DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ACADEMIC YEAR 2023 - 2024 – EVEN SEMESTER (Regulation 2017)

CONTINUOUS INTERNAL ASSESSMENT - II (Answer Key)

Course Code &Title: CE8091 Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering

Year / Semester: IV/VIII Date of the exam: 02.04.2024 (AN)
Name of the Faculty: Dr. R. Vignesh

Answer all questions

PART – A (7 x 2 = 14 Marks)

1. Define the term 'natural disaster'.

A natural disaster is characterized by the abnormal intensity of a natural agent (flood, mudslide,
earthquake, avalanche, drought) when the usual measures to be taken to prevent this damage were not
able to prevent their emergence or were not able to be taken.

2. List out the different types of droughts.

• Meteorological
• Hydrological
• Agricultural

3. Describe the flood control measures.

Flood control methods are used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters. Flood
relief methods are used to reduce the effects of flood waters or high-water levels. Flooding can be caused
by a mix of both natural processes, such as extreme weather upstream, and human changes to
waterbodies and runoff. A distinction is made between structural and non-structural flood control
measures. Structural methods physically restrain the flood waters, whereas non-structural methods do
not. Building hard infrastructure to prevent flooding, such as flood walls, is effective at managing
flooding.

4. Name the different natural disasters which you have come across.

• Flood
• Mudslide
• Earthquake
• Avalanche
• Drought

5. Describe about NDVI analysis.

NDVI or Normalized Difference Vegetation Index is a remote sensing method that uses the reflectance
of light in the visible and near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths to determine the amount and health of
vegetation in an area. NDVI is widely used in agriculture, forestry, and ecology to monitor the growth
and health of vegetation and to identify areas of stress or damage. NDVI values can also be used to map
and classify vegetation types, and to detect changes in vegetation cover over time.

Name the factors which are important in selecting site for reservoirs.
6.
Some of the factors which are important in selecting site for reservoirs are:
 • an adequate supply of preferably high-quality water;
• a minimum of detrimental effects on the environment;
• sufficient elevation to provide a natural flow of water to the distribution system.

7. Discuss about sedimentation.

Sedimentation is the process that allows the different particles which are in the suspended form in water
to settle under the gravitational effect. The particles which settle out from the suspension become the
sediment, while in water treatment this is known as sludge.

PART – B (2 X 10 =20 Marks)

8.a. Define DPAP. Illustrate the different components and characteristics of DPAP.

The basic objective of the programme is to minimise the adverse effects of drought on production of
crops and livestock and productivity of land, water and human resources ultimately leading to drought
proofing of the affected areas. The programme also aims to promote overall economic development and
improving the socio-economic conditions of the resource poor and disadvantaged sections inhabiting the
programme areas.

Coverage
Upto 1994-95, DPAP was in operation in 627 blocks of 96 districts in 13 States. Prof. C.H.Hanumanntha
Rao Committee recommended:
• Exclusion of 245 existing blocks;
• Including of 384 new blocks; and
• Transfer of 64 blocks from DPAP to DDP.

The Government did not agreed for exclusion of existing DDP blocks. However, inclusion of new blocks
and transfer of blocks from DPAP to DDP was agreed to. Thus, from 1995-96 total blocks covered under
DPAP became 947. These 947 blocks were in 164 districts in 13 States. Subsequently, with the re-
organization of States, Districts and Blocks, the programme is now covered in 972 blocks of 183 districts
in 16 States. These States are Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh, Uttaranchal and West Bengal. The identified dry sub humid area under the programme is about
7.46 lakh sqkms (74.6 million has.).

Cost, Funding Pattern and duration of the project

The prevailing cost for a prescribed watershed project of 500 ha. is Rs. 30.00 lakh i.e. Rs. 6,000 per
hectare. Central and State Government in the ratio of 75 : 25 share the cost. 80% (85% under Hariyali) of
the cost is devoted towards watershed development activities and rest 20% (15% under Hariyali) for
community organization, training and administrative jobs. The central share is released in 7 installments
( 5 insts. under Hariyali) by following a prescribed procedure. The project is to be completed over a
period of five years.

