
discharged from the hospital after six months?
Categories of Data Collection
1. Primary Data Collection
2. Secondary Data Collection
1. Primary Data Collection
- the researcher personally collects data from
actual respondents using methods such as
interviews and questionnaires.
Main Methods In Collecting Primary Data
1. Questionnaires
2. Interviews
3. Focus Groupd Interviews
4. Observations
5. Case Studies
6. Diaries
7. Critical Incidence
8. Portfolios
9. Physiologic Instruments
10.Psychometric Instruments
2. Secondary Data Collection
- the researcher uses data that was collected
for another purpose, such as patients’ medical
records, employees or patients’ satisfaction
surveys, organizational business reports, and
government databases.
AVAILABLE DATA
- these are pertinent reports and other
documents which could be raw data or tabular
data.
USE OF OBSERVERS’ DATA
- these are fathered through actual
observation and recording of events.
For ethical reasons, the subject must be
informed that they are being pbserved.
Types of Observers
A. Non-Participant Observers
B. Participant Observer
A. Non-Participant Observer
- this observer does not share the same millieu
with the subjects and is not a member of the group
or subjects of the group.
- data from this source have the advantage of
HIGH LEVEL precision, because subjective
judgment is minimal.
Example:
Ward Clerks are trained to observe and record
student nurses’ nursing care practices and the
responses of patients to their nursing care.
Types of Non-Particiant Observer
1. Overt Non-Participant Observer
2. Covert Non-Participant Observer

