1

LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __1-2__

TOPIC/S:

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

Upon completion of this material you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the nature of quantitative research.
2. Identify basic concepts related to quantitative research.
3. Discuss characteristics of T-test and regression.

CONTENT

This section explains about quantitative research methods. It tries to discuss related
concepts, though it is not comprehensive. It gives an overview of the topic and review some
statistical test learned before this subject.

I. DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Research is defined as a careful, systematic study in a field of knowledge,

undertaken to discover or establish facts or principles (Webster, 1984).

“Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of

hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.”
(Kerlinger, 1973)

“Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their

meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings
of a given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution to
knowledge in the field studied.” (Cook, n.d.)

II. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

MacDonald, S., & Headlam, N. (2015) Explained quantitative - as the name

suggests, is concerned with trying to quantify things; it asks questions such as ‘how
long’, ‘how many’ or ‘the degree to which’. Quantitative methods look to quantify
data and generalise results from a sample of the population of interest. They may
look to measure the incidence of various views and opinions in a chosen sample for
example or aggregate results.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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III. GENERAL PURPOSE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The purpose of quantitative research is to investigate a particular topic or activity

through measurement of variables in quantifiable ways. (Sorolla, N.D.)

IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH (Bhasin, 2019)

1. Large Sample Size.

2. Structured Research Methods.
3. Highly Reliable Outcome.
4. Reusable Outcome.
5. Close-ended questions.
6. Numerical Outcome.
7. Generalization of Outcome.
8. Prior study.

V. STAGES IN CONDUCTING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The basic stages in the research process are suggested by (Ardales, 2001):

1. Problem Identification
2. Review of Related Literature
3. Objectives Formulation
4. Formulation of Hypotheses and Assumptions
5. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Construction
6. Research Design Selection
7. Data Collection
8. Data Processing
9. Data Analysis and Interpretation
10. Report writing

VI. FOUR MAIN TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research seeks to describe the current status of an identified
variable. These research projects are designed to provide systematic information
about a phenomenon. The researcher does not usually begin with an hypothesis,
but is likely to develop one after collecting data. The analysis and synthesis of
the data provide the test of the hypothesis. Systematic collection of information
requires careful selection of the units studied and careful measurement of each
variable.
Examples of Descriptive Research:
• A description of how much is the running time of every lathe machines
in manufacturing engineering technology department in each term in SY 2020-
2021.
• A description of the facebook use habit of third year manufacturing
engineering students of TUP Visayas.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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(Source: Key Elements of a Research Proposal Quantitative Design,

https://www.wssu.edu/about/offices-and-departments/office-of-sponsored-
programs/pre-award/_Files/documents/develop-quantitative.pdf)

2. Correlational Research

“Quantitative methodology used to determine whether, and to what degree, a

relationship exists between two or more variables within a population (or a
sample).” (Apuke, 2017)

Correlational research attempts to determine the extent of a relationship

between two or more variables using statistical data. In this type of design,
relationships between and among a number of facts are sought and interpreted.
This type of research will recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not
go so far in its analysis to prove causes for these observed patterns. Cause and
effect is not the basis of this type of observational research. The data,
relationships, and distributions of variables are studied only. Variables are not
manipulated; they are only identified and are studied as they occur in a natural
setting.
Examples of Correlational Research:
• The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem
• The relationship between diet and anxiety
• The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course
• The relationship between ACT scores and the freshman grades
(Source: Key Elements of a Research Proposal Quantitative Design,
https://www.wssu.edu/about/offices-and-departments/office-of-sponsored-
programs/pre-award/_Files/documents/develop-quantitative.pdf)

3. Causal comparative/ Quasi-experimental Research/ Ex Post Facto

Ex post facto means “from after the fact”. In research, the ex post facto, also
known as casual-comparative design is a method wherein the researcher studies
the problem by analyzing past events or existing conditions to determine
influence or causation. It is also the method to use when the aim of the
researcher is to find out the existing differences in the status, behavior, attitude
and belief of groups of individuals. (Sorolla, N.D.)

