PRELIM-REVIEWER
RESEARCH PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER 1: The Nature of Research
Scientific Method
It is a standard way of making observations, gathering
data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting
results.
Order of Scientific Method
1. Identifying a problem
2. Clarifying the problem
3. Determining the information needed on how to
obtain it
4. Organizing the information
5. Interpreting the results
IDENTIFYING A PROBLEM
*there is a problem of some sort disturbance in our lives
that disrupts the normal or desirable state of affairs
CLARIFYING THE PROBLEM
*steps are taken to define more precisely the problem or
the questions to be answered, to become clearer about
exactly what the purpose of the study is.
DETERMINING the INFORMATION NEEDED ON
HOW TO OBTAIN IT
*we attempt to determine what kinds of information would
solve the problem. There are 2 possibilities:
study what is already known or carry out a piece of
research. In preparation, we must be familiar with a wide
range of possibilities for obtaining information, to get
firsthand information on the problem.
Spelling out the details of information gathering is a major
aspect of planning a research study
 Basic research: focuses on understanding
ORGANIZING the INFORMATION phenomena of interest. Aimed to improved
Quantitative: scientific theories for improved understanding or
-Use systematic naming prediction of natural or other phenomena.
-Track version Conducted to accumulate information, extending
-File formats the base of knowledge in a discipline to improve
understanding or to formulate a theory.
Qualitative:
Appropriate for discovering general principles of
-Develop a matrix or table of sources that can be used to
human behavior and bio-physiological processes.
organize the material.
-Basic research is common in subjects like
-Organize material by type
astronomy, theology, philosophy, sociology, and
-Keep duplicate copies of materials biology. Any question that warrants an answer to
-Transcribe data generate better understanding of a topic is basic
-Prepare data for hand or computer analysis (and select research.
computer program)
 Applied Research: This type of research is
INTERPRETING the RESULT focused on finding an immediate solution. A form
The final phase in any experiment or research is to interpret of systematic inquiry involving the practical
and report the results. Finding the answer to a challenging application of science. It assesses and uses some
question is the goal of any research endeavor. Proper part of the research communities accumulated
communication of the results provides the basis for theories, knowledge, methods and theories.
advances in research. To communicate appropriately, -Applied research tends to have much more
investigators have to review their results critically and commercial value than basic research. The
avoid the temptation to overinterpret benefit or underreport potential for monetary gain makes the field of
harm. applied research more in-demand by
governments and industries.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Basic research  Experimental Research: a. Manipulation of
Applied research variable b. to see if changes in behavior result
-experimental research c. Determination of cause-and-effect relationship
- Variables in experimental design
-single-subject research
* Independent variable
-correlational research
What is manipulated
-causal comparative research *Dependent variable
-survey research What is measured, the outcome
-ethnographic research
-historical research  Experimental design
-action research  Question: Does close physical contact
promote secure infant-mother attachment?
BASIC vs APPLIED RESEARCH  Method: Women randomly assigned to use
“Snuglis” (experimental) or standard infant
seats (control) to carry their infants.
  Results: Carrier effect on attachment
*Snuglis: more responsive moms. Infants
more likely to develop secure attachment.
*Standard carrier: less responsive moms,
infants less likely to develop secure
attachment.
 Conclusion: causal relationship between
type of carrier and attachment
 SINGLE-SUBJECT RESEARCH
*Most commonly used to study the changes in
behavior an individual exhibits after exposure for
a treatment or intervention of some sort.
*Can be applied in settings where group designs
are difficult to put into play
*Involves extensive collection of data on one
subject at a time.
*Primarily use line graphs to present their data
and to illustrate the effects of a particular
intervention or treatment
*Adaptations of the basic time-series design
 SINGLE CASE EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
*ABAB Design: alternating no treatment and
treatment for single case (constant
throughout)
EXAMPLE: student calls out incessantly to
interrupt teacher. Teacher wants to reduce
this, treatment is if student doesn’t call out,
the student is allowed to spend time working
one-to-one with the teacher (which is valued
by the student). Monitor student calling out
behavior for 1 day, first without the
treatment, then with, then without then with.
*Plot the frequency of calling out by student.
If systematically lower with treatment, then
consider success.
*But what about generalizability?
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
 Correlation: relationship between two
variables
- Measures of two variables
- Mathematical formula
- Correlation coefficient (r) ,
represents
1. Direction of relationship (+/-)
2. Strength of relationship
 Variable: anything that can change or
vary.