Physical Performance of the DPAP

Since the adoption of watershed approach in the year 1995-96 till 2005-2006, 24363 projects have been
sanctioned to treat 121.82 lakh hectares of drought prone area. The year-wise details of projects sanctioned
from 1995-96 to 2005-06 are at Annexure 2. The project period of 6089 projects sanctioned from 1995-96 to
 1998-99 has however been over; of these 4325 projects are deemed complete and funding stopped to 1764
projects. Among 18274 projects sanctioned from 1999-2000 to 2005-06, 1392 projects are deemed complete
and 16882 projects are ongoing as on 31.3.2006. Thus, a total of 5717 projects are deemed complete, funding
has been stopped to 1764 projects and 16882 projects are ongoing.

The Union Government sanction block wise new projects every year to programme districts taking in to
consideration primarily the DPAP coverage, performance of the on-going projects, capacity to absorb new
projects and annual budget outlay etc. During the year 2005-06, 3000 new watershed projects have been
sanctioned under DPAP to treat an area of 15 lakh hectares at a total cost of Rs. 900.00 crore over a period of
five years. The Central share is Rs. 675 crore out of which the amount of first installment i.e Rs. 101.25 crore
has been released. These projects are being implemented in accordance with the provisions contained in the
Guidelines for Hariyali.

Financial performance

The total amount committed for these 24363 projects (sanctioned from 1995-96-2005-06) is Rs. 6469.20
crores of which Rs. 4772.46 crores is the central share. From 1995-96 to 2005-2006, an amount of Rs.
2095.33 crore has been released. The year-wise details of funds released to the programme States since
1995-96 to 2005-2006 are at Annexure 3. The Budget outlay for 2006-07 is Rs.360 crore against which
Rs.11.84 crore has been utilized upto 17.5.2006.

(or)
8.b. Explain the features of hydrological and agricultural droughts.

Hydrological Drought

• Hydrological drought is associated with the effects of periods of precipitation (including snowfall)
shortfalls on surface or subsurface water supply (i.e., streamflow, reservoir and lake levels,
groundwater).
• The frequency and severity of hydrological drought is often defined on a watershed or river basin
scale. Although all droughts originate with a deficiency of precipitation, hydrologists are more
concerned with how this deficiency plays out through the hydrologic system.
• Hydrological droughts are usually out of phase with or lag the occurrence of meteorological and
agricultural droughts. It takes longer for precipitation deficiencies to show up in components of the
hydrological system such as soil moisture, streamflow, and groundwater and reservoir levels. As a
result, these impacts are out of phase with impacts in other economic sectors.
• For example, a precipitation deficiency may result in a rapid depletion of soil moisture that is
almost immediately discernible to agriculturalists, but the impact of this deficiency on reservoir
levels may not affect hydroelectric power production or recreational uses for many months.
• Also, water in hydrologic storage systems (e.g., reservoirs, rivers) is often used for multiple and
competing purposes (e.g., flood control, irrigation, recreation, navigation, hydropower, wildlife
habitat), further complicating the sequence and quantification of impacts. Competition for water in
these storage systems escalates during drought and conflicts between water users increase
significantly.

Agricultural Drought

• Agricultural drought links various characteristics of meteorological (or hydrological) drought to

agricultural impacts, focusing on precipitation shortages, differences between actual and potential
evapotranspiration, soil water deficits, reduced groundwater or reservoir levels, and so forth.
• Plant water demand depends on prevailing weather conditions, biological characteristics of the
specific plant, its stage of growth, and the physical and biological properties of the soil. A good
 definition of agricultural drought should be able to account for the variable susceptibility of crops
during different stages of crop development, from emergence to maturity.
• Deficient topsoil moisture at planting may hinder germination, leading to low plant populations per
hectare and a reduction of final yield.
• However, if topsoil moisture is sufficient for early growth requirements, deficiencies in subsoil
moisture at this early stage may not affect final yield if subsoil moisture is replenished as the
growing season progresses or if rainfall meets plant water needs.

9.a. List out and discuss different types of reservoirs in detail.

Reservoirs are man-made storage systems that capture and store water for future use. They are usually
constructed by damming a river to form an artificial lake and are designed to control water flow from a
source to a destination. The purpose of reservoirs is to provide a reliable water source for drinking,
irrigation, hydropower, and other uses.

Types of Reservoirs

The type of reservoir chosen for a certain purpose depends on multiple factors, including available land
area, reservoir depth, and the water's intended use. Reservoirs may be natural or artificial and come in
many shapes and sizes.

Surface Storage Reservoirs

Surface storage reservoirs are the most common type of reservoir. These reservoirs are created by
constructing a dam or weir on a natural water course, allowing the water to be contained in a large pool.
Once the pool is created, water can be stored in it for many purposes, including flood control,
hydroelectric power generation, irrigation, and drinking and domestic water supply.

Subsurface Storage Reservoirs

Subsurface storage reservoirs are reservoirs constructed below the ground surface. These reservoirs are
commonly used to store industrial wastewater and stormwater runoff. The water is stored in an
impermeable underground aquifer and is managed through pumps and injection wells.

Groundwater Basins

Groundwater basins are reservoirs of permeable rocks like gravel, sand, and clay. These basins are used
to store groundwater for drinking and domestic use and replenish groundwater during drought.
Groundwater basins are also used for agricultural irrigation.

Injection/Disposal Reservoirs

Injection/disposal reservoirs are reservoirs used to store wastewater from industrial and manufacturing
processes. The water is stored in an underground aquifer and may be used for groundwater recharge. The
water may be disposed of through injection wells or other surface disposal methods.

Artificial Reservoirs

Artificial reservoirs are man-made reservoirs created using earth and rock dams. These reservoirs are
used for various purposes, including flood control, water supply, and hydroelectric power generation.
Artificial reservoirs are typically larger than natural reservoirs and may be created in any location where
water needs to be stored.

(or)
9.b. Briefly explain about the spillways.

A spillway is a structure used to provide the controlled release of water downstream from
a dam or levee, typically into the riverbed of the dammed river itself. Spillways ensure that water does
not damage parts of the structure not designed to convey water.

Spillways can include floodgates and fuse plugs to regulate water flow and reservoir level. Such features
enable a spillway to regulate downstream flow—by releasing water in a controlled manner before the
reservoir is full, operators can prevent an unacceptably large release later.

Other uses of the term "spillway" include bypasses of dams and outlets of channels used during high
water, and outlet channels carved through natural dams such as moraines.

Water normally flows over a spillway only during flood periods, when the reservoir has reached its
capacity and water continues entering faster than it can be released. In contrast, an intake tower is a
structure used to control water release on a routine basis for purposes such as water supply
and hydroelectricity generation.

A spillway is located at the top of the reservoir pool. Dams may also have bottom outlets with valves or
gates which may be operated to release flood flow, and a few dams lack overflow spillways and rely
entirely on bottom outlets.

The two main types of spillways are controlled and uncontrolled.

A controlled spillway has mechanical structures or gates to regulate the rate of flow. This design allows
nearly the full height of the dam to be used for water storage year-round, and flood waters can be
released as required by opening one or more gates.

An uncontrolled spillway, in contrast, does not have gates; when the water rises above the lip or crest of
the spillway, it begins to be released from the reservoir. The rate of discharge is controlled only by the
height of water above the reservoir's spillway. The fraction of storage volume in the reservoir above the
spillway crest can only be used for the temporary storage of floodwater; it cannot be used as water
supply storage because it sits higher than the dam can retain it.

PART – C (1 X 16 =16 Marks)

10.a. Explain in detail about IMD method in drought monitoring.