4. Experimental Research/ True Experimentation

If the aim of the researcher is to find out what caused the change in the
characteristics or behavior of the subjects and what change or effect has been
made then the design to use is the experimental research design. It is a design
in which an investigator/researcher manipulates and controls one of the
independent variables and observes the dependent variable or variables for
variation concomitant to the manipulation of the independent variables
(Kerlinger, 1986).
Another distinguishing feature of experimental research is that it usually
involves two groups – an experimental group and a control group.
(Sorolla, ND)

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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VII. SURVEY

Surveys are a popular method of collecting primary data. The broad area of survey
research encompasses any measurement procedures that involve asking questions
of respondents. They are a flexible tool, which can produce both qualitative and
quantitative information depending on how they are structured and analysed. In this
section we focus on the quantitative use of surveys, and in later sections we explore
the more qualitative use of survey methods. (MacDonald, S., & Headlam, N., 2015)

VIII. VALIDITY

Validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of inferences

a researcher makes on the data they collect. A research instrument is valid when it
measures what it intends to measure. Researchers should make sure that any
information collected through the use of an instrument serves the purpose for which
it is collected. (Sorolla, R., N.D.)

Three kinds of validity of an instrument are:

1. Content Validity.
An instrument has content validity if the content and format of an instrument
appropriately covers the topics and the variables intended to be studied. The
items should adequately represent the subject to be assessed.

2. Criterion-related validity.
An instrument has criterion-related validity if a score obtained by an individual
using a particular instrument is significantly associated with a score he/she
obtains on another instrument or another measure, known as the criterion.

3. Construct-related validity.
This refers to specific psychological constructs or characteristics being
measured by the instrument and how well these constructs explain the
differences in the behavior of individuals.

Threats to Internal validity (Edmonds, W. A., & Kennedy, T. D.,2010)

a. History
b. Maturation
c. Testing
d. Instrumentation

Threats to external validity (Edmonds, W. A., & Kennedy, T. D.,2010)

a. Sample characteristics
b. Stimulus Characteristics and Settings
c. Treatment Variations
d. Outcome Variations
e. Context Dependent Mediation

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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Threats to Construct Validity (Edmonds, W. A., & Kennedy, T. D.,2010)

a. Attention and Contact with Participants
b. Single Operations and Narrow Stimulus Sampling
c. Experimenter Expectancies

Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity (Edmonds, W. A., & Kennedy, T. D.,

2010)
a. Low Statistical Power
b. Assumption Violation of Statistical Tests
c. Error Rate Problem
d. Restriction of Range

IX. RELIABILITY

Reliability refers to the consistency of the responses or the scores obtained by an

individual in a test or research instrument administered twice.

There are two methods commonly used in determining the reliability of an

instrument: test-retest method and the split-half method.

1) Test-retest method. This involves administering the same test twice to the same
groups of individuals. After a certain time has elapsed, the same test is
administered to the same people again. Then the reliability coefficient is
calculated to determine the degree of association between the results of the two
administrations. If the coefficient is significant, instrument is reliable.

2) Split-half method. This approach involves the scoring of the first half and then
the second half of the instrument separately for each person and then calculating
a correlation coefficient for the two sets of score. If the correlation between the
two sets of scores is statistically significant, then the instrument is reliable.
(Sorolla, N.D.)

X. SAMPLING

Kumar, (2011). Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger
group (the sampling population) to become the basis for estimating or
predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of information, situation or
outcome regarding the bigger group. A sample is a subgroup of the population you
are interested in. The figure below shows some methods of sampling.
Figure 1.1
Methods of Sampling

Source: Sarstedt, M. et al (2017). The use of sampling methods in advertising research: A gap between theory and practice, June 2017
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
International Journal of Advertising, DOI: 10.1080/02650487.2017.1348329
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 6

XI. QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

A. TYPES OF DATA (Samuels, 2020)

What is quantitative data?
Quantitative data is factual information involving numbers and categories.
Categories often refer to choices between options, such as your favorite type of
food or your opinion in a range from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

Three fundamental types of data:

1. Numerical data (this could be whole numbers or decimals)
2. Ordinal data - Categories with a natural ordering (such as strongly agree,
agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree)
3. Nominal data - Categories without any agreed ordering (such as protein,
dairy, carbohydrate, fruit and vegetables)

The best kind of quantitative data in statistical analysis is numerical, followed

by ordinal, and lastly nominal. It is important to know what kind of data you are
planning to collect or analyse as this will affect your analysis method.
Figure 1.2
Types of Data

Source: https://microbenotes.com/data-and-its-types/#data-and-its-types

A 12 steps approach to quantitative data analysis (Samuels, 2020)

1. Start with an aim and research questions

2. Collect data consistent with your aim and research questions
3. Process your data and create a raw data spreadsheet
4. Get a feel for your data with a descriptive analysis
5. Interpret and report on your analysis informally
(Descriptive analysis finishes here: the remaining steps relate to statistical
testing)
6. Decide whether to analyse groups of variables in your data set or just
individual variables
7. Understand your statistical design
8. Generate advanced level descriptive statistics and check test assumptions
9. Understand the null hypothesis statistical testing process
10. Run and interpret an appropriate test
11. Report on your results
12. Be prepared to re-analyse

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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B. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Statistical analysis is a mathematical method of interrogating data. This is done

by looking for relationships between different sets of data.
Figure 1.3
An Example of Statistical Tests

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=UaptUhOushw

XII. REVIEW THE FOLLOWING: (use the given link to watch the videos)
1. T-Tests
2. Regression

PROGRESS CHECK/ EXERCISES

Week 1 & 2

Test I. Identify the correct answer.