 Positive correlation – same direction
*one increases, the other increases; one
decreases, the other decreases
 Negative correlation – opposite direction
*One increases, other decreases
* CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL
CAUSATION
 CAUSAL COMPARATIVE
 Studies of characteristics of individuals
(eg high/low performing students;
ethnicity;age)
 Deals with causal relationships but not
through experimental manipulation of
variables and so cannot yield certainty
 SURVEY
 Very widely used in educational
research
 Hard to get high response rate
(incentive)
 Often simply descriptive: to find out
characteristics of a sample and to
generalize to a population (eg market
research or political research)
 But can be used for correlational studies
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
 Systematic collection and evaluation of
data to describe, explain, and understand
actions or events that occurred sometime
in the past.
 There is no manipulation or no control
of variables as in experimental research
 An attempt is made to reconstruct what
happened during certain period of time
as completely and accurately as
possible.
 ETHNOGRAPHIC DESIGNS
 Qualitative procedures for describing,
analyzing, and interpreting a cultural
groups shared patterns of behavior,
beliefs, and language that develop over
time.
 Used when the study of a group provides
understanding of a larger issue
 ACTION RESEARCH
 Not traditional educational research
often research tests theory not practical
 Improving teaching
 Investigate areas of concern
 Testing educational theory
-Actions research used to describe an approach to
classroom research.
 GENERAL RESEARCH TYPES
Descriptive studies; observational studies that describe the
character of relation to variables such as person, place, and
time.
Associational research; general type of research in which
a researcher looks for relationships having predictive
and/or explanatory\ power. Both correlational and causal-
comparative studies are example.
Intervention studies; in which variables are manipulated to
study the effects of one or more dependent variables.
 CHAPTER 2: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Introduction
 A research problem isa question that researcher
wants to answer or a problem that a researcher
wants to solve
 Identification & formulation of a research
problem is the first step of the research process
 Selection of research problems depends on
several factors such as researchers knowledge,
skills, interest, expertise, motivation & creativity
w/ respect to the subject of inquiry
 It is believed that most of the research studies
need lots of time for selection of a research
problem
DEFINITION
DEFINITIONS OF MIXED METHODS
 According to KERLINGER: a problem is an
RESEARCH
interrogative sentence or statement that asks what
relation exist between tow or more variable. The
 Collecting, analyzing and interpreting qualitative
answer to question will provide what is having
and quantitative data in a single study
sought in the research
 Integrating/mixing quantitative data, findings,
 R.S. Woodworth; a situation for which we have
and/or interpretations no ready & successful response by instinct or by
previous acquired habit. We must find out what
to do’, i.e. the solution can be found out only after
investigation
 In other words; a research problem is an area of
concern where there is a gap in the knowledge
base needed for professional practices
IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCG PROBLEM
 Identification of a research problem is the first
and most important step in research process
 Generally, broad area is selected & then a broad
topic is delimited or narrowed down to specific
one-sentence statement of the problem
 This step of the research process is considered as
the most difficult and challenging, & needs lot of
time
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH
PROBLEM
 Interest
 Magnitude
 Measurement of concepts
 Level of expertise
 Relevance
 Availability of data
 Ethical issues
INTEREST
 Select a topic that interest one’s curiosity
 Should be fascinating to the researcher so that the
research is conducted with full enthusiasm and
not merely for its accomplishment
MAGNITUDE
 Should have sufficient knowledge about the
research process to be able to visualize the work
involved in completing the proposed study
 Narrow the topic down to something manageable
MEASUREMENT OF CONCEPTS
 Should be clear about its indicator and their
measurement.
 Do not use concepts in your research problem that
youre not sure how to measure/use.
 Imperative that you are reasonably clear about the
measurement of these concepts at this stage
LEVEL OF EXPERTISE
 Have an adequate level of expertise for the task
you are proposing.
 Don’t bit off more that you can chew
RELEVANCE
 Select a topic that are relevance to you
 Ensure that the study adds to the existing body of
knowledge, bridges current gaps or useful in
policy formulation.
 Results generated will be of more use
AVAILABILITY OF DATA
  Make sure that the data are available and in the
format you want;
ETHICAL ISSUES
 Should not carry legal or moral impediments
FEASIBLE
 Feasibility is an essential consideration of any
research project
 Regardless of how significant or researchable
problem may be, the feasibility of research
problem in reference to time, availability to
subjects, facilities equipment and money should
be checked
 Will help the researcher to decide whether
selected problem is appropriate or inappropriate
and study can be actually carried out
TIME
 You might be interested in studying sibling
relationships among quintuplets knowledge of the
incidence of quintuplet birth would certainly
discourage anyone considering research on this
particular population unless the researcher plans
to make this a lifetime project.
It is wise to allow more time than seems to be
needed because unexpected delays frequently
occur.
RESEARCHABLE/SOLVABLE
 Problem selected is considered good only if it is
solvable so that chances of insolvability of
problem should be minimized.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
 1. Research questions should be feasible—that is,
capable of being investigated with available
resources.
These can be investigated without expending an undue
amount of time, energy or money
What would be the level of achievement if each student is
given a laptop to use for a semester?
- not feasible
How do students of Magsaysay High School feel about the  5. Research questions often (although not always)
new social studies textbook issued in the District? suggest a relationship to be investigated. The
- feasible term relationship, as used in research, refers to a
connection or association between two or more
 2. Research questions should be clear—that is, characteristics or qualities.
unambiguous.
The research questions must be clear. DEFINING TERMS IN RESEARCH
Most people would agree to what the key words in the
question mean OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
Example: How do teachers feel about special classes for • Defining a term by stating the actions, processes, or
the educationally handicapped? operations used to measure or identify examples of it.
Issues raised: what age group is involved? What is the level • Explanation: gives the specific meaning of the word or
of experience of the teachers? Are all teachers in the term.
country involved? Does “feel” mean “opinion,” • Operational Definition is use to clarify thing and helps
“emotional reactions,” the researchers to easily understand the concept of their
What is the definition of educationally handicapped? study. It defines terms by how it is used in a particular
• A definition of terms maybe necessary in clarifying context of the study. It must be valid and give meaningful
terms. Define terms clearly and when feasible, data.
operationally and constitutively.
CONSTITUTIVE DEFINITION
 3. Research questions should be significant—that • Used what is often referred to as the dictionary approach.
is, worthy of investigation. • The meaning of the term is coming from the dictionary.
The researcher must be guided by these three cardinal It describes a thing in terms of characteristic and
rules: relationship, how the things or objects are related. It mostly
How might answers to this research advance knowledge in formal that gives a general meaning attributed to a term.
my field?
How might answers to this research question improve
educational practice?
How might answers to this research question improve
human condition?
This boils down to researcher’s personal and professional
contribution and advancement
 4. Research questions should be ethical—that is,
their investigation should not involve physical or
psychological harm or damage to human beings
or to the natural or social environment of which
they are a part.
CHAPTER 3: LOCATING AND REVIEWING TERTIARY SOURCES subjects. The Nuremberg Code lays out ten principles to
THE LITERATURE Definition: which modern day studies still must adhere.
Sources that compile data on a particular topic These 10 principles stand as the basis for much of current
Characteristics: research ethics and include things like voluntariness,
VALUE OF LITERATURE REVIEW informed consent, and beneficence.
Collections or lists or primary and secondary sources,
A Literature Review is the systematic identification,
reference works, finding tools for sources
location, and analysis of documents containing
Examples: THE NUREMBERG CODE
information to a research problem. A literature review not
Encyclopedia, bibliographies, abstract, indexes, literature,  The patients has to agree to the experiment
only helps researchers peek at the ideas of others interested
in a particular research question but also lets them read reviews, library catalogs, databases  The experiment should make society better
about the results of other similar or related studies.  Should be tested on animal first to show it is safe
CHAPTER 4: ETHICS IN RESEARCH  Shouldn’t hurt the patient
 The experiment should not be done at all if death
PRIMARY OR SECONDARY SOURCES
is possible
Photographs Oral histories Golden rule: “Do unto others as you would have them unto
 The goods needs to outweigh the risk
Reports Diaries you” Matt. 7:12
 Test subjects should be kept clean, safe places
Textbook Letters “First do no harm” – Hippocratic oath
 The experiment should be done by an informed
scientist
PRIMARY SOURCES ETHICS
 The patient should be able to stop and walk away
Definition: “Ethics", norms for conduct that distinguish between  The scientist should stop immediately if it looks
Raw data; original sources of information before it has acceptable and unacceptable behavior. like the patient will be harmed or die.
been analyzed
Characteristics: WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ‘ETHICS’? NEED FOR REGULATION
First-hand observations. Contemporary accounts of • The moral principles guiding research (ESRC, 2004) Between 1947 and 1978 there were many unethical studies
events, viewpoints at the time • Sets of moral principles or norms that are used to guide done on humans. There was a need for a stricter code
Examples: moral choices of behavior and relationships with others Belmont report was published in 1978
Interviews, speeches, diaries, journal articles (science), (Blumberg, et al, 2005)
birth certificates, newspaper, articles written at the time
THREE CORE PRINCIPLES
STORY ON RESEARCH ETHICS 1. Respect for persons:
SECONDARY SOURCES “Voluntariness” prohibits people with undue power or -People have the right to make their own choices
Definition: influence over us from asking that we participate in a
-People should be informed (at their education level)
Sources that analyze or interpret primary data. They do not research study.
before consenting
offer new evidence • Ethical research needs to be voluntary--at least in
-Provide protections to vulnerable populations
Characteristics: humans.
2. Beneficence:
Interpretation of information, written after the event, offer • Animal rights activists argue that since animals cannot
-Do no harm
review or critique volunteer for a study, we shouldn’t use them.
-Maximize benefits and minimize risk
Examples:
3. Justice:
Biographies, journal articles, textbooks, commentaries, NUREMBERG CODE – 1947
-Treat people fairly
editorials, literary criticisms In 1947, the Nuremberg code was created in order to
establish guidelines for the ethical treatment of human -Will the group share in the benefit of this research?
-Equitable selection of subjects
TYPICAL RESEARCH INVOLVING ETHICAL RISK
 Vulnerable groups – such as children and young
people, those with learning disabilities or special
needs
Sensitive topics – for example, sexual or illegal
activities, or people’s experience of abuse or
violence
• Subjects can only be accessed via a gatekeeper
– for example, some ethnic or cultural groups
 Element of deception such as covert observation
used without a participant’s full or informed
consent
 Access to confidential records or information
 Activities leading to stress, anxiety or humiliation
amongst target groups
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
Then, FALL INTO FOUR MAIN AREAS, NAMELY,
THE NEED TO:
1 Avoid harm to participants (and producing benefits)
2 Ensure informed consent of participants
3 Respect the privacy of participants
4 Avoid the use of deception
AVOIDING HARM TO THE PARTICIPANTS
Research will be considered harmful if it causes a
participant to be
Embarrassed
Ridiculed
Belittled or generally subject to mental distress
Anxious
Stressed
Subject to negative emotional reactions
HOW COULD YOU HARM RESEARCH
PARTICIPANTS
• Physically
• By damaging their development or self-esteem
• By causing stress
• By hurting their career prospects or employment
opportunities
• By breaking confidentiality
• By revealing their identity
BEYOND AVOIDING HARM
Research should produce positive benefits such as:
 Adding to human knowledge
 Yielding accurate
 And valid results
 Providing feedback to respondents (if possible) to
promote greater self-understanding (if desired)
INFORMED CONSENT (1)
Researcher should provide information on:
The aims of the research
Who will be undertaking it
Who is being asked to participate
What kind of information is being sought
How much of the participant’s time is required
INFORMED CONSENT (2)
That participation in the study is voluntary
That responding to all questions is voluntary
Who will have access to the data once it is collected
How anonymity of respondents will be preserved
Who should it be returned to and by when
Research participants must know that is what they are and
what the research process is
But, implementing this principle ‘is easier said than done’
(Homan, 1991:73).
It is extremely difficult to present prospective participants
with absolutely all the information that might be required
to make an informed decision about their involvement.
In ethnographic research, the researcher is likely to come
into contact with a wide spectrum of people, and ensuring
that absolutely everyone has the opportunity for informed
consent is not practicable, because it would be extremely
disruptive in everyday contexts.
RESPECTING PRIVACY
Respondents must give informed consent
Respondents have the right to withdraw at any time
Data (in electronic and manual forms) must be kept
securely
INVASION OF PRIVACY
• Privacy is very much linked to the notion of informed
consent
• The research participant does not abrogate the right to
privacy entirely by providing informed consent
• Covert methods are usually deemed to be violations of
the privacy principle
• The issue of privacy is invariably linked t issues of
anonymity and confidentiality in the research process
LIES, DAMNED LIES AND RESEARCH
 Deception usually means we represent our
research as something other than it is, so that
participants will respond more naturally
 Quite widespread
 Deception means not telling the whole truth,
while not actually telling a lie
AVOIDING DECEPTION
Best achieved by being open and transparent about the
research including:
Its objectives
Methods
Uses
Role of respondent, including time and any other
commitments