Drought Monitoring
During 1965 and 1966, major parts of India were under prolonged and severe drought conditions due to
deficient monsoon rainfall. On the recommendations of the Planning commission, Drought Research
Unit started functioning at Pune in 1967 in the office of the Additional Director General of Meteorology
(Research) After establishment, Drought Research Unit started conducting studies on different aspects of
Drought. The salient activities of this Unit are as under:

1. Defining meteorological Drought and its intensity.

2. Delineation and identification of -Drought Prone areas of the country
3. Study of past droughts and
4. Monitoring Agricultural drought conditions during Southwest and Northeast monsoons
5. Issuing weekly aridity outlook and
6. Research on different aspects of drought.
 Methodology of Drought Monitoring
India Meteorological Department (IMD) monitors the incidence, spread, intensification and cessation of
drought (near realtime basis) on a weekly time scale over the country based on Aridity Anomaly Index. It
also issues Weekly Drought Outlook, based on this index, which indicates the impending drought
scenario in the country in the subsequent week.
Based on aridity anomaly index, weekly Aridity Anomaly Reports and maps for the Southwest Monsoon
Season for the whole country and for the Northeast Monsoon Season for the five meteorological
sub-divisions, viz. coastal Andhra Pradesh, Rayalaseema, south Interior Karnataka, Tamil Nadu &
Pondicherry and Kerala, are prepared and sent to HQrs and various agricultural authorities of State and
Central Govts., and Research Institutes on operational basis for their use in Agricultural Planning
purposes. The maps are also uploaded in the departmental website. These Aridity Anomaly maps/reports
help to assess the moisture stress experienced by growing plants and to monitor agricultural drought
situation in the country.

Aridity is the Thornthwaite’s concept to describe water deficiency experienced by plants. Thornthwaite
gave the following formula for computing aridity index (AI):
PE – AE
AI = ------------- X 100
PE
PE denotes the water need of the plants (which is called potential evapotranspiration). AE denotes the
actual evapotranspiration and (PE-AE) denotes the water deficit. PE is computed by Penman’s equation.
AE is obtained from the water balance procedure which takes into account the water holding capacity of
the soil at the place.
According to this procedure, rainfall is first utilized by the plants for evapotranspiration purpose. When
the evapotranspirative demands of the plants are fully met (as given by PE) the excess amount of rainfall
percolates and recharge the soil. This soil moisture recharge continues till the soil reaches its field
capacity. Any excess amount of rainfall after the evapotranspirative demands are fully met and the soil is
recharged completely is considered as water surplus and goes as surface or deep drainage runoff. When
the rainfall is less than the evapotranspirative demands, the plant extracts moisture from the soil till the
soil is dessicated of its moisture.
The Aridity Index is worked out on weekly/biweekly basis. It refers to the water stress suffered by a
growing plant due to shortage of available moisture (both rainfall and soil moisture). An anomaly from a
normal value would thus signify the water shortage from a long term climatic value.
Normal values of this index for successive weeks during the monsoon are worked out for stations
representing different agroclimatic zones of the country. Every week the actual aridity at the place is
computed from the weekly total rainfall and antecedent soil moisture conditions. The difference between
the actual aridity for the week and the normal aridity (Actual-Normal) i.e. the anomaly is obtained.

A negative or a zero value of this anomaly would imply that as compared to the normal, the place had
experienced less arid/drought conditions; a positive value would indicate that the place had experienced
more arid/drought conditions than the normal.

(or)
10.b. Recall the salient features and describe the significance of NDVI analysis.

NDVI or Normalized Difference Vegetation Index is a remote sensing method that uses the reflectance
of light in the visible and near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths to determine the amount and health of
vegetation in an area. NDVI is widely used in agriculture, forestry, and ecology to monitor the growth
and health of vegetation and to identify areas of stress or damage. NDVI values can also be used to map
and classify vegetation types, and to detect changes in vegetation cover over time. Simply put, the
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index is an indicator of a plant’s health entirely based on how the cell
structures reflect the different light waves in visible and near-infrared bands.