__________1. What type of research that the aim of the researcher is to find out what caused
the change in the characteristics or behavior of the subjects and what change or
effect has been made then the design to use is the experimental research design?
__________2. _________ seeks to describe the current status of an identified variable.
__________3. _________ is defined as a careful, systematic study in a field of knowledge,
undertaken to discover or establish facts or principles.
__________4. _________ is a mathematical method of interrogating data.
__________5. _________ look to quantify data and generalize results from a sample of the
population of interest. They may look to measure the incidence of various views
and opinions in a chosen sample for example or aggregate results.
__________6. What quantitative methodology used to determine whether, and to what degree,
a relationship exists between two or more variables within a population.
__________7. _________ refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of
inferences a researcher makes on the data they collect.
__________8. __________ refers to the consistency of the responses or the scores obtained
by an individual in a test or research instrument administered twice.
__________9. What is the best kind of quantitative data in statistical analysis?

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 8

__________10. What is the process of selecting a few from a bigger group to become the basis
for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of
information, situation or outcome regarding the bigger group?

Test II. Discuss quantitative research. (10 point)

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Test III. Differentiate T-Test and Regression. (10 points)

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCES

Webster (1984). Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary

Kerlinger, F. N. (1973). Foundations of Behavioral Research. 2nd edition. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston
Designing a Research Study: Types of Research and Methods,
https://ukdiss.com/examples/basic-concepts-of-research.php
MacDonald, S., & Headlam, N. (2015). Research Methods Handbook - Introductory
guide to research methods for social research, http://www.saaiks.net/wp-
content/uploads/2016/08/research-methods-handbook.pdf
Sorolla, R., (N.D.), Research Modules Powerpoint Presentation
Ardales, V.B., (2001). Basic Concepts & methods in Research, CONCERNS, Inc.
Key Elements of a Research Proposal Quantitative Design,
https://www.wssu.edu/about/offices-and-departments/office-of-sponsored-programs/pre-
award/_Files/documents/develop-quantitative.pdf

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 9

Apuke, O. D. (2017). QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS A SYNOPSIS

APPROACH, Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (Kuwait Chapter), An
Open Access Journal, Vol. 6 (10), 2017, DOI: 10.12816/0040336
MacDonald, S., & Headlam, N. (2015). Research Methods Handbook Introductory
guide to research methods for social research (CLES)
Edmonds, W. A., & Kennedy, T. D. (2010). A reference guide to basic research design
for education and the social and behavioral sciences. New York, NY: Pearson.
Kumar, R. (2011). RESEARCH METHODOLOGY a step-by-step guide for beginners
3e, SAGE Publications Ltd.
Bhasin, H. (2019). What are the Characteristics of Quantitative Research?,
https://www.marketing91.com/characteristics-of-quantitative-research/
Sarstedt, M., Bengart,P. & Monim, A. (2017). The use of sampling methods in
advertising research: A gap between theory and practice, June 2017 International Journal of
Advertising, DOI: 10.1080/02650487.2017.1348329
Samuels, P. (2020). A Really Simple Guide to Quantitative Data Analysis, Birmingham
City University

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 10

LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __3-4__

TOPIC/S

INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

Upon completion of this material you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe qualitative research.
2. Discuss F-Test, Chi-Square Test & ANOVA.
3. Familiarize with qualitative research concepts.

CONTENT
This section is an introduction to qualitative research methods. It discusses concepts
related to qualitative research, although the content is not comprehensive it gives an overview
about the topic to give an idea when and how to use the methods.

I. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DEFINITION

Qualitative research concerned with a quality of information, qualitative methods

attempt to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for
actions and establish how people interpret their experiences and the world around
them. Qualitative methods provide insights into the setting of a problem, generating
ideas and/or hypotheses. (MacDonald & Headlam, 2015)

II. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE

RESEARCH
Figure 2.1
An Example of Statistical Tests

Source: MacDonald, S., & Headlam, N. (2015)

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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III. UNDERSTANDING TRADITIONS IN QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY

A. CASE STUDY
“The case study is the appropriate design to use when the aim of the study is to
have a deeper, more thorough and more comprehensive understanding of an
individual or group such as the family, class, organization or community.”(
Ardales, 2001)

B. GROUNDED THEORY
A type of social research. The aim of grounded theory is: ‘to generate or
discover a theory’. (Glaser and Strauss, 1967)

C. ETHNOGRAPHY
The aim is to study the characteristics, way of life, belief, attitudes, fears and
hopes of cultural or ethnic groups. (Ardales, 2001)

D. PHENOMENOLOGY
Phenomenology is an approach to qualitative inquiry that is grounded in certain
traditions of philosophy and the humanities, and that aims to reflect on
prereflective human experience. (van Manen &Adams, 2010)

E. NARRATIVE APPROACHES
“Narrative research is a term that subsumes a group of approaches that in turn
rely on the written or spoken words or visual representation of individuals.
These approaches typically focus on the lives of individuals as told through their
own stories.” (https://atlasti.com/narrative-research/)

IV. THE QUALITATIVE DATA (Young & Hren, N.D.)

Figure 2.2
Common approaches to data collection

SOURCE: Young, B. & Hren, D. (N.D.). INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

a. Interviews
1. Conversation with a purpose
2. Useful for:
• Individual perspectives and experiences
• Sensitive topics
• Situations where there is perceived danger of reprisal
• Topics that cannot be investigated through surveys
• Gathering in-depth information about a topic

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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b. Focus groups
1. Generating narrative data in a focused discussion
2. Group dynamics:
• Widens the range of responses (different perspectives and views on common
experience)
•Activates forgotten details
• Releases inhibitions
3. Useful for:
•Characterizing social and cultural norms
• Sharing and comparing (Morgan)
• Revealing how people talk about an issue
•Exploring sensitive topics

c. Observation
1. Enable researcher to learn what is taken for granted in a situation and to
discover what is going on by watching and listening
2. Techniques differ primarily in the visibility and involvement of researcher in
the setting:
• Participant observation
• Nonparticipant observation
3. Field notes (also photographs, video)

d. Textual data
• Administrative documents
• Qualitative surveys
• Vignettes
• Story completion tasks
• Diaries

V. WHAT ARE USED IN QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS? (Source: Overview

of Qualitative Research Methods, https://youtu.be/IsAUNs-IoSQ)

1. PREPARING AND ORGANIZING DATA

- Transcribing interview notes
- Organizing field notes
- Securing that notes are readily available

2. REDUCING DATA INTO THEMES

- Qualitative data can be analyzed by way of classifying them into themes or
categories.
- For easier data analysis one should limit number of categories to less than
seven.

3. PRESENTING DATA IN NARRATIVE OR GRAPHIC FORM

- Narrative or visual diagram

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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Figure 2.3
An example process of qualitative data analysis

SOURCE: Young, B. & Hren, D. (N.D.). INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

VI. STRATEGIES FOR ENSURING VALIDITY (Source: Overview of Qualitative

Research Methods, https://youtu.be/IsAUNs-IoSQ)

1. Prolonged engagement
2. Sing rich, thick description
3. Triangulations
4. Member checking
5. Discrepant information
6. Clarifying research bias
7. Peer debriefing
8. External auditor

VII. HOW DO I KNOW IF QUALITATIVE RESEARH IS RIGHT FOR MY STUDY?

1. Consider the phenomenon you want to study

2. Determine what you want to know about the phenomenon
3. Be clear about your goals

VIII. REVIEW THE FOLLOWING: (use the given link to watch the videos)

1. ANOVA
2. F-Test
3. Chi-Square Test

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 14

PROGRESS CHECK/ EXERCISES

Week 3 & 4

Test I. Differentiate quantitative research over qualitative research.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Test II. Use a chart to describe ANOVA, F-Test and Chi-Square Test.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCES:

MacDonald, S., & Headlam, N. (N.D.). Research Methods Handbook Introductory

guide to research methods for social research (CLES)
Ardales, V.B., (2001). Basic Concepts & methods in Research, CONCERNS, Inc.
van Manen, M. & Adams, C.A. (2010). International Encyclopedia of Education, Third
Edition (https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/phenomenology)
Young, B. & Hren, D. (N.D.). INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODS
Overview of Qualitative Research Methods by Center for Research Quality
(https://youtu.be/IsAUNs-IoSQ)

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.