1. What do we understand by sense relations? Reference relation vs.

sense
relation.

1. Meaning Relations: Meaning relations refer to the semantic relationships that exist between
words, concepts, and their meanings. These relations are essential in understanding how
words are organized and connected within a language's lexical system.
2. Reference Relation vs. Sense Relation:

 Reference Relation: This is an external meaning relation that describes the relationship
between a word and the entity it refers to or designates in the real world, our mental world,
or the world of our experience. It is a context-bound relation that depends on the specific
utterance or situation in which the word is used. For example, the word "president" in the
sentence "The President felt almost like his predecessor during the Watergate scandal" refers
to a specific U.S. president, rather than the general concept of a president.
 Sense Relation: Sense relations, on the other hand, describe internal meaning relations that
hold between words within the vocabulary. These relations are based on the inherent
meanings of words, rather than their referential use in a particular context. Some important
sense relations are:
o Synonymy: A relation of sameness or equivalence in meaning between words, e.g.,
"talkative" and "chatty."
o Antonymy: A relation of oppositeness or contrariness in meaning between words,
e.g., "talkative" and "taciturn."
o Hyponymy: A hierarchical relation where a hyponym (more specific word) is a
subclass or instance of a hypernym (more general word), e.g., "rat" is a hyponym of
"rodent."
o Meronymy: A hierarchical relation where a meronym (part) is a constituent or
component of a holonym (whole), e.g., "wheel" is a meronym of "car."

3. Importance of Sense Relations: Understanding sense relations is crucial for several

reasons:

 It helps organize and structure the vocabulary of a language.

 It provides insights into how words are semantically related and how their meanings are
interconnected.
 It aids in language learning, vocabulary acquisition, and understanding the nuances of word
meanings.
 It forms the basis for various language processing tasks, such as natural language
understanding, machine translation, and information retrieval.

4. Other Sense Relations: In addition to the commonly discussed sense relations mentioned
above, there are other types of meaning relations, such as relationships of sequences, cycles,
or hierarchical relations beyond hyponymy and meronymy. These relations may be covered
in more advanced discussions of lexical semantics.
2. Synonymy
2.1. Strict (absolute) and loose synonymy
2.2. Criteria for absolute synonymy (according to John Lyons)
2.3. Points of distinction between synonyms
2.4. Reasons for extensive synonymy in English
2. Synonymy

Synonymy is a fundamental linguistic phenomenon that influences the structure of the lexicon. It
refers to words or expressions that have the same or similar meanings.

2.1. Strict (absolute) and loose synonymy

 Strict or absolute synonymy: This refers to lexical items that are completely
interchangeable in all contexts without affecting the meaning, style, or connotation.
However, linguists argue that such strict synonymy is rare, and if it exists, it is observed in
restricted situations, such as when semantic change is underway or in specialized
vocabularies and terms.
 Loose synonymy: This is a more common phenomenon where there is a significant overlap
in meaning between two words, but they cannot be substituted for each other in all contexts.
Most discussions of synonymy involve this loose relation of sameness or similarity rather
than full semantic equivalence.

2.2. Criteria for absolute synonymy (according to John Lyons)

For two or more expressions to be considered absolutely synonymous, John Lyons proposes the
following three conditions:

1. All their meanings are identical.

2. They are synonymous in all contexts (have the same collocational range).
3. They are semantically equivalent on all dimensions of meaning, including expressive and
connotational nuances.

2.3. Points of distinction between synonyms

Even though synonyms may share a significant overlap in meaning, they often differ in several
aspects, including:

1. Frequency: Synonyms may differ in their frequency of use, with one being more common
than the other.
2. Distribution:
o Dialectal distribution: Synonyms may belong to different dialects, either regional
(e.g., British vs. American English) or social (e.g., upper-class vs. non-upper-class).
o Functional distribution: Synonyms may differ in the functional styles and registers
they belong to, such as formal vs. informal, standard vs. non-standard (e.g., slang).
3. Collocational range: Synonyms often have different collocational patterns, meaning they
cannot be substituted in certain contexts without violating collocational restrictions.
 4. Connotation: Synonyms may differ in their associative or emotive meanings, even if they
share a similar denotation. One synonym may carry additional connotations of intensity,
degree, aspect, duration, or other nuances.

2.4. Reasons for extensive synonymy in English

English is particularly rich in synonymous pairs due to historical circumstances, specifically the
blending of words from different language sources into its vocabulary. The primary reasons for
extensive synonymy in English include:

1. The Norman Conquest in 1066, which introduced French as the language of the court,
administration, and high society, while English remained the language of the commoners.
This led to the borrowing of French words alongside existing English words, resulting in
synonymous pairs.
2. The influence of Latin and Greek words, which were often more formal and technical than
their English counterparts, leading to synonymous pairs with differing levels of formality.
3. The tendency for native English words to be shorter, more frequent, and more emotional,
while borrowed words (especially from Latin and Greek) were more precise, formal, and
detached, leading to synonymous pairs with different connotations and distributions.