In other words, it aids in detecting and quantifying the presence of live green vegetation based on how
objects interact with light. To understand the plant’s health condition, one needs to compare the
absorption and reflection values of red and NIR (near-infrared) light.

Calculation of NDVI

Plants have a unique reflectance characteristic, they reflect more near-infrared (NIR) light and absorb
more visible light. When plants are healthy, they have a high chlorophyll content, which allows them to
absorb more light in the red region of the spectrum and reflect more light in the NIR region. So NDVI
uses this characteristic of plants to differentiate healthy vegetation from non-vegetation or unhealthy
vegetation.

NDVI is calculated by subtracting the reflectance of the NIR band from the reflectance of the red band
and then dividing that value by the sum of the reflectance of the NIR and red bands. NDVI values range
from -1 to 1, with -1 indicating no vegetation, 0 indicating bare soil or water, and values closer to 1
indicating greater amounts and healthier vegetation.

In mathematical terms, comparing the red and near-infrared light signals can help differentiate between
healthy and sick plants or distinguish non-plants from plants.

Formula for the evaluation of NDVI:

NDVI = (NIR-Red)/(NIR+Red)

Now, the values range from -1 to +1. A higher or more positive value indicates greater plant vigor and
general health.

Applications of NDVI

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is a widely used remote sensing technique with a
variety of applications in agriculture, forestry, and environmental monitoring. Some specific examples of
how NDVI is used in these fields include

NDVI in Agriculture

NDVI is commonly used to monitor the health and productivity of crops. It can help farmers identify
areas of the field that may be stressed or experiencing nutrient deficiencies, and can be used to optimize
irrigation and fertilization practices. NDVI can also be used to monitor the growth and development of
crops over time, and to estimate yields.

NDVI in Forestry

NDVI can be used to assess the density and health of forests, and to monitor changes in forest cover over
time. It can help identify areas of the forest that may be experiencing stress or damage due to pests,
diseases, or other factors. NDVI can also be used to estimate the biomass and carbon sequestration
potential of forests. NDVI can be used to monitor the health of forests over large areas, by detecting
changes in vegetation cover, such as changes in canopy cover, leaf area index, and biomass.

NDVI for Environmental Monitoring

NDVI can be used to monitor the health and productivity of vegetation in natural ecosystems, such as
grasslands, savannas, and wetlands. It can be used to detect changes in vegetation cover due to human
activities or natural events, such as deforestation, land use change, and drought. NDVI can also be used
to monitor the recovery of vegetation after disturbances, such as fires or floods.

Besides generalized assessment, some of the other practical uses of NDVI in agriculture are as follows:

1. NDVI aids in tracking Crop Health

Most scientists and agronomists prefer NDVI as an ideal tool for tracking crop health. Primarily, they
capture a series of NDVI maps to keep a close check on crop health. It is applicable during the growing
season and from year to year.

2. NDVI helps Agronomists develop Variable Prescription Maps

With NDVI maps, agronomists and other stakeholders can identify nutrient deficiencies, conduct the
much-needed ground-truthing, and then upload the data on a farm ERP solution like Cropin, a
revolutionary in promoting and making precision farming possible.

3. NDVI helps Scout Fields Faster

The traditional physical process of assessing or tracking a field can be more detrimental to the crops.
Plus, it is time-consuming and labor-intensive nonetheless.

4. NDVI helps identify crop problems sooner

NDVI also helps agronomists identify stressed crops up to 2 weeks before the naked eye can see. Since
crop stress is more apparent in the near-infrared light spectrum than in the visible one, it can aid growers
to eliminate pests, diseases, fungi, and arid conditions sooner. In addition, consistently low NDVI values
at the same place every crop cycle could indicate problems with drainage, soil pH, or even soil
compaction.

5. NDVI helps indicate drought situations

This gives us NDVI values over a period of time. When averaged, the NDVI values give a region's
absorption/reflection capacity. Thus, NDVI indicates the health of the vegetation in that area, compared
to the average.