1. Overt Non-Participant Observer

Steps in Data Collection - the observer identifies herself and hertask of
1. Explain what tests and other measures will conducting research and informing the
be used. subjects of the types of data to be collected.
2. Clarify how tasks will be performed
3. Explain how the instruments will be
administered. 2. Covert Non-Participant Observer
4. Describe how the method of data collection - the observer does not identify herself to the
such as observation and interviews will be carried subjects she will observe. This may not be ethical
out. since the latter have the right to be informed of
activities being involved in the process of
Methods of Collecting Data research investigation.
1. Use of Already Existing or Available Data B. Participant Observer
2. Use of Observers’ Data - the observer shares the same milleu and
3. The Use of Self Recording or the Reporting is better acquainted with the subjects.
Approach
 - the observer may be a member of the - it has a high value in nursing since the data is
group assigned to collect data while taking based on actual incidents and is nor merely
part in the activity of the subjects. hypothetical.
Example: - the researcehr develop a codebook to define
Syaff nurse A who is part of the population is being data before initiationg the data collection.
trained to observe Staff Nurse B who is the subject
of the study. Both are assigned to the ICU on a 6am NCM 111 TOPIC 14
to 2pm shift. ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
Types of Participant Observer FOR QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
1. Overt Participant Observer DATA
2. Covert Participant Observer The Nature of Data Analysis
Data analysis is a process to sort, reduce, organize,
1. Overt Participant Observer and give meaning to the data collected. The
- the observer is involved with the subjects and
technique in data analysis includes descriptive and
has the full knowledge and awareness of the
inferential statistics.
subjects to be observed.
-This is based on the research questions, objectives,
hypothesis and methodology used and described in
2. Covert Participant Observer
the results or findings of the study.
- the observer interacts with the subjects and
-The presentation of the study results should be
observes their behavior without their knowledge.
systematic and logical and expressed in the past
- this may be construed by the subjects as
tense.
“spying” who might find out the real purpose
- This contains general findings and not raw data.
of the observer’s activity.
Analysis should be supported by statistics. More
- rhis may have ethical implications similar to
significant findings should come first represented
those of the covert non-participant observer.
by tables and figures followed by least significant
findings. (3 highest and 3 lowest)
THE USE OF SELF RECORDING OR THE
-Action on the hypothesis tested is either accepted
REPORTING APPROACH
or rejected, followed by interpretation based on
- this method of data uses a specially prepared
in-depth analysis, the study framework, and
document intended to collect data called
implications to those affected by the results and to
instruments.
the discipline concerned.
- the method describes tools, devices, tests
1. Findings of the Study
and other measures used in data collection.
-Study results are presented based on empirical data
- it explains in detail how these are applied and
or facts. Data must be reported in an objective
validated.
process and written in the present or past tense.
-Findings are the results of data analysis which
USE OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE
include description of samples, analysis and
- this technique uses a series of questionnaires
interpretation of the test of hypotheses.
to gather a consensus of opinions and
-Descriptive statistics is used to present findings,
information from a group of experts. The process
while inferential techniques are used to predict
continues until a consensus is reached.
and generalize results after the hypotheses are
- similar to questionnaires, it includes a large
tested.
number of subjects or respondents but its
2. Presentation of Findings
primary objective is to gather consensus of
-Findings of the study are presented in various ways
opinions, judgments or choices.
as follows:
- the Delphi Technique was originally
A. Textual Form
conceived as a way to obtain the opinion of experts
This consists of statements with numerals or
without necessarily bringing them
numbers to describe data. It is supported by direct
together face to face.
quotes, summary of findings, meanings and
implications of the study based on theories, related
CRITICAL INCIDENCE TECHNIQUE
literature and research studies.
- this echnique employs a set of principles for
collecting data on observable human activities.
- Findings can also be reinforced and justified by
previous observations and experiences of the
researcher regarding the phenomenon under study
presented objectively, clearly, and concisely in
paragraph form.
B. Tabular Form
-It is the means used in organizing and data in a
systematic way in which numerical or statistical
data are arranged in rows and columns to make
them easily understood and interpreted.
Tabular data are presented in the following
ways:
1. Rows - horizontal entries
2. Column - vertical entries
3. Cells - are boxes where rows and columns
intersect
Parts of the Statistical Table:
1. Table Number.
-Tables must be numbered consecutively for
reference purposes. Table numbers are cited when
presenting the numerical value of the study.
2. Title
-The title of each table states the variables or
specific indicators of the study, from whom the data
were gathered and the manner of measuring the
data.
3. Headnote.
-This is written below the title, usually enclosed in
parenthesis. It explains data on the table that is not
clear.
4. Stub.
-This contains the sub-head and the row labels. The
sub heads tell what the stubs contain. Each row
label describes the data contained in that row.
5. Box Head.
-The box head contains the master captions that
describe the column captions, and the column
captions, in turn, describes the sub-column captions.
6. Main Body, field or text.
-This contains all the quantitative and qualitative
information presented in the table in rows and
columns.
7. Footnote.
-The footnote appears immediately below the
bottom line of the table. It explains, qualifies or
clarifies items in the table that are not
understandable or are missing.
8. Textual presentation of tabular data.
-Information presented in tables is discussed in
textual form. It appears after they have been
referred to in the text.
Textual Presentation
• Presented in paragraph or in sentences
• Includes:
-enumeration of important characteristics
-emphasizing the most significant features
- highlighting the most striking attributes of the
set of data
(Basilia Ebora Bla)
-Textual presentation may precede the table or the
table may be placed within the textual presentation.
Presentations must be clear, concise and explain
relationships between and among the variables of
the study.
Example:
Of the150 samples interviewed, the following
complaints were noted: 27 for lack of books in the
library, 25 for a dirty playground, 20 for lack of
laboratory equipment, 17 for a not well maintained
university building.
Figures - are visual presentations of processed data.
They include graphs, diagrams, line drawings, and
photographs.
- These help enliven a narrative presentation and
considered a concrete means of presenting research
results.
3. Interpretations of Findings
-Interpretation is a subjective section of a research
report which allows the researcher to discuss
findings in the light of the theoretical framework
factual observations, interview results, and within
the context of the literature review.
It also explains results that are considered a
concrete means of presenting research results.
4. Interpretation of Result of the Test on the Null
Hypothesis
-The results obtained from data analysis require
interpretations to be meaningful.
* Interpretations of research findings involve
examining results from data analysis, forming
conclusions with implications for nursing, exploring
significance of the findings, generalizing the
findings and suggesting further studies.
-Research hypotheses predict study results based on
theoretical framework or on previous research
studies.
- Inferential statistics are used to either accept or
reject the null hypothesis and to support action
taken through explanation of the implication of the
acceptance and rejection made.
5. Conclusions
-The logical outgrowth of the summary of
findings consist of conceptualizations and
generalization in response to the problems
raised in the study.
- Conclusions focus on the answers to the major
problem, particularly on the results of the test on
the null hypothesis with each corresponding
implications and analysis of findings.
6. Recommendations
-Considering the conclusions, the researcher
suggests solutions to the problems to prevent the
occurrence of these or minimize their impact or
effect.
Recommendations are addressed to the sector
concerned or the intended beneficiaries of the
research study such as the director of nursing
service, the deans of colleges of nursing, nurse
practitioner, clinical instructor, student the health
care clientele, the general public, government and
non-government nurse, interest group, agencies
among other for their adoption arid or
implementation.
-These are also intended to improve the discipline
or field of study
DISSEMINATION AND UTILIZATION
A. Writing the Final Research Manuscript
B. Writing for Publication/Poster/Podium
Presentation
After thorough investigation of a phenomenon,
results of the study should be disseminated to the
professional group and to the public purposes of
providing new insights and information regarding
the issues and trends affecting the nursing
profession.
Publication is the best way to communicate research
findings.
A. Writing the Final Research Manuscript
Writing the research report is going to be easy so
long as the researcher follow the guidelines for
writing a research report.
Guides for Writing a Thesis Report
1. The writer must have the interest, adequate
knowledge, command of language, technical
skills required of a research report.
2. Comfortable writing conditions.(eg. Clean
environment)
3. Adequate writing resources.
4. Diligence, so that when good ideas come to
mind, take note of the fast; type fast, stop for a
while when thinking gets hard. Forcing oneself
to go on writing may not help.
5. Clarity of ideas through the use of simple
language.
6. Focus on the significant knowledge and other
benefits the study can give to the target group.
7. The researcher methodology section must
explain clearly the procedures or steps in the
conduct of the study as well as the sampling
procedure, the research instruments, the process
of data collection, and the measurement of the
tools. An expert should be consulted when the
researcher has some limitations on the above
mentioned items.
8. In the research proposal, the future tense is
used.
• The present and the past tense is used to refer to
viewpoints of authors and findings of previews
researches.
• The past tense is also used in the summary of
findings and conclusions.
• The present tense is used in the analysis and
interpretation of tubular data.
9. A research report should be subjected to close
scrutiny, and revised if needed.
10. Finally, prepare the paraphernalia for oral
defense.
B. Writing For Publication
● The researcher submit the article following the
guidelines of the journal
Poster Presentation
- Is a research report presented at a
conference with a visual display so it can be
read and viewed by large groups of
professional in an informal setting.
- The author stands near the poster at
specified time to discuss the details of the
research and answer questions as necessary.
- The poster must be innovative and designed
to capture the audience attention.
 - Before preparing a report, researchers - Organize the information logically and
should have a plan. always remain objective.
- Part of the plan involves how best to
coordinate the actual tasks of preparing a
manuscript (i.e., an unpublished paper)
- Quantitative reports typically follow the
IMRAD format, which involves organizing
content into four sections – the Introduction,
Method, Results, and Discussion

Steps for Writing an Article for Publication

1. Planning Phase
● Look for an appropriate journal. This must be
tailored appropriately to the reader.
● Review several articles from journals that are
being considered.
● Journal web sites provide authors with
directions for submitting manuscripts for
monitoring the peer review process.
● Typically, a manuscript for journals must be no
more than 15-20 pages, double-spaced, not
counting references and tables.
● Care should be taken in using and preparing
citations.
● Some nursing journals, suggest that there not be
more than 15 references, or no more than three
citations supporting single point.
● In general, only published work can be cited
(e.g. not papers at conference or manuscripts
submitted but not accepted for publication.)
● The reference style of the American
Psychological Association (APA) (2010) is the
style used by many using journals.

Refereed Journal
- A journal in which decisions about the
acceptance of the manuscripts are made
based on recommendations from peer
reviewers.
- Review process takes weeks to finish then
authors are asked to revise the report prior to
acceptance
- Feedback can be used into continuously
improve both writing and research.
- Convert the academic paper into a
publishable manuscript. Although
considerable condensing is required, the
author needs to maintain the key substance
and meaning of the work.

2. Writing Phase
- Writing phase should focus on clarity of
expression and using active voice and
simple languages.