The blending of words from different sources resulted in English acquiring synonymous pairs that
differ in nuances of meaning, connotation, formality, and distribution, contributing to the richness
and diversity of its vocabulary.
 3. Antonymy
3.1. Types of antonyms
3.2. How common is the relation of antonymy?
3.3. Co-occurrence of antonyms
3. Antonymy

Antonymy is the concept of oppositeness or contrariness in meaning between words. It is an

essential semantic relation that helps structure the vocabulary of English. Unlike synonymy,
antonyms do not typically differ in style, emotional coloring, or distribution.

3.1. Types of antonyms

The textbook identifies three main types of antonyms:

1. Gradable antonyms: These pairs represent a relationship of degree or a continuum, rather

than an either/or relation. Examples include high-low, difficult-easy, fast-slow, hot-cold,
love-hate, and rich-poor. One term is typically seen as the marked (or more specific) term,
while the other is unmarked (or more general).
2. Contradictory or complementary antonyms: These pairs represent a binary opposition,
where one term negates or complements the other. Examples include above-below, before-
after, buy-sell, husband-wife, and speak-listen.
3. Converse antonyms: Also known as relational pairs, these antonyms express the converse
meaning of the other. Examples include borrow-lend, doctor-patient, and behind-in front of.
Statements using converse antonyms express the same situation from opposite perspectives.

3.2. How common is the relation of antonymy?

While antonyms are prevalent in language, the relation of synonymy seems to be more pervasive in
English. There are several reasons for this:

1. The extraordinary synonym richness of English, arising from the blending of words from
different language sources.
2. The number of words and concepts that allow an opposite is limited, while there is no such
theoretical limitation on synonymy.
3. Gradable antonyms are most common among adjectives, while other word classes have a
more limited incidence of antonym pairs.
4. Many adjectives are not gradable (e.g., those referring to material, provenance, or shape),
limiting the potential for antonymy.

3.3. Co-occurrence of antonyms

Antonyms often co-occur within the same sentence or adjacent sentences for rhetorical or emphatic
purposes. Some examples and reasons include:
 1. Idiomatic expressions built on opposition, such as "neither here nor there," "come rain or
shine," and "sink or swim."
2. The rhetorical device of antithesis, where oppositeness is used to enhance the
communicative message, as seen in famous speeches and literature.
3. Emphasizing a point or a change of state, such as "It was a remark made in private, not in
public."
4. The stylistic device of oxymoron, which combines contradictory or incongruous ideas, such
as "beautifully flawed" or "affordable luxury."
5. Contextual antonyms, where words become opposites only in specific contexts, adding to
the persuasive power of the message.

The extensive use of antonymy in language reflects the influence of oppositeness on our thinking
and communication processes.
 4. Relations of taxonomy or hierarchical relations
4.1. Hyponymy as ‘the kind of’ relation
4.2. Meronymy as the ‘part of’ relation
4. Relations of taxonomy or hierarchical relations

Taxonomic or hierarchical relations refer to the ways in which words are organized in a hierarchical
structure based on their levels of generality or specificity. These relations help structure the
vocabulary of a language and reflect the classification systems used in various fields, such as
natural sciences and our informal ways of talking about the world around us.

4.1. Hyponymy as 'the kind of' relation

Hyponymy is the 'kind of' relation, where a more specific term (hyponym) is a kind or subclass of a
more general term (hypernym or superordinate term). For example, 'bus' is a hyponym of the
hypernym 'vehicle'.

The textbook illustrates hyponymy using the classification of animals, as shown in the provided
diagram. 'Animal' is the superordinate term, while 'mammals', 'birds', 'fish', etc. are its hyponyms.
Likewise, 'carnivores', 'cetaceans', 'rodents', and 'primates' are hyponyms of 'mammals'.

Hyponymic relations are prevalent in the taxonomies of natural phenomena, as well as in the
classification of human artifacts. These hierarchies help structure the vocabulary by providing
words of varying degrees of generality to refer to classes and subclasses of entities.

4.2. Meronymy as the 'part of' relation

Meronymy is the 'part of' relation, where a subordinate term (meronym) is a part or component of a
more comprehensive whole (holonym). For instance, 'petal' and 'stamen' are meronyms of the
holonym 'flower'.

The textbook illustrates meronymy using the hierarchy of plant parts, as shown in the provided
diagram. 'Plant' is the holonym, while 'leaf', 'bud', 'root', 'stem', 'flower', and 'shoot' are its
meronyms.

The meronymy relation is particularly applicable to concrete entities that have distinct parts, such as
human artifacts (e.g., a bicycle and its components like frame, wheels, saddle, etc.). However, more
abstract entities can also be divided into parts using meronymic relations.

It's important to note that while hyponymy and meronymy are essential for structuring the
vocabulary, they do not operate in a completely systematic or unambiguous way. There may be
lexical gaps or inconsistencies in how co-hyponyms or co-meronyms are distinguished.
1.What distinguishes each of the following pairs of synonyms?

1. insect – creepy-crawlie: The term "creepy-crawlie" is an informal, sometimes childish or

whimsical way of referring to insects and other small creatures that crawl. It is less formal
and more colloquial than the term "insect."
2. nose – schnozzle: "Schnozzle" is a slang or informal term that refers to the nose in a
humorous or playful way. It is more colloquial and informal than the standard term "nose."
3. complaint – grievance: While both terms refer to expressing dissatisfaction or discontent,
"grievance" typically carries a more formal or legal connotation, often used in the context of
formal complaints or disputes, especially in the workplace or legal settings. "Complaint," on
the other hand, can be used in a broader range of contexts, from casual conversations to
formal settings.
4. crazy – bonkers: "Bonkers" is an informal, slang term that means "crazy" or "eccentric." It is
more colloquial and lighthearted than the standard term "crazy."
5. unpleasant – revolting: "Revolting" is a stronger and more intense term than "unpleasant." It
suggests something that is extremely unpleasant, disgusting, or offensive, evoking a sense of
repulsion or disgust.
6. to control – to bring under control: "To bring under control" is a more specific and explicit
phrase than the more general term "to control." It suggests a situation where control was lost
or lacking, and the action of regaining or establishing control is necessary.
7. to retreat – to back out: While both terms refer to withdrawing or pulling back, "to back
out" often carries a more negative connotation of backing out of a commitment or
obligation, whereas "to retreat" can be used in a more neutral or strategic sense, such as in
military or tactical contexts.

2.Suggest Ukrainian equivalents for various synonyms of the lexeme mistake. Consider such
criteria as frequency, collocational patterns, distribution (formality – informality), and
connotation of proposed equivalents:

Buying the farm was the biggest mistake of her life.: помилка (a common, neutral term for a
mistake or error)

The report concluded that the accident was caused by human error.: похибка/прорахунок (more
formal terms used in technical or official contexts)

I'm sure it was just an oversight that your name wasn't on the list.: недогляд/упущення
(suggesting an unintentional or accidental oversight)

Mercifully, circumstances now allow me to rectify this faux pas.: ляпсус (a formal term borrowed
from French, often used in more elevated or sophisticated contexts)

Molly knew she could not afford to make a single slip.: огріх (a more casual or informal term for a
minor mistake or slip-up)

But seldom has a military miscalculation been so gross and retribution so immediate.: прорахунок
(a more formal term used in contexts like military strategy or planning)

He didn't offer Darren a drink, and Marie did not appear to notice the lapse.: упущення (a neutral
term suggesting an unintentional omission or oversight)
I hope it was a slip-up rather than genuine ignorance.: описка (a casual term for a minor mistake
or slip-up, often in writing)

Major management blunders have led the company into bankruptcy.: хиба/помилка (more general
terms for mistakes, but "хиба" implies a more significant or severe mistake)

You made a boner that time.: блуд (an informal, slang term for a silly or foolish mistake)

3. Find any possible synonyms for the following items: smart, stupid, intellectual, drunk,
Australia, veracity, genteel. Explain the differences between them.

smart:

 intelligent, clever, bright (more neutral terms)

 brainy (informal, positive connotation)
 sharp, quick-witted (suggesting mental agility or quickness)

stupid:

 dumb, idiotic, moronic (more derogatory or insulting terms)

 dense, thick (suggesting a lack of intelligence or understanding)
 foolish, silly (less intense than "stupid," suggesting silliness or lack of good judgment)

intellectual:

 cerebral, scholarly, academic (suggesting a person or activity focused on intellectual

pursuits)
 erudite, learned (suggesting a high level of knowledge or education)
 bookish (can have a slightly negative connotation of being overly focused on academics or
books)

drunk:

 intoxicated, inebriated (more formal or medical terms)

 tipsy, buzzed (suggesting a mild state of drunkenness)
 plastered, sloshed, hammered (informal, suggesting a more severe state of drunkenness)

Australia:

 Down Under (an informal term referring to Australia's location in the southern hemisphere)
 The Land Down Under (a more poetic or literary term)
 Oz (an informal, slang term used primarily by Australians)

veracity:

 truth, truthfulness (more common and straightforward terms)

 accuracy, precision (suggesting exactness or correctness)
 authenticity, genuineness (suggesting something that is original or true to its source)

genteel:

 refined, cultured (suggesting a high level of refinement or cultural sophistication)

 elegant, graceful (referring to a refined or stylish manner or appearance)
 upper-class, aristocratic (suggesting a connection to higher social classes or nobility)
 4. Identify synonyms for each item within the pairs of "false friends" below:

Ukrainian English

акуратний - careful, neat, tidy | accurate - точний, правильний

експертиза - examination, assessment, appraisal | expertise - досвід, майстерність

актуальний - relevant, topical, current | actual - справжній, реальний

інсульт - stroke | insult - образа

анекдотичний - anecdotal (no synonym) | angina - стенокардія

5. Identify and comment on the contextual antonyms in the following textual fragment
(from Martin Luther King's speech I Have a Dream):

Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the
Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to
millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a
joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.

But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the
Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One
hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of
material prosperity.

Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and
desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation
from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make
justice a reality for all of God's children.

It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of
the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and
equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning.

I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of
injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and
justice.

I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be
judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.

I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be
made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; "and
the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together."

_With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this
faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation