IM EE 211 Electrical Circuits 1 Instructional Materials

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 1
Simplified Workbook
PEE JAY N. GEALONE, REE, MEng

ALWIN M. LUNAS, PEE, MET
Electrical Engineering Department
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bicol University
Electrical Circuits 1: Simplified Workbook
2 |BUCENG | Gealone & Lunas

Table of Contents
Introduction....................................................................................................... 5
Lesson 0: BU and BUCENG VMGO and Quality Policy ................................ 7
UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY ............................................. 11
Lesson 1: Introduction to DC/AC Sources, Power, & Energy ...................... 13
Lesson 2: DC SOURCE – Batteries ............................................................ 23
Lesson 3: Resistance & Conductance ........................................................ 29
Lesson 4: Ohm's Law ................................................................................. 37
Lesson 5: Series Connection & Voltage Division Theorem ......................... 43
Lesson 6: Parallel Connection & Current Division Theorem ........................ 47
Lesson 7: Equivalent Resistance & WYE-DELTA Transformation ............... 51
Lesson 8: Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Law .......................................... 59
Lesson 9: Independent and Dependent Sources ........................................ 67
UNIT 2: NODAL AND MESH ANALYSIS ........................................................ 71
Lesson 10: Nodal Analysis.......................................................................... 73
Lesson 11: General Mesh Analysis ............................................................. 91
UNIT 3: CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES & THEOREMS ....................... 101
Lesson 12: Linearity & Superposition Theorem ......................................... 103
Lesson 13: Source transformation ............................................................ 115
Lesson 14: Thevenin’s Theorem and Equivalent Circuits .......................... 121
Lesson 15: Norton’s Theorem and Equivalent Circuits .............................. 127
Lesson 16: Maximum power transfer ........................................................ 133
Lesson 17: Circuits with controlled sources and the ideal op amp............. 137
UNIT 4: INTRO. TO ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) CIRCUITS................. 145
Lesson 18: Capacitors and Capacitance ................................................... 147
Lesson 19: Inductors and Inductance ....................................................... 159
Lesson 20: Analysis of RL and RC Circuits ............................................... 169
Lesson 21: Analysis of RLC circuits .......................................................... 181
Lesson 22: Sinusoidal Steady-state Analysis in the Frequency Domain .... 191
COURSE SYLLABUS ................................................................................... 207
BUCENG | Gealone & Lunas | 3


Introduction
Welcome to the world of Electrical Circuits 1 course! This introductory course aims to provide
you with a basic understanding of direct current (DC) circuits, including the principles of electrical
charge, voltage, current, and resistance, and how they relate to each other.
This module is designed for BSEE students at Bicol University. Though the course is designed
for second year students, and requires a Physics and Calculus course as prerequisites, we are
confident that this will still be useful even if you have little to no prior knowledge of electrical circuits
provided you have a passion for learning about the fascinating world of electrical engineering.
In this module, you will learn about the fundamental concepts of DC circuits, such as
Kirchhoff's laws, Ohm's law, and circuit analysis techniques. You will also learn about important circuit
elements, such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, and how they affect circuit behavior.
Additionally, you will learn about circuit analysis tools, such as circuit simulators and multimeters, and
how to use them to measure and analyze electrical circuits.
Throughout the module, you will be provided with numerous examples and exercises to help
you practice and solidify your understanding of the concepts covered. By the end of this module, you
will have a good grasp of the basic principles of DC circuits and be able to apply your newfound
knowledge to analyze and design simple circuits.
Before you use this material, here are some tips that we wish for you to be reminded of to
ensure success in this course:
1. Set realistic goals. Before starting the module, determine your learning goals and what you
hope to achieve by completing it. Be realistic in setting your goals, and make sure they are
specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
2. Establish a learning schedule: Decide how much time you will devote to the module each
day or week and stick to that schedule. Make sure you have a distraction-free environment
to work in.
3. Read instructions carefully: Read the instructions for each module section or activity
carefully, and make sure you understand what is expected of you before you begin.
4. Take notes: Take notes as you work through the module and summarize key concepts and
information in your own words.
5. Complete activities and assessments: Complete all activities and assessments provided in
the module, as they are designed to help you apply what you've learned and assess your
understanding of the material.

6. Seek help when needed: If you have questions or need clarification on a concept or
activity, don't hesitate to seek help from the module instructor or from other resources,
such as textbooks, online forums, or classmates.
7. Review and reflect: After completing each section or activity, take some time to review
what you've learned and reflect on how it fits into the larger context of the module.
8. Stay motivated: Finally, stay motivated and committed to completing the module.
Recognize that self-directed learning requires discipline and effort, but the rewards of
gaining new knowledge and skills are well worth it.
We hope that this module will serve as a useful and engaging introduction to the exciting world
of electrical engineering and inspire you to further explore this fascinating field. So, let's get started on
this electrifying journey!
How much better to get wisdom than gold,

and good judgment than silver!
Proverbs 16:16
- The Authors
IMPORTANT NOTICE
These materials are protected by copyright laws and have been provided to you by or
on behalf of Bicol university for educational purposes. These materials may contain works that
are protected under Republic Act (RA) 8293 or the 'Intellectual Property Code of the
Philippines.' The University DOES NOT authorize the reproduction and communication of
these materials or any part of these materials without permission, doing so may be considered
a copyright infringement. The copyright owners have the right to take legal action against such
infringement. Please be aware that this notice must not be removed from this material.

Lesson 0: BU and BUCENG VMGO and Quality Policy
This lesson introduces the mission, vision, goal, and program outcomes of Bicol University,
College of Engineering, and BS Electrical Engineering program. The students are expected to be
familiar with said information and be able to understand the significant of such in Electrical Circuits 1
course.
Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Recite and identify keywords from the BU mission, vision, and quality policy;
2. Familiarize with the BSEE program outcomes; and
3. Create a personal vision anchored to the BU VMGO and BSEE program
outcomes.
Pre-test. Fill in the blanks the keywords of BU Vision.

Bicol University: “A _________________ university producing _________________ and
_________________ for social _________________ and _________________.”
Note: Kindly refer to the orientation instruction/video on how the following activities will be marked.
Lesson Activity 0.1

Visit the website of Bicol University (www.bicol-u.edu.ph) and look for the University Vision,
Mission, and Quality Policy. Write the said information in the boxes below:
VISION
MISSION

QUALITY POLICY
Lesson Activity 0.2

Below are the program outcomes of the BS Electrical Engineering program of Bicol University.
Using the table below, rate the current level of proficiency (from 1 to 5, five being the highest) that you
have in each expected outcome, and identify some steps that you think you need to do to further
increase your level of proficiency.
Level of
Program Outcome Action Plan
Proficiency
Apply knowledge of mathematics and science

to solve engineering problems
Conduct appropriate experimentation, analyze
and interpret data, and use engineering
judgment to draw conclusions
Apply both analysis and synthesis in the
engineering design process, resulting in
designs that meet desired needs within
realistic constraints such as economic,
environmental, social, political, ethical, health
and safety, manufacturability, and
sustainability, in accordance with standards
Function effectively in multidisciplinary teams
that establish goals, plan tasks, meet
deadlines, and analyze risk and uncertainty
Identify, formulate, and solve complex
problems in electrical engineering
Recognize ethical professional responsibilities

in engineering situations
Communicate effectively with a range of

audiences

Understand the impact of engineering

solutions in a global, economic, environmental,
and societal context
Recognize the need for additional knowledge
and locate, evaluate, integrate, and apply this
knowledge appropriately
Articulate and discuss the latest developments
in the field of electrical engineering
Apply techniques, skills, and modern
engineering tools necessary for engineering
practice
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
engineering and management principles as a
member and/or leader of a team to manage
projects in a multidisciplinary environment
Lesson Activity 0.3

Using the space provided below, craft a personal vision and explain how it is aligned with the
BU VMGO and BSEE Program outcomes.
PERSONAL VISION


UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF

ELECTRICITY


LESSON INTRO. TO DC/AC
01
Lesson 1: Introduction to DC/AC Sources, Power, & Energy
SOURCES, POWER,
& ENERGY
This lesson briefly discusses the elementary concept of Electricity, Power, and Energy. The
different types of electricity sources are introduced, the differences between DC and AC sources are
discussed as well.
Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to be able to:
1. Explain the basic concept of electricity.
2. Discuss the concept of and difference between Power and Energy;
3. Discuss the concept of and difference between DC and AC power; and
4. Identify some sources of DC and AC power
1.1 Introduction
In the electrical industry with its complex machines and instruments, it is easy to be
overwhelmed by electrical engineering field and think that everything is complicated and difficult.
However, with a strong knowledge of the basic concepts of electricity, it is possible to breakdown
complicated systems to a simple, manageable circuit. Thus, in this chapter we will investigate the
fundamental concepts, principles, and terminologies involved in electrical circuits.
The term electricity is widely known. It is almost impossible to live comfortably in this world
without electricity. Our lifestyle is so dependent on it, that during power outages our world tends to
“stop”. We use electricity for our lighting, ventilation, communication, entertainment, transportation,
to name a few.
But what is electricity? Meriam-Webster define electricity as a

“fundamental form of energy observable in positive and negative form that occurs
naturally (as in lightning) or is produced (as in a generator) and that is expressed
in terms of the movement and interaction of electrons.” It is a form of energy
expressed in terms of, or derived from, movement and interactions of electrons.
Hence, to understand the concept of electricity, it is imperative to understand first
the concept of electrons.
An electron is one of the three major parts of an atom – the smallest unit of
Figure 1.1: Major parts of an atom an element. The electron is said to be the negatively charged particle, while the
proton is the positively charged particle, and the neutron is neutral. Electron

orbits around the nucleus that contains the protons and neutrons.
Every element is characterized by the number of protons, neutron, and electrons that it
contains. An uncharged element contains equal number of protons, electrons, and neutron, e.g.,
hydrogen (H) atom, has one electron, one proton, and one neutron.
1.2 Charge
A charge is defined as an electrical property of the atomic particles that consists of matter. It is
measured in coulombs (C), named after French Engineer and Physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb.
An electron’s charge (e) is quantified as being equal to 1.602 × 10-19 coulombs (C) and has a
negative charge. What this means is that every electron intrinsically contains –1.602 × 10-19 C, and it
requires 6.24 × 1018 electrons to gain one (1) coulomb of charge. Similarly, a single proton contains
1.602 × 10-19 C in magnitude but positive in charge. Hence, one proton contains +1.602 × 10-19 C. The
presence of equal numbers of protons and electrons in an atom makes it neutrally charged (The
algebraic sum of charges is zero).
1.3 Current
Some materials/matters allow flow of electrons among its atom, these materials are called
conductors. When an electron flows, charges also flow. This movement of charges entails energy and
is the fundamental concept of electricity. This flow happens because of the interaction between
positive and negative charges. We can recall the following in our elementary physics.
RECALL
COULOMB’s LAW
1. Like charges repel, and unlike charges attracts;
2. The force of attraction or repulsion is directly proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
The rate of this flow of electron is called current.

Electric Current, or simply current, is defined as the rate of
change of charges per unit time and is measured in amperes
(A). The unit ampere is named after French Physicist, Andre-
Marie Ampere. Mathematically current is defined as:
where: i in amperes
𝒅𝒒 q in coulombs Figure 1.2: Electric current in a closed circuit
𝒊= t in seconds
𝒅𝒕
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

To determine the amount of charge transferred in a specific period of time, integrate the
equation above. The result is:
𝒕𝟐 where: q in coulombs
𝒒 = ∫ 𝒊𝒅𝒕 i in amperes
𝒕𝟏 t in seconds
Current being a function of charge is not necessarily a constant-valued function. There can be
several types of current, depending on the function of charge per unit time.
If the current remains constant, it does not vary with time, it is called direct current.
(DC) – current that remains constant with time.
A common time-varying current is the sinusoidal current called alternating current.
Alternating Current (AC) – current that varies sinusoidally with time
In this book, the symbol I is used to represent constant current, while i is used to represent
time-varying current.
Figure 1.3: Direct Current (DC) Figure 1.4: Alternating Current (AC)
Since we defined current as the movement of charge/electron, then we expect it to have an

associated direction of flow. The direction of current flow is conventionally (also called conventional
flow) taken as the direction of positive charge movement, though the actual electron flow is the
movement of negative charge. In this material, we will use the conventional flow.
Example 1.1. How much charge in coulombs is present in an atom with 1200 electrons?
Solution:
q = n × e = 1,200 × (−1.602 × 10−19 )

𝐪 = −𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟔
Note: the negative (-) sign denotes an electron.

Example 1.2. Find the value of current that flows in a system over t = 1s if the charge q is defined by
the equation: q = 10 + 6cos(10t).
Solution:
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
i= = (10 + 6cos10t)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
i = 0 + 6(−sin10t)(10) = −60sin10t
at t = 1 s,
i = −60 sin10(1)
𝐢 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟔𝟒 (Ans.)
Example 1.3. Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 0s and t = 3s if the current
passing the terminal is i = (t − 1) A.
Solution:
𝑡2 3
q = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ (𝑡 − 1) 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 0
3
𝑡2 1
q = ( − 𝑡) = [ (3)2 − (3)] − 0
2 0
2
𝐪 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐂 (Ans.)
1.4 Voltage
In order to move the electron from one point to another a work or

energy transfer is necessary. This work is done by an external force called
electromotive force (emf). The emf is also called potential difference and
more commonly as voltage.
The term potential difference best represents the concept of voltage,

because basically it is a parameter between two points with different potential
(like potential energy). The figure below illustrates a voltage vab which is the
potential difference between points a and b. Mathematically, vab is defined as
the amount of work (in joules) to move a unit of charge (in coulomb).
Figure 1.5: Illustration of voltage
where: v is voltage in volts between two points
𝒅𝒘 w is work in joules
𝒗𝒂𝒃 =
𝒅𝒒 q is charge in coulombs
1 volt = 1 Joule/coulomb
A voltage can be positive and negative, but the sign convention only signifies the direction of
the measurement being performed. For example is the voltage v ab is equal to 9V, then the voltage
measured from b to a, vba, is equal to – 9V.
Example 1.4. Consider the diagram below, determine the following:

(a) vac (b) vbd (c) vda
Solution:
(a) For vac, we can observe that it is simply vab + vbc, therefore:
vac = vab + vbc = 10V + 6V = 16 V
(b) For vbd:
Vbd = vbc + vcd = 6V + (-6V) = 0 V
(c) For vda:
Vda = vdc + vcb + vba = -(-6V) + (-6V) + (-10V) = -10 V
1.5 Power & Energy
In practice, electricity or electrical circuits can not just be defined by its voltage and current.
We need another parameter to describe the system, it is the power (P). We will notice that most
electrical appliances and equipment are rated based on its power rating (Watts or HP) while our
electrical consumption is measured based on energy consumed (in kilowatt-hour, kW-hr).
1.5.1 Power
Power is defined as the time rate of releasing or absorbing energy, it is measured in Watts
(W). Mathematically, it is described as:
where: p is power in watts

𝒅𝒘 w is work in joules
𝒑= t is time in seconds
𝒅𝒕
1 watt = 1 Joule/second
We can also express power as a function of voltage across the element and current through it.
Using the expression for voltage and current, we can observe thar power is:
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞 𝒑 = 𝒗𝒊
𝑝= = ∙ = ∙ =𝑣∙𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡

Therefore, it follows that to release or absorb one (1) watt of power, there should be one (1)
volt of voltage pushing one (1) ampere of current.
Power in an electric system can either be released or absorbed. As a convention a positive (+)
power is a released power, while a negative (-) power is an absorbed power. This direction is
dependent on the direction of current. See illustration below:
Consider figure (a), the current is directed from the “+”

terminal to ““–”” terminal, hence, using the conventional flow, the
current is +. Therefore, the power is also positive.
Conversely, in figure (b) the current is directed from “–”
terminal to “+” terminal, hence the current is deemed to be “–”.
Therefore, for figure (b) the power is also negative.
One of the most important things that we must remember

is that any electric circuit obeys the law of conservation of energy.
It means that in any circuit, the total power released is equal to the
power absorbed or the algebraic sum of powers is equal to zero. Figure 1.6: Positive and negative
power in an element
∑ 𝑝 = 0; ∑ 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = ∑ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
1.5.2 Energy
From physics, we know that Energy is the capacity to do work measured in terms of Joule (in
SI). In electrical system, we can express energy as a function of voltage, current, and time or simply
power and time.
𝒕 𝒕
𝒘 = ∫ 𝒑𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒕
𝒕𝟎 𝒕𝟎
Recall that 1 Watt is equal to 1 Joules/second, hence 1 Joule is equal to 1 Watt-sec. Since
electric companies measure our consumption in kilowatt-hour, its is useful to know that 1 kW-Hr is
equal to 3,600 kJ or 3,600,000 J (3.6 × 106 J).
Example 1.5. A constant current of 5 A passes through a bulb for 10s. If 2000 J of energy is given off
by the bulb in the form of light and heat energy, calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.

Solution:
Recall that voltage is defined as dw/dq, while dq is i×dt, therefore:
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑤
𝑣= = =
𝑑𝑞 𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑡
2000
𝑣= = 40 𝑉
(5)(10𝑠)
Therefore, the voltage drop across the bulb is 40 volts.
Example 1.6. Find the power delivered to an element for 5 ms if the current entering its positive
terminal is i = 5 cos πt and the voltage is v = 2i.
Solution:
Use the formula for power in terms of v and I, and substitute the values of v and i.
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = (2𝑖 )𝑖 = 2𝑖 2 = 2(5 cos 𝜋𝑡)2
𝑝 = 2(25)(cos 𝜋𝑡)2 = 50 cos 2 𝜋𝑡
Substitute the value of t and execute the operation (Note use radian mode in your calculator) :
𝑝 = 50 cos 2 𝜋𝑡 = 50[cos(5 × 10−3 × 𝜋)]2
𝑝 = 50W
Therefore, the power delivered to the element is 50 watts.
1.6 DC & AC Sources
An electrical source is any device that can convert non-electric energy to electric energy. Like
current it can be DC or AC. Regular households connected to local electric utilities have AC power that
is used for lighting and other applications. However, the electric utilities are not the “source” of electric
power, they only deliver the said power from the actual source to your household.
The most common AC source is called generators. Generator are the general term used for
machines that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. Though there are generators that
provides DC power, most of the generators used are of AC type. Generators will be discussed in AC
Circuits.

Historically, the major source of DC power is the battery. Battery produces electricity through
chemical reaction. Today, Solar PVs are also major source of DC power. Batteries comes in many
sizes and forms, the most common are the batteries used in households with voltages less than 3V.
Cellphones and laptops are generally powered by batteries as well, but this kind of batteries are
rechargeable.
The concept of battery will be further discussed in the next lesson.

WORKSHEET 1
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

Course & Year: _______________________________ School: ______________
Instruction: Read the following statements and solve for what being asked, support your answer with a
comprehensive solution.
Time Allotment: 30 mins
1. Time
HowDuration:
much charge in coulombs is present in an atom with 1500×10 6 protons?
2. How many electrons are needed to be present in an atom for it to have 3 C of charge?
3. An ACU unit with high EER was used from 8:00 PM to 6:00 AM. If the ACU has an average full-load current
of 5-Amps, how much charge flowed in the ACU?
4. A certain wire consisting of five kilograms of Silver, how many electrons are present in that wire? If half of
these electrons pass through a certain point at the same time, how much current is in the wire?
5. Consider the table below. Given the two parameters per item, complete the table.
Item Current Duration Amount of Charge
LED Lamp 0.005 A 6C
Incandescent Lamp 0.75 A 2 hours
Flat Iron 15 min 10 C
Freezer 6A 8 hours
TV 180 mins 0.5 C

6. Find the value of current that flows in a system over t = 5s if the charge q is defined by the equation: q=
12cos10t – 3sin20t C.
7. Find the number of charges that flows in a system over t = 10s if the current is defined by the equation: i= 3 +
2e-t – 5sin2t A.
8. Find the amount of power delivered for 5 ms to an element with a current expressed by the function i = 5t –
2sin ½πt and voltage equal to v = 2 di/dt.

LESSON
DC SOURCE:
02
Lesson 2: DC SOURCE – Batteries
BATTERIES
In a DC electrical system, batteries are the major source of electricity that is why it is important
to investigate it in detail and understand its operation and common properties. In this lesson we will
explore the basic battery terminologies, types of batteries, and its common configurations in an
electrical system.
Lesson Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:
1. Understand and use the basic battery terminologies;
2. Identify and differentiate different types of batteries; and
3. Design basic battery configurations based on the target voltage and current.
2.1 Basic Terminologies

To better understand and use batteries, we need to learn some basic terminologies commonly
used and associated with batteries.
Voltaic Cell or Cell

The term voltaic cell is defined as a combination of materials (metals, chemicals, etc.) used to
convert chemical energy into electrical energy, because of this it is sometimes called chemical cell. A
voltaic or chemical cell consists of two electrodes made of different types of metals or metallic
compounds placed in an electrolyte solution.
Battery
Battery is simply a group of two or more voltaic cells connected with each other.
Electrode
An electrode is a metal, or metallic compound, which has an abundance of either electrons
(negative electrode) or protons (positive electrode).
Electrolyte
An electrolyte is a chemical solution than can conduct electricity. The electrolyte of a cell may
be a liquid or a paste. Dry and wet cell is identified by the type of electrolyte used, paste for the former
and liquid for the former.

Ampere-hour (Amp-hour)
Ampere-hour is defined as the current of one ampere flowing for one hour. Ampere-hours are
generally used to indicate the amount of energy a storage battery can deliver.
2.2 Battery Operation

The purpose of a battery is to store chemical energy and to convert this chemical energy into
electrical energy when such is needed.
As previously explained, a chemical cell (or voltaic cell) is consisting of two electrodes of
different types of metals or metallic compounds and an electrolyte solution which can conduct
electricity.
An example of a voltaic cell is one that contains zinc and copper as its negative and positive
electrodes, respectively. Zinc contains an abundance of negatively charged atoms, and the copper
contains an abundance of positively charged atoms. When these electrodes are immersed in an
electrolyte, a chemical action begins. Since the zinc electrode dissolves in the electrolytes, it
accumulates a much larger negative charge. These atoms that leave the zinc electrode, which are
positively charged, are attracted by the negatively charged ions of the electrolyte as a result the positive
atoms repel the positively charged ions of the electrolyte toward the copper electrode (see figure below
for illustration).
Figure 2.1: Internal operation of a battery system
This action causes electrons to be removed from the copper electrode, leaving it with an
excess of positive charge. Hence you have now two points in the system which one is concentrated
with negative charges while the other one is with positive charges. This creates a potential difference
between the two electrodes that allow the cell to function as source of voltage. It means that if a load is
connected across the electrodes, the forces of attraction and repulsion will cause the free electrons in
the negative zinc electrode to move through the connecting wire and load, and toward the positive
copper electrode.

2.3 Battery Configurations
As previously defined, a battery is simply a group of cells. Cells are grouped to increase its
voltage and/or current output. Therefore, batteries can also be grouped and arranged to certain
configuration to reach a desired voltage and/or current. In this section, we will explore the different
configurations of a battery/cells.
Series Cells
If a battery or cell is connected on the manner which the
positive terminal of one is connected to the negative terminal of the other
(see figure below), the connection is called series. In series connections,
the total voltage output is the algebraic sum of the individual voltages of
the cells/batteries. This configuration is useful if you want to increase
your voltage output. However, in this configuration, the current flow is
equal (or constant) across all cells/batteries.
Parallel Cells
Figure 2.2: Cells connected in Series. When cells are connected in parallel, all the positive terminals
are connected together, and all the negative terminals are connected
together. In this configuration, the battery has greater current capacity.
This is because the total current output is equal to the algebraic sum of
the individual current outputs of each cell/battery. It is also worth
mentioning that the cells connected in parallel have the same effect as
increasing the size of the electrodes and electrolyte in a single cell.
The voltage, however, across the connection is constant or
equal to the individual voltage outputs of the battery/cell.
Internal Resistance
Figure 2.3: Cells connected in Parallel.
Though sometimes the batteries are represented in an electric
circuit as an “ideal” battery (lossless batteries), the reality however is that
it has resistance within itself. This resistance is called internal resistance.
Internal resistance in a chemical cell is due mainly to the resistance of the electrolyte between
electrodes (Figure 9). Any current in the battery must flow through the internal resistance. The internal
resistance is in series with the voltage of the battery, causing an internal voltage drop (Figure 10).
With no current flow, the voltage drop is zero; thus, the full battery voltage is developed across
the output terminals (VB). If a load is placed on the battery, load resistance (RL) is in series with internal
resistance (Ri). Discussion on how this internal resistance affects the circuit as a whole is presented in
later lessons.

Figure 2.4: Diagram of Battery with Internal Resistance
2.4 Types of Batteries

We will now explore the different types of cells/batteries, its characteristics, and applications.
Primary and Secondary Cells

Primary cells (non-rechargeable) are cells that cannot be returned to good condition or
recharged after their voltage output has dropped to a value that is not usable. Dry cells that are used in
flashlights and transistor radios (e.g., AA cells, C cells) are examples of primary cells. Secondary cells
are cells that can be recharged to nearly their original condition are called secondary cells. The most
common example of a secondary, or rechargeable cell, is the lead-acid automobile battery.
Carbon-Zinc Cell
The carbon-zinc cell is one of the oldest and most widely used types of dry cells. The carbon
in the battery is in the form of a rod in the center of the cell which acts as the positive terminal. The
case is made from zinc and acts as the negative electrode. The electrolyte for this type of cell is a
chemical paste-like mixture which is housed between the carbon electrode and the zinc case. The cell
is then sealed to prevent any of the liquid in the paste from evaporating.
The advantage of a carbon-zinc battery is that it is durable and very inexpensive to produce.
The cell voltage for this type of cell is about 1.5 volts.
Alkaline Cell
The alkaline cell is so called because it has an alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide.
The negative electrode is made from zinc, and the positive electrode is made of manganese dioxide.
The typical alkaline cell generates 1.5 volts. The alkaline cell has the advantage of an extended life
over that of a carbon-zinc cell of the same size; however, it is usually more expensive.
Nickel-Cadmium Cell
The nickel-cadmium cell is a secondary cell, and the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide. The
negative electrode is made of nickel hydroxide, and the positive electrode is made of cadmium
hydroxide. The nominal voltage of a nickel-cadmium cell is 1.25 volts. The nickel-cadmium battery has
the advantage of being a dry cell that is a true storage battery with a reversible chemical reaction (i.e., it
can be recharged). The nickel-cadmium battery is a rugged, dependable battery. It gives dependable
service under extreme conditions of temperature, shock, and vibration. Due to its dependability, it is
ideally suited for use in portable communications equipment.

Edison Cell
In an Edison cell the positive plate consists of nickel and nickel hydrate, and the negative plate
is made of iron. The electrolyte is alkaline. Typical voltage output is 1.4 volts, and it should be
recharged when it reaches 1.0 volts. The Edison cell has the advantage of being a lighter and more
rugged secondary cell than a lead-acid storage battery.
Mercury Cell
Mercury cells come in two types; one is a flat cell that is shaped like a button, while the other
is a cylindrical cell that looks like a regular flashlight battery. Each cell produces about 1.35 volts. These
cells are very rugged and have a relatively long shelf life. The mercury cell has the advantage of
maintaining a fairly constant output under varying load conditions. For this reason, they are used in
products such as electric watches, hearing aids, cameras, and test instruments.

WORKSHEET 2
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

Instruction: Read the following statements and solve for what being asked, support your answer with a
1. Time Duration:
In your own words, explain the process how battery works.
2. Discuss the limitations and challenges of a battery.

LESSON
RESISTANCE &
03
Lesson 3: Resistance & Conductance
CONDUCTANCE
In this lesson we will explore one of the significant parameters in a DC Circuit, the resistance.
We will learn the definition, its properties, and the factors that affects it. Furthermore, we will also
explore the reciprocal of resistance which is called the conductance.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss the concept of resistance and conductance;
2. Identify the factors affecting the resistance of a material and explain its relationship;
3. Calculate the resistance of given materials; and
4. Discuss how temperature affects the resistance of a material.
3.1 Resistance
As discussed in our elementary physics, materials in general have intrinsic property of

resisting flow of charge. The said property is called resistance (R), which vary from material to
material. Resistance is expressed In terms of ohm (Ω), named after the scientist George Simon Ohm. If
a material has a high amount of resistance it is categorized as insulators; conversely, if a material has
low resistance, it is categorized as conductors.
In any given material, a resistance is determined by four properties. They are the following:
(a) length of the material
(b) cross-sectional area of the
material
(c) resistivity of the material
(d) temperature of the surrounding.

If temperature is constant, resistance can be calculated using the formula below:
𝒍
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨
where ρ is resistivity, l is the length, and A is the cross-sectional area of the material. In
the SI unit of measurement, the unit of resistance is in ohms (Ω), length in meters (m), area in
square meters (m2), and resistivity in ohm-m (Ω-m).
You may notice that only the resistivity is intrinsic in the material in itself, while the other
parameters may vary depending on the shape and size of the material. Hence, only the resistivity is
the good parameter in knowing whether the material is insulator or conductor. Listed in table 3.1
are the resistivities (ρ) of common materials used in an electrical circuit.
The equation above can also be presented in another form, where the volume (V) of the
material is considered. The formula is shown below:
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌 ; 𝑉 =𝑙×𝐴
𝐴
𝑙 𝑉/𝐴 𝑽 𝑙 𝑙 𝒍𝟐
𝑅=𝜌 =𝜌 = 𝝆 𝟐; 𝑅=𝜌 =𝜌 =𝝆
𝐴 𝐴 𝑨 𝐴 𝑉/𝑙 𝑽
Table 3.1 Resistivities of Common Materials at 20°C
Material Resistivity (Ω-m)

Silver 1.64 × 10−8
Copper 1.72 × 10−8
Aluminum 2.8 × 10−8
Gold 2.45 × 10−8
Carbon 4 × 10−5
Germanium 47 × 10−2
Silicon 6.4 × 102
Paper 1010
Mica 5 × 1011
Glass 1012
Teflon 3 × 1012
Example 3.1. What is the resistance of a 1,000 meters of 3 mm diameter copper wire?
Solution:
Solve for the cross-sectional area of the wire.
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋(3 𝑚𝑚)2
2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 = =
4 4
𝐴 = 7.0686 𝑚𝑚2 = 7.0686 × 10−6 𝑚2

Substitute the value of R:

𝑙 1000𝑚
𝑅= 𝜌 = (1.72 × 10−8 Ω ∙ 𝑚) ( )
𝐴 7.0686 × 10−6 𝑚2
𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟑𝟑 Ω
Example 3.2. Consider example 3.1, if an aluminum wire is used instead of copper wire, what is
the required diameter of aluminum wire for the same length to have the same resistance.
Solution:
For this problem, we know that Rcopper = Raluminum and lcopper = laluminum, hence we can use
ratio and proportion method to simplify our solution.
𝑙
𝑅𝑎𝑙 𝜌𝑎𝑙 (𝐴𝑎𝑙 ) 𝜌 × 𝑙 × 𝐴
𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢
= =
𝑅𝑐𝑢 𝜌 ( 𝑙𝑐𝑢 ) 𝜌𝑐𝑢 × 𝑙𝑐𝑢 × 𝐴𝑎𝑙
𝑐𝑢 𝐴
𝑐𝑢
𝑅𝑎𝑙 𝜌𝑎𝑙 × 𝑙𝑎𝑙 × 𝐴𝑐𝑢

=
𝑅𝑐𝑢 𝜌𝑐𝑢 × 𝑙𝑐𝑢 × 𝐴𝑎𝑙
𝜌𝑎𝑙 2.80 × 10−8 Ω ∙ 𝑚

𝐴𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴𝑐𝑢 × = (7.0686 × 10−6 𝑚2 ) ×
𝜌𝑐𝑢 1.72 × 10−8 Ω ∙ 𝑚
𝐴𝑎𝑙 = 11.507 × 10−6 𝑚2
Solve for the diameter of the wire, d:

𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴𝑎𝑙 = = 11.507 × 10−6 𝑚2
4
𝒅 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟐𝟕𝟕 𝒎𝒎
3.2 Conductance
Conductance (G) is simply the reciprocal of resistance (R). If resistance is known,

conductance can be easily calculated by using the formula below:
𝟏 𝑨
𝑮= =
𝑹 𝝆𝒍
The conductance is originally measured in mho (℧) which is the inverted “ohm” as
suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1883. Recently, it is being replaced by Siemens (S) in honor of the
German Electrical Engineer, Ernst Werner Siemens. In this book, we will use Siemens (S).

3.3 Temperature-Resistance relationship
As previously discussed, temperature affects the value of resistance in a material. Since,

temperature affects the resistance on atomic level, practically speaking only the resistivity is
affected by the change in temperature. Different materials react differently to the change in
temperature. The effect of rise in temperature is:
i. to increase the resistance of pure metals. The increase is large and relatively
regular for certain ranges of temperature. The temperature/resistance graph is a
straight line (see Fig 3.1. Since metals increases its resistance with the increase in
temperature, metals is said to have a positive temperature co-efficient of resistance.
ii. to increase the resistance of alloys, though increase is relatively small and
irregular.
iii. to decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (such as paper, rubber,
glass, mica etc.) and partial conductors such as carbon. Hence, insulators are said to
possess a negative temperature-coefficient of resistance.
To derive a formula for Resistance-

temperature relationship. Figure 3.1 shows the
temperature-resistance graph for pure metals which is
practically a straight line (this graph is similar for pure
metals). If this line is extended backwards, it would
cut the temperature axis at a point T0. This
temperature is called the temperature at zero
resistance which is a concept used in super
conductors. For copper T0 is − 234.5°C, the complete
Figure 3.1 Resistance-temperature relationship
list of temperature of a common material at zero
resistance is listed in Table 3.2.
It means that theoretically, the resistance of copper conductor will become zero at this
point though as shown by solid line, in practice, the curve departs from a straight line at very low
temperatures. Using similar triangle, we can derive the relationship below:
𝑅𝑇1 𝑇1 + |𝑇0 |
=
𝑅0 |𝑇0 |
Suppose that the initial resistance (R1) is measured at T1 instead of 0°C, and another
resistance (R2) is measured at T2, then the formula above can be written as:
𝑅2 𝑇2 + |𝑇0 | 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
= =
𝑅1 𝑇1 + |𝑇0 | or 𝑅1 𝑇1 + |𝑇0 |
Simplifying the second equation above, we can have a generalized formula for R 2 in terms
of R1 and given temperatures.

𝑅2 − 𝑅1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
= ; 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 = 𝑅1 ( )
𝑅1 𝑇1 + |𝑇0 | 𝑇1 + |𝑇0 |
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 1
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅1 ( ) = 𝑅1 [1 + ( ) (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )]
|
𝑇1 + 𝑇0 | 𝑇1 + |𝑇0 |
The part of the equation that includes the temperature at zero resistance is called the
coefficient of temperature of the material at T1, which can be expressed as α1. Therefore, the
equation above becomes:
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝜶𝟏 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )] = 𝑹𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝜶𝟏 ∆𝑻]
This equation is commonly used in Physics classes. However, sometimes the first form of
this equation is more useful in electrical engineering.
Table 3.2: Temperature Coefficients of materials
Absolute Value of
Material Temperature
Material Temperature at Zero
Coefficient at 20°C (°C-1)
Resistance (°C)
Silver 3.8 × 10−3 243.2
Copper 3.93 × 10−3 234.5
Aluminum 4.29 × 10−3 213.1
Tungsten 4.5 × 10−3 202.2
Iron 6.51 × 10−3 133.6
Platinum 3.927 × 10−3 234.6
Mercury 9.0 × 10−4 1091.1
Nichrome 4.0 × 10−4 2480.0
Example 3.3. What is the resistance of a 1,000 meters of 3 mm diameter copper wire at 60°C?
Solution:
Refer to the solution from Example 3.1, we get the value of R at 20°C:
𝑅1 = 2.433 Ω
Using the value of α at 20°C, we can calculate the value of R 2 at T2 = 60°C:
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [1 + 𝛼1 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )]
𝑅2 = 2.433[1 + (3.93 × 10−3 )(60 − 20)]
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟏𝟓𝟓 Ω

Example 3.4. A light bulb with Tungsten filament has a resistance of 1.5 Ω at a certain room
temperature of 30°C. Calculate the operating resistance of the bulb if it is operating at 90°C.
Solution:
From Table 3.2, the T0 of tungsten is 202.2, therefore we can calculate the required
information using the formula:
𝑅2 𝑇2 + |𝑇0 |
=
𝑅1 𝑇1 + |𝑇0 |
𝑇2 + |𝑇0 | 90 + 202.2
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [ ] = (1.5Ω) [ ]
𝑇1 + |𝑇0 | 30 + 202.2
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟕𝟔 Ω
This means that when the bulb is being used that causes the filament’s temperature to
increase by 60°C, the resistance increases from 1.5 Ω to 1.89 Ω.

WORKSHEET 3
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

Instruction: Read the given statement(s) and solve for what being asked, support your answer with a
Time Duration:
1. Consider a piece of copper and aluminum with equal dimensions (length = 100 m; radius of 50
mm), create a resistance-temperature graph for each material with at least 10 temperature
intervals.
Temperatures (in °C)

Materials T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10
Copper
Aluminum


LESSON
04
Lesson 4: Ohm's Law
OHM’S LAW
In previous lessons, we have learned that the power in an element can be calculated by
multiplying the voltage across it and the current passing through it. For years, scientists tried to
establish similar relationship between voltage, current, and other passive elements such as
resistance. This has been addressed by Ohm’s Law. Let us explore this fundamental law applied
not only in electrical circuits but even to advanced electrical engineering field.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss the fundamental principle behind Ohm’s Law; and
2. Calculate circuit parameters using Ohm’s Law.
4.1 Ohm’s Law

In the early part of the 19th century, George Simon Ohm (1787–1854), A German
physicist, proved by experiment that a precise relationship exists between current, and voltage for a
resistor. This relationship is named after him, called Ohm’s Law.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current (I) flowing through the resistor.
Mathematically, 𝑽∝𝑰
Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance (R). Hence,
the Ohm’s Law can be written mathematically as:
𝑽 𝑽
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 𝑰= 𝑹=
𝑹 𝑰
The unit of V is in volts (V), I in amperes (A), and R in ohms (Ω).
Figure 4.1 shows the relationship between voltage and current in a

resistor. We can observe from the graph that for a given resistor (resistance),
the voltage is directly proportional to current.
Figure 4.1 V-I Graph for a resistor

It is important to note that though the temperature affects the value of resistance, the
relationship between the values of current and voltage is still the same, i.e., the value of resistance
for that temperature.
Example 4.1. In a simple electrical system shown in the figure below if the total resistance of the
lamp and the wire is 2 Ω. Calculate the current if the voltage of the battery is (a) 1.5 V, (b) 3.0 V
and (c) 12 V.
Solution:
In solving this kind of problem, we use the Ohm’s Law.
For (a):
𝑉𝑎 1.5 𝑉
𝐼𝑎 = =
𝑅 2.0 Ω
𝑰𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝑨
For (b):
𝑉𝑏 3.0 𝑉
𝐼𝑏 = =
𝑅 2.0 Ω
𝑰𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑨
For (c):
𝑉𝑐 6.0 𝑉
𝐼𝑐 = =
𝑅 2.0 Ω
𝑰𝒄 = 𝟑. 𝟎 𝑨
From the example above, we have established that for a constant resistance in a circuit,
voltage and current are directly proportional.
4.2 Power and Resistance

Using the relationship of voltage, current, and resistance in Ohm’s Law and the formula for
power, we can derive the following formula for power in an element with fixed resistance:
𝑉 𝑽𝟐
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉 ( ) ; 𝑷= 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = (𝐼𝑅)𝑰; 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
𝑅 𝑹
These two formulae are heavily used in electrical system analysis; hence it is encouraged
that you be familiar with it. To illustrate how these formulas are used, refer to the succeeding
examples.

Example 4.2. A 60-Watt bulb has a full-load current of 2.5A. What is the effective resistance of the
bulb?
Solution:
Substitute the given power rating and current in the equation below:
𝑃
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅; 𝑅=
𝐼2
60 𝑊
𝑅=
(2.5 𝐴)2
𝑹 = 𝟗. 𝟔 Ω
Example 4.3. Suppose an electrical device operates at a constant voltage during its operation,
however its internal temperature increases from 20°C to 50°C during the whole operation. If the
increased temperature corresponds to reduction of power output (the losses is in the form of heat),
what is the percent loss due to heating? Assume that the material is made of copper.
Solution:
To calculate this type of problem, we will use the relationship between temperature and
resistance. Since there is an increase in temperature, a corresponding increase in resistance can
be observed. First, let us calculate the ratio between the initial resistance (R 1) and final temperature
(R2):
𝑅2
= 1 + 𝛼1 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) = 1 + (3.93 × 10−3 )(50 − 20)
𝑅1
𝑅2
= 1.1179
𝑅1
Next, we calculate the ratio between the powers:
𝑉22⁄
𝑃2 𝑅2 𝑉22 × 𝑅1
= 2 = 2
𝑃1 𝑉1⁄ 𝑉1 × 𝑅2
𝑅1
Since the voltage is constant, V2 and V1 cancels each other and substituting the value of
R2/R1:
𝑃2 𝑅1 1 1
= = = = 0.8945
𝑃1 𝑅2 𝑅2⁄ 1.1179
𝑅1
𝑃2 = 0.8945𝑃1

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 − 0.8945𝑃1 = 0.1055𝑃1

Therefore, there is a reduction of 10.55% (heat loss) of power output due to increase in
temperature.
4.3 Short Circuit & Open Circuit Systems

It is worth noting to consider the possibility of extreme values for resistance. If a circuit has
a total value of resistance equal to zero, at any given value of voltage, the current will be equal to
infinity. In this case, the circuit is said to be “short circuit” (See Figure 4.2a).
Conversely, if the circuit has a total value of resistance equal to infinity, at any given value
of voltage, the value of current is zero. In this case, the circuit is said to be “open circuit” (See
Figure 4.2b).
a a
b b
Figure 4.2: (a) Diagram presenting a short circuit at terminal a-b.

(b) Diagram presenting an open-circuit at terminal a-b.

WORKSHEET 4
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

Time Duration:
1. A copper wire is subjected to a constant 12V battery and supplies a current of 2A.
Calculate the current that will be drawn is the copper wire is replaced by an aluminum wire
of the same dimension.
2. A machine is being operated at 24V for 12 hours per day. If APEC charged you with Php
250.56 for your 30 days consumption, calculate the full-load current of the machine and its
effective resistance. Assume that the electricity costs Php 14.50 per kW·hr.
3. Consider two wires made of different metals of equal dimension. The first is made of
copper while the other one is made of aluminum. Suppose that each metal is subjected to
a 12-V battery, (a) solve for the current flowing in each wire. You decided to put the metals
in a cold storage and measured that the temperature reduced by 20°C as compared to the
first location of your experiment. To achieve the same amount of current flowing in the
wires, you decided to replace the 12V battery for the copper wire. (b) What is the amount
of voltage that you will introduce to the copper wire to achieve your goal? Note: To solve
this problem decide and set the following information: (1) dimensions of the wire, (2) initial
operating temperature.


LESSON SERIES CONNECTION
05
Lesson 5: Series Connection & Voltage Division Theorem
& VOLTAGE DIVISION
THEOREM
In analyzing circuits, it is sometimes essential to apply reduction method. It means, we try
to simplify the circuit by combining the elements based on their connections. In this lesson, we will
explore the concept of series connections and how voltages behave in such set-up.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Identify the resistors in series;
2. Combine resistors connected in series; and
3. Apply voltage division in calculating voltage drops in series resistors.
5.1 Resistances/Resistors in Series

Two elements are in series if only one of their terminals are connected to each other and
no other elements are connected in that node. To illustrate this, consider the resistances R 1 and R2
in Figure 5.1. We can observe that their terminals are connected to each other at node “a” and no
other elements are connected to it.
There are several properties of the series
connection that we have to remember.
First, the current in any series connected elements are
equal. This means that for Figure 5.1, the value of I 1 is
equal to the value of I2.
Figure 5.1 Resistors in Series
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (5.1)
Second, the value of voltages across each element may differ depending on the value of each
element, i.e., v1 is not equal to v2 if R1 is not equal to R2.
Finally, if a voltage is applied across the combination of R 1 and R2, the sum of the voltages of v 1
and v2 is equal to the applied voltage.
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑁 (5.2)
Armed with this knowledge, we can now derive the formula for equivalent (or total)
resistances/resistors in series. Recall from Ohm’s law that V = IR, then:
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐼𝑇 𝑅𝑇

Since for series circuit the total voltage is equal to the sum of individual voltages, we can get:
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝐼𝑇 𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2
Now, since the current across the elements are equal (I T = I1 = I2), then we can eliminate all the
currents in the equation. The resulting equation is:
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 (5.3)
Therefore, we can conclude that the equivalent (total) or resistances in series is simply the sum of
all individual resistances. Mathematically,
𝑅𝑇 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁 (5.4)
Suppose the values of the resistances in series are equal (R 1 = R2 = R), the equation (5.4) can be
further simplified into:
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑁𝑅 (5.5)
The equation above simply means that we multiply the individual resistances to “N” number of
resistors in parallel.
5.2 Voltage Division Theorem

Suppose we are interested in calculating the voltage across
resistances in series without using the Ohm’s Law, we can use the
formula derived for this purpose. This formula is derived from the Voltage
Division Theorem (VDT) or Voltage Divider Rule (VDR). Take note that
you can only use this for series connected resistances.
Consider the circuit shown where R1 and R2 are connected and
series. If the supply voltage is known, let us derive a formula for v1 and Figure 5.2 Simple series circuit
v2. Since we know that the current in the circuit is constant, we can say
that:
𝑉𝑇 𝑉1 𝑉𝑇
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 = =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Simplifying the equation to solve for V1, we get:
𝑽𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝟏 = =( ) 𝑽𝑻 = ( ) 𝑽𝑻 (5.6)
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑻
Using the same process, we can get the value of V2:

𝑽𝑻 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝟐 = =( ) 𝑽𝑻 = ( ) 𝑽𝑻 (5.7)
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑻

Example 5.1. Find the values of V1 and V2 in the circuit shown in Figure 5.3.
This problem is adopted from Problem 2.23 of Fund. of Electric Circuits by Alexander & Sadiku.
Solution:
Using the formula for VDT, calculate V1 and V2:
R1 3000
V1 = ( ) VT = ( ) × 24V
R1 + R 2 3000 + 9000
𝐕𝟏 = 𝟔 𝐕
Figure 5.3. Circuit for Example 5.1 R2 9000

V2 = ( ) VT = ( ) × 24V
R1 + R 2 3000 + 9000
𝐕𝟏 = 𝟏𝟖 𝐕
Therefore, the values of V1 and V2 are 6V and 18V, respectively. To check if the values
are correct just add the individual values and compare to the supply voltage. If they are equal, then
the answers are correct.
Example 5.2. Three lightbulbs are connected in series to a 100-V battery as shown in Fig. 5.4. Find
the current through the bulbs, the resistances in each bulb, and the voltage drops in each bulb.
This problem is an enhanced version of Problem 2.53 of Fund. of Electric Circuits by Alexander & Sadiku.
Solution:
For current (I):
Since the given are the individual power and the total voltage, we can calculate
the total current (which is also equal to the individual currents) by dividing the
total power by the total voltage.
PT ∑𝑃𝑖 P1 + P3 + P3 30W + 40W + 50W

IT = = = =
VT VT VT 100V
Figure 5.4. Circuit for Example 5.2
𝐈𝐓 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝐀
For resistances (R):

For the values of R1, R2, and R3, we will use the formula for Power (P = I 2R):
P1 30W
R1 = 2 = = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟑 Ω
I (1.2 A)2
P2 40W
R2 = 2 = = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟖 Ω
I (1.2 A)2
P3 50W
R3 = 2
= = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟕𝟐𝟐𝟐 Ω
I (1.2 A)2

For voltage drops:

For voltage drops, since both the current and resistances are known, we can simply use
the Ohm’s Law. However, to illustrate how VDT works, we will use VDT instead.
𝑅1 20.83
V1 = ( ) 𝑉𝑇 = ( ) × 100 = 𝟐𝟓 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 20.83 + 27.78 + 34.72
𝑅2 27.78
V2 = ( ) 𝑉𝑇 = ( ) × 100 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 20.83 + 27.78 + 34.72
𝑅3 34.72
V3 = ( ) 𝑉𝑇 = ( ) × 100 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 20.83 + 27.78 + 34.72
TRY THIS!
A circuit being supplied by a 30-V battery is composed of five lamps with varying resistances
connected in series. The values of these resistances are 1Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω, and 5Ω, respectively.
(a) Calculate the total equivalent resistance of the circuit;
(b) Calculate the current in the circuit;
(c) Calculate the voltage drops across each lamps; and
(d) Calculate the power consumed by each lamp.
Answer:15 Ω;2 A; 2V, 4V, 6V, 8V, 10V; 2W, 8W, 12W, 16W, 20W.

LESSON PARALLEL CONNECTION
06 & CURRENT DIVISION

THEOREM
Lesson 6: Parallel Connection & Current Division Theorem
In the preceding lesson we have learned about series connected resistances. In this
lesson, we will explore another basic connection set-up being utilized in electrical circuits – the
parallel connection. Parallel connected elements in a circuit plays a major role in many electrical
engineering applications. Let’s discover this concept.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Identify the resistors in parallel;
2. Combine resistors connected in parallel; and
3. Apply current division in calculating branch currents in parallel resistors.
6.1 Resistances/Resistors in Parallel

Two elements are in parallel if both of their terminals are connected to each other to form
two nodes. To illustrate this, consider the resistances R 1 and R2 in Figure 6.1. We can observe that
their terminals are connected to each other at nodes “a” and “b”.
There are several properties of the parallel
connection that we have to remember.
First, the voltages in any parallel connected elements are
equal. This means that for Figure 6.1, the value of V1 is
equal to the value of V2 which is also equal to the supply
voltage.
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑁 = 𝑉𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (6.1)
Figure 6.1 Simple Parallel Circuit

Second, the value of currents (branch currents) in each
element may differ depending on the value of each
element.
Finally, the sum of the currents for each element in parallel is equal to the total current of the circuit.
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑁 ` (6.2)
Armed with this knowledge, we can now derive the formula for equivalent (or total)
resistances/resistors in parallel. Recall from Ohm’s law that V = IR, then:
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐼𝑇 𝑅𝑇

Since for parallel circuit the total current is equal to the sum of individual branch currents, we can
get:
𝑉𝑇 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2
Now, since the voltage across the elements are equal (VT = V1 = V2), then we can eliminate all the
voltages in the equation. The resulting equation is:
1 1 1
= + (6.3)
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2
Therefore, we can conclude that the equivalent (total) or resistances in parallel is simply the sum of
the reciprocals of all individual resistances. Mathematically,
1 1 1 1 1
=∑ = + + ⋯+ (6.4)
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑖 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑁
If there are only two resistances in parallel like the one in Figure 6.1, we can reduce equation (6.3)
into:
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇 = (6.5)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Suppose the values of the resistances in parallel are equal (R 1 = R2 = R), the equation can be
further simplified into:
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑅 𝑅2 𝑅
𝑅𝑇 = = = =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅 + 𝑅 2𝑅 2
As shown, the total resistance of two equal resistances in parallel is simply half of the value of the
resistance. Therefore, we can derive a general formula for “N” number of equal resistances in
parallel:
𝑅
𝑅𝑇 = (6.6)
𝑁
5.3 Current Division Theorem
Suppose we are interested in calculating the current in each resistance in parallel without
using the Ohm’s Law, we can use a formula derived for this purpose. The formula is derived from
the Current Division Theorem (CDT) or Current Divider Rule (CDR). Take note that you can only
use this for two parallel-connected resistances.
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 6.1. If the supply voltage is known, let us derive a
formula for I1 and I2. Since we know that the voltages across the parallel-connected branches are
constant, we can say that:

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 𝐼𝑇 𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼𝑇 ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Simplifying the equation to solve for I1, we get:
𝐼𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑹𝟐
𝑰𝟏 = ( )=( )𝑰 (𝟔. 𝟕)
𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑻
Using the same process, we can get the value of I2:

𝑹𝟏
𝑰𝟐 = ( )𝑰 (𝟔. 𝟖)
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑻
Example 6.1. Find the values of I1 and I2 in the circuit shown in Figure 6.2.
Solution:
Using the formula for CDT, calculate I1 and I2:
R2 4000
I1 = ( ) IT = ( ) × 20mA
R1 + R 2 6000 + 4000
Figure 6.2. Circuit for Example 6.1
𝐈𝟏 = 𝟖 𝐦𝐀
R1 6000
I2 = ( ) IT = ( ) × 20 mA
R1 + R 2 6000 + 4000
𝐈𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 𝐦𝐀
Therefore, the values of I1 and I2 are 8 mA and 12 mA, respectively. To check if the values
are correct just add the individual values and compare to the supply current. If they are equal, then
the answers are correct.
TRY THIS!
A circuit being supplied by a 12-V battery is composed of two resistors connected in parallel. The
values of these resistances are 3Ω, and 6Ω, respectively.
(a) Calculate the total equivalent resistance of the circuit;
(b) Calculate the current in the circuit;
(c) Calculate the current in each branch; and
(d) Calculate the power consumed by each lamp.
Answer: 2Ω; 6A;4A, 2A;48W, 24W.

WORKSHEET 5 & 6
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. Consider each circuit, calculate the total current, the individual current, individual voltages and the
individual power in each element.
2. Consider each circuit, calculate the total current, the individual current, individual voltages and the
individual power in each element.
3. A resistance of 10 Ω is connected in series with two resistances each of 15 Ω arranged in

parallel. What resistance must be shunted across this parallel combination so that the total
current taken shall be 1.5 A with 20 V applied?

LESSON EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
07
Lesson 7: Equivalent Resistance & WYE-DELTA Transformation
& WYE-DELTA
TRANSFORMATION
Oftentimes, the circuit is not as simple as purely series or purely parallel-connected circuit.
Generally, circuits are a combination of series and parallel connections and sometimes it contains a
more complicated wye and/or delta connection. In this section we will learn how to simply a circuit
and resolve it to its equivalent resistance.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Simplify complicated single-sourced circuit to a single-resistance circuit;
2. Identify wye and delta connected resistances; and
3. Transform wye-connection to delta-connection and vice versa.
7.1 Equivalent Resistance

In general, it is often convenient and possible to combine resistors in series and parallel
and reduce a resistive network to a single equivalent resistance, Req. Such equivalent resistance
is the resistance between the designated terminals of the network and must exhibit the same
current-voltage characteristics as the original network at the terminals. In other words, a
complicated resistive circuit can be replaced by a single equivalent resistance and shall perform the
same as the original network both in terms of current drawn and power dissipated for a given
voltage supply.
To illustrate the process of calculating the equivalent resistance, Req, consider the
resistive circuit in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1. A Series-Parallel resistive circuit
To simply any circuit, we should begin the process in the furthest elements from the terminal in
consideration. For our example, the farthest resistances are the 4-Ω, 5-Ω, and 3-Ω resistors. We
can observe that the three elements are in series to each other. Therefore, we can calculate the
equivalent resistance of these resistances by adding them together (since they are in series). Let
us call their combined resistance Ra.
R a = 4Ω + 5Ω + 3Ω = 12Ω

Then the circuit is now reduced to Figure 7.2a from figure 7.1, we can observe that the Ra and the
4Ω resistors are the farthest elements and they are connected in parallel. We apply the formula for
parallel-connected resistance to get their equivalent resistance, which we will call R b:
R a (4Ω) (12Ω)(4Ω) 48
R b = R a || 4Ω = = = Ω = 3Ω
R a + 4Ω 12Ω + 4Ω 16
Then the circuit is now reduced to Figure 7.2.b, we can observe that the R b and the 3Ω resistors
are the next two farthest elements and they are connected in series. We combine them and call it
Rc:
R c = R b + 3Ω = 3Ω + 3Ω = 6Ω
Then the circuit is now reduced to Figure 7.2.c, we can observe that the R c and the 6Ω resistors
are the next two farthest elements and they are connected in parallel. We combine them and call it
R d:
R d (4Ω) (6Ω)(6Ω)
R d = R c || 6Ω = = = 3Ω
R d + 4Ω 6Ω + 6Ω
Finally, the remaining resistances are in series (see Fig. 7.2d). We can now calculate the total
equivalent resistance of the whole circuit by adding the remaining resistances.
R eq = R d + 2Ω + 1Ω = 3Ω + 2Ω + 1Ω = 6Ω
Therefore, the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in Figure 7.1 is 6 ohms.
Ra Rb Rc
(a) (b) (c)
Rd Req
(d) (e)
Figure 7.2. Redrawing of circuit in Fig. 7.1

The presented process above can be repeated to almost all single-sourced resistive
circuit. Take note that for multi-sourced circuit, it is no longer advisable to use reduction method in
analyzing the circuit and instead use other methods to be discussed in this course.
TRY THIS!
Consider the circuits below, calculate the equivalent resistances.
Answer: 14.4Ω; 11.2Ω.
7.2 WYE-DELTA Transformation

In a more complicated circuits, there are connections that are neither series nor parallel.
For example, consider the network shown in Figure 7.3. We can observe, that R 3 and R6 are not
necessarily in series (because of the presence of R 4) and also not in parallel because their other
terminals are not connected. In these cases, we can observe a new three-terminal network
configuration. These are the Wye (Y) network (see Figure 7.4) and Delta (∆) network (see Figure
7.5). These networks are commonly used in three-phase networks and electrical filter applications.
Figure 7.4. Wye (Y) Connected network
Figure 7.3. Bridge Network
Figure 7.5. Delta (∆) Connected network

The Wye and Delta connections can be

transformed from one to another. To do this, we
superimpose each other and use a formula to calculate its
equivalent. To illustrate this, consider the network Delta
network Ra, Rb, and Rc and Wye-network R1, R2, and R3 in
Figure 7.6.
DELTA to WYE Conversion

The Wye connected network has three external
terminals and one (1) common terminal joined together,
Figure 7.6. Superimposed Wye-Delta network
we call it the node “n” (node “0” in other books). Therefore,
if we covert a delta connected network to its wye
equivalent, we will be gaining another node – the common node “n”. Conversely, if we convert the
wye-connected network to its delta equivalent, we will be losing the node “n”.
To convert delta to wye we simply “multiply the two adjacent delta-connected resistance
and divide it by the sum of the resistances in delta”. Mathematically,
RbRc
R1 = (7.1𝑎)
Ra + Rb + Rc
RaRc
R2 = (7.1𝑏)
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R1 = (7.1𝑐)
Ra + Rb + Rc
WYE to DELTA Conversion

To convert wye to its delta equivalent, we simply “get the sum of the product of
resistances in wye taken two at a time then divide it by the opposite resistance in wye”.
Mathematically,
R𝑎
R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
= (7.2𝑎)
R1
Rb
R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
= (7.2𝑏)
R2
R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
Rc = (7.2𝑐)
R3
Balanced WYE to DELTA Network

A network is said to be balanced if the elements in each branch of the wye or delta
network are equal. For balanced networks, the formula in 7.1 and 7.2 is reduced to equation 7.3.

𝐑∆
𝐑𝒀 = ; 𝐑∆ = 𝟑𝐑𝐘 (𝟕. 𝟑)
𝟑
Where RY = R1 = R2 = R3 and R∆ = Ra = Rb = Rc
Example 7.2. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown below.
This problem is adopted from Example 2.88 of Electrical Technology by Theraja (2008).
Solution:
To illustrate the concept of wye-delta and delta-wye conversion, we will
solve this problem in two ways.
Solution 1 (wye to delta):
Consider the wye-connected resistors with common terminal at node E, we

will convert it to its delta equivalent (Ra-Rb-Rc).
R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
R𝑎 =
R1
(6)(8) + (8)(4) + (4)(6) 104
R𝑎 = =
6 6
52
R𝑎 = = 17.3333 Ω
3
R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
R𝑏 =
R2
104
R𝑏 =
8
R 𝑏 = 13 Ω
R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
R𝑐 =
R3
104
R𝑐 =
4
R 𝑐 = 26 Ω
We can further simplify the circuit by combining the elements R c which is

parallel to the 4-ohm and Rb which is parallel to the 8-ohm resistor. The
combination of which are in series, we call it R x.
R c (4) R b (8) (26)(4) (13)(8)

R 𝑥 = R 𝑐 || 4 + R 𝑏 || 8 = + = +
Rc + 4 Rb + 4 26 + 4 13 + 8
104 104
R𝑥 = + = 8.4191Ω
30 21

Finally, we can observe that the total resistance is the series combination of the 4-ohm resistor and
the parallel combination of Rx and Ra. Using the appropriate formula, we can now solve for Req as
shown below:
Ra Rx (17.3333)(8.4191)
R 𝑒𝑞 = 4 + (R 𝑥 || R 𝑎 ) = 4 + = 4+
Ra + Rx 17.3333 + 8.4191
𝐑𝒆𝒒 = 𝟗. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕Ω
Therefore, the equivalent resistance of the whole circuit is 9.67 ohms.
Solution 2 (delta to wye):
Consider the delta-connected resistors with terminals at nodes D, E, and

B, we will convert it to its wye equivalent (R1-R2-R3).
RbRc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
(8)(4) 32
R1 = =
6 + 8 + 4 18
16
R1 = = 1.7778 Ω
9
RaRc
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
(6)(4) 24
R2 = =
6 + 8 + 4 18
4
R 2 = = 1.3333 Ω
3
Ra Rb
R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
(6)(8) 48
R3 = =
6 + 8 + 4 18
8
R 3 = = 2.6667 Ω
3
The resulting wye connected network has R3 and R2 in series with the 4-ohm and 8-ohm resistors,
respectively. We simplify these branches and solve for R y and Rz.
R 𝑦 = R 3 + 4 = 2.6667 + 4 = 6.6667 Ω
R 𝑧 = R 2 + 8 = 1.3333 + 8 = 9.3333 Ω

The resulting circuit shows that the Req is simply the series combination of the 4-ohm resistance,
the R1 and the parallel combination of Ry and Rz. Therefore, the Req is:
Ry Rz
R 𝑒𝑞 = 4 + R 𝑦 ||R 𝑧 + R1 = 4 + + R1
Ry + Rz
(6.667)(9.3333)
=4+ + 1.7778
6.6667 + 9.3333
𝐑𝒆𝒒 = 𝟗. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕 Ω
Therefore, the equivalent resistance of the whole circuit is 9.67 ohms. We can also observe that
both solutions 1 and 2 yield to the same results.
TRY THIS!
Consider the circuit below, calculate the equivalent resistances and the current i.
Answer: 9.632Ω; 12.458A.

WORKSHEET 7
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. What value of R in the circuit below would cause the current source to deliver 800 mW to
the resistors?
2. Calculate the values of power dissipated and voltage drops at the 20-ohm and 80-ohm
resistances.

LESSON KIRCHHOFF’S
08
Lesson 8: Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Law
VOLTAGE & CURRENT
LAW
To successfully conduct a circuit analysis, Ohm’s Law is not enough. This is because,
commonly, electrical circuits are not a simple as one-source-one-load set-up, rather it is composed
of combination of multiple active and passive elements. We need another basic law that is very
useful in analyzing circuits – the Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws. In this section, we will
explore these laws and how they can be used in analyzing circuits.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Identify the number of branches, nodes, and loops in a circuit; and
2. Use Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws in a circuit.
8.1 Branches, Nodes, and Loops

Since the elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in several ways, we need
to understand some basic concepts of network topology. To differentiate between a circuit and a
network, we may regard a network as an interconnection of elements or devices, whereas a circuit
is a network providing one or more closed paths. The convention, when addressing network
topology, is to use the word network rather than circuit. We do this even though the words network
and circuit mean the same thing when used in this context. In network topology, we study the
properties relating to the placement of elements in the network and the geometric configuration of
the network. Such elements include branches, nodes, and loops.
A branch is simply a representation of any single

passive or active element in a circuit. In other words, a
branch represents any two-terminal element. Consider the
circuit shown in Figure 8.1, we can observe that it is
composed of five (5) branches, namely: a voltage source, a
current source, and three resistors.
Node is defined as a point of connection between

two (2) or more branches. A node is indicated by a dot in a
Figure 8.1: Simple circuit circuit. If a connecting wire connects two nodes (without
showing branches and nodes. elements in between the nodes), the two nodes is counted
to be a single node. The circuit in Figure 5.1 has three
nodes a, b, and c. Notice that the three points that form node b are connected by perfectly
conducting wires and therefore constitute a single point. The same is true of the four points forming
node c.

A loop is defined as any closed path in a circuit. Furthermore, it is a closed path formed
by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes only once, and returning to the starting node.
A loop can be dependent or independent. Independent loops are loops that contains at least one
branch which is not in any other loop. On the other hand, dependent loop is a loop whose branches
are also in other loops. Independent loops are important because the number of independent
algebraic equations that can be derived from the loops is determined by the number of independent
loops.
To illustrate this concept, consider the circuit in Figure 8.1, we can observed that we can
that there are six (6) loops namely:
• loop 1 (a-b-c) that includes the 10-V source, and the 5-ohm and 2-ohm resistors;
• loop 2 (a-b-c) that includes 10-V source and the 5-ohm and 3-ohm resistors;
• loop 3 (a-b-c) that includes 10-V source, 5-ohm resistor, and the 2-A current
source;
• loop 4 (b-c-b) that includes the 2-ohm and 3-ohm resistors;
• loop 5 (b-c-b) that includes the 2-ohm resistor and the 2-A source; and
• loop 6 (b-c-b) that includes the 3-ohm resistor and the 2-A source.
However, in these six loops, only three (3) set of loops are independent. For example,
loops 1, 3, and 4 are independent to each other. Please identify other set of loops that are
independent. Write your answer in the space provided:
A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the fundamental
theorem of network topology:
𝒍= 𝒃−𝒏+𝟏
Example 8.1. Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit shown in Figure 8.2a and
8.2b.
This problem is adopted from Practice Problem 2.4 of Fund. of Electric Circuits by Alexander & Sadiku.
Solution:
For (a):
Since there are four elements in the circuit, then there are also
four branches. For the number of nodes, we have three nodes – two at
the top, and another at the bottom.
For (b):
60 |BUCENG | Gealone & Lunas Figure 8.2: Circuits for Example 5.1.
Since there are five elements in the circuit, then there are also five branches. For the
number of nodes, we have three nodes – two at the top, and another at the bottom.
8.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

The first of the two laws introduced by the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
which has been later named to himself is called the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). KVL is based
on the law of conservation of energy that states that energy cannot be created now destroyed, in
other words, the energy entering the system is equal to the energy leading the system. Therefore,
Kirchhoff theorized that the algebraic sum of voltage rises, and voltage drops of any loop is equal to
zero. Voltage drops and voltage rises are determined based on the direction of the current based
on the convention used.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages
around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
Before we proceed in the process of using this law, let

us first discuss how we can determine the polarity of voltages within
each element in the circuit. To illustrate this process, consider the steps
presented below applied in the circuit shown in Figure 8.3a.
Step 1. Identify the direction of the current. You may choose the
Figure 8.3a: Sample simple circuit
direction of the current. Use arrow as the symbol. Use Figure 8.3b.
Step 2. Identify the polarity of voltages in passive elements. In

determining the voltage polarity, be guided that in conventional flow the
current flows from higher polarity to lower polarity. It means that current
flows from positive to negative terminal. We do not need to identify the
polarity for the voltage sources because it has its own polarity
Figure 8.3b: Circuit with current independent to the direction of the current. See figure 8.3c.
+ v2 – + v3 –
Once the polarity of the voltage has been identified, we can
already apply the KVL. To illustrate the process of KVL, consider the
v1 v4 circuit shown in Figure 8.3c.
Step 1. Identify the direction of the loop. The KVL equation that we
– v5 +
generate from any circuit is dependent on the direction of the loop that
Figure 8.3c: Circuit with current we choose. The loop can be either clockwise or counterclockwise.
Please note that there is no right or wrong direction for the loop, the

result will be just the same. For this example, we will choose to follow the direction of the current,
i.e., clockwise direction.
Step 2. Create the KVL equation. After identifying the intended direction of the loop, start at any
point of the circuit and record the voltages that you will pass through. If you are leaving the element
at its negative “–” terminal, then the voltage is a voltage drop else it is a voltage rise. For voltage
rise we denote it with a + sign and – for voltage drops. For the example in Figure 5.3b, we can
generate the equation below:
+𝑣1 − 𝑣2 − 𝑣3 + 𝑣4 − 𝑣5 = 0
Rearranging the equation,

𝑣1 + 𝑣4 = 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + 𝑣5
We can observe in the above equation that the sum of voltage drops is equal to the sum of voltage
rises. Therefore, KVL can also be expressed as:
∑ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = ∑ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠
Example 8.2. Solve for the values of v1 and v2 in the circuit shown in Figure 8.4.
Solution:
First let us assume that the current is in clockwise direction, and the
direction of the loop will be also clockwise.
Let I1 and I2 be the current flowing in the 4-ohm and 2-ohm resistors,
respectively. However since the circuit is a one-loop circuit, then the
currents I1 and I2 are equal in magnitude and we simple denote as current
I. However, we have to take note that the polarity of v2 indicates that the Figure 8.4: Sample simple circuit
direction of current I2 is opposite to I, or simply I2 = - I. Using Ohm’s Law,
we can express v1 and v2 in terms of I.
v1 = IR1 = 4I; v2 = IR 2 = −2I
Next, we apply the KVL to the circuit:
10 − v1 + 8 + v2 = 0
Substituting the values of v1 and v2, then solve for I.
10 − 4𝐼 + 8 + (−2𝐼) = 18 − 6𝐼 = 0
6𝐼 = 18
𝑰=𝟑

To solve for the values of v1 and v2, substitute the value of I.
v1 = 4I = 4(3) = 𝟏𝟐𝑽
v2 = −2I = −2(3) = −𝟔𝑽
Therefore, the values of v1 and v2 are 12V and –6V, respectively. The negative sign in the value of
v2 signifies that the polarity indicated in the circuit is opposite to its actual polarity.
8.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

The second law introduced by Kirchhoff is the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL). KCL is
based on the law of conservation of charge. Since current is simply the rate of charge per unit time,
then the law is also applicable for currents in a circuit. Kirchhoff proposed that at any node in a
circuit the algebraic sum of current entering, and current leaving is equal to zero. The positive “+”
sign is given for current entering the node and negative “-” sign for current leaving it.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents in a node is zero.
Consider the node shown in Figure 8.5, we can observe that

there are five (5) currents interacting at node A. I 1 and I4 are entering
the node while the currents I2, I3, and I5 are leaving the node. Applying
the KCL, we can get the equation:
I1 − I2 − I3 + I4 − I5 = 0
Grouping the equations,

Figure 8.5: Node A with five currents
I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
Based on the resulting equation, we can say that the sum of currents entering is equal to
the sum of current leaving any node. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
∑ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ∑ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔

Example 8.3. Using KCL, solve for the values of I1 and I2 in the circuit shown in Figure 8.6.
This problem is adopted from Tutorial Problems 2.1 of A textbook of electrical technology by Theraja (2008).
Solution:
To solve for the value of I1, apply KCL at node a:
4 − 5 − I1 − 3 + 6 = 0 a b
I1 = 4 − 5 − 3 + 6
𝐈𝟏 = 𝟐𝑨
To solve for the value of I2, apply KCL at node b:

Figure 8.6: Circuit for Ex. 5.3
I1 + 8 − I2 + 3 − 6 = 0
I2 = I1 + 8 + 3 − 6 = (2) + 8 + 3 − 6
𝐈𝟐 = 𝟕𝑨
Therefore, the values of I1 and I2 are 2A and 7A, respectively. Note that the since the values are
positive, it means that the indicated directions for the current are correct.

WORKSHEET 8
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

Time Duration:
1. For the network below, determine the number of nodes, branches, and loops. Assume that each
line represents a single element.
2. Consider the circuit shown, solve for the values of v 1, v2, v3,
and v4.
3. Find the values of i1, i2, and i3 in the circuit below.


LESSON
INDEPENDENT &
09
Lesson 9: Independent and Dependent Sources
DEPENDENT
SOURCES
As of this lesson we have learned the basic elements in a circuit. We have learned that a
circuit is composed of both active (voltage and current sources) and passive elements (resistors).
However, elements that we have dealt with are all ideal and independent. Hence, in this lesson we
will explore the use of other type of sources.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Identify dependent and non-ideal sources in a circuit; and
2. Calculate circuits with dependent and non-ideal sources.
9.1 Independent and Dependent Sources

Our aim in this section is to gain familiarity with some important active
elements. The most important active elements are voltage or current sources
that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them. There are two
kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources.
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a

specified voltage or current that is completely independent of other circuit
Figure 9.1: Independent voltage
variables. In other words, an ideal independent voltage source delivers to the
source
circuit whatever current is necessary to maintain its terminal voltage. Figure 9.1
shows the symbols used to represent ideal independent voltage source, the +
and – denotes the polarity of the voltage source. Physical sources such as
batteries and generators may be regarded as approximations to ideal voltage
sources.
Similarly, an ideal independent current source is an active element that
provides a specified current completely independent of the voltage across the
source. That is, the current source delivers to the circuit whatever voltage is
Figure 9.2: Independent current necessary to maintain the designated current. The symbol for an independent
source current source is displayed in Fig. 9.2, where the arrow indicates the direction of
current i.
An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in

which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.
Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols,
as shown in Fig. 9.3. Since the control of the dependent source is achieved by a
voltage or current of some other element in the circuit, and the source can be
Figure 9.3: Symbol of dependent

sources
voltage or current, it follows that there are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)

2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
Dependent sources are useful in modeling

elements such as transistors, operational amplifiers (op-
amp), and integrated circuits (ICs). An example of a current
controlled voltage source is shown on the right-hand side
of Figure 9.4, where the voltage 10i of the voltage source
depends on the current i through element C. Students
might be surprised that the value of the dependent voltage
source is 10i V (and not 10i A) because it is a voltage
source. The key idea to keep in mind is that a voltage Figure 9.4: Sample circuit with a current-
source comes with polarities (+ −) in its symbol, while a controlled voltage source
current source comes with an arrow, irrespective of what it
is dependent on.
It should be noted that an ideal voltage source (dependent or independent) will produce
any current required to ensure that the terminal voltage is as stated, whereas an ideal current
source will produce the necessary voltage to ensure the stated current flow. Thus, an ideal source
could, in theory, supply an infinite amount of energy. It should also be noted that not only do
sources supply power to a circuit, but they can also absorb power from a circuit too. For a voltage
source, we know the voltage but not the current supplied or drawn by it. Similarly, we know the
current supplied by a current source but not the voltage across it.
Example 9.1. Determine the value of i0 in the circuit below.

Solution:
We can observe that the circuit has two sources – one independent
voltage source (36V) and one current-controlled voltage source (5io).
Consider the circuit shown, we can have a single loop. Using KVL, we
derive the equation below:
36 − 4i0 − 5i0 = 0
Simplifying the equation, we can solve for io.
9i0 = 36
𝐢𝟎 = 𝟒 𝑨

Example 9.2. Find V0 in the circuit below and the power dissipated by the controlled source.
Solution:
The circuit has two current sources, the independent 10A source and the dependent current source
controlled by the voltage drop of the 4-ohm resistor.
Since the circuit is generally composed of current sources, we will use KCL to analyze the circuit.
Let I be the current flowing in the resistors as shown in the figure. Applying KCL at node a:
I + 10 + 2V0 = 0
Using Ohm’s law, we can also have the relationship between the current I and the voltage V 0. That
is V0 = 4I. Substituting the value of I, we can solve for V0:
(V0 /4) + 10 + 2V0 = 0
V0
( ) + 2V0 = −10
4
9V0
= −10
4
𝐕𝟎 = −𝟒. 𝟒𝟒 𝐕
Note that the negative value for V0 shows that the presented polarity of the voltage drop is opposite
to the actual polarity.
To calculate the value of power in the dependent source, we have to calculate the value of the
voltage from node a. We will use KVL to do this.
6I + 4I + Va = 0; Va = −10I
𝑉0 −4.44
Va = −10 ( ) = −10 ( ) = 11.11 V
4 4
Solving for the power, P, at the dependent current source,
P = Va (−2V0 ) = (11.11)[−2(−4.44)]
𝐏 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟕𝟕 𝐖

WORKSHEET 9
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

Time Duration:
1. For the circuit below, find Vo/Vs in terms of α, R1, R2, R3, and R4. If R1 = R2 = R3 = R4, what
value of α will produce |Vo/Vs| = 10?
2. For the network below, find the current, voltage, and power associated with the 20-kΩ
resistor.

UNIT 2: NODAL AND MESH

ANALYSIS


LESSON
GENERAL NODAL
10
Lesson 10: Nodal Analysis
ANALYSIS
Now that we have learned the basic network laws in Unit 1 of this material, we can now
explore a more advance techniques in analyzing circuits. In this section we will learn how to use a
technique called Nodal Analysis that uses the principles of Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and
Ohm’s Law. The major advantage in using the said techniques is the reduction of simultaneous
equations that we need to solve.
In the following sections, we will be introduced to the process of using the technique as
well as several examples considering different network configurations.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss and apply the process of Nodal Analysis.
2. Solve problems involving multiple sources using Nodal Analysis.
10.1 Introduction
In the previous lessons, we have discovered that in order to analyze electrical circuits, we
have to be familiar with several foundational laws, i.e., Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Laws.
Specifically, Kirchhoff’s Law introduces the concept of analyzing the elements using nodes (for
KCL) and loops (for KVL). However, it should be noted that the techniques presented by Kirchhoff
requires intensive algebraic calculations since the number of equations needed is dependent on
the number of branches in the circuit.
To address this concern, the Nodal analysis simplifies the process by choosing node
voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables. Since the number of nodes are always
less than the number of elements, Nodal Analysis reduces the number of equations one must solve
simultaneously.
10.2 Node Voltages

In this method of analysis, the aim is to calculate the node
voltages and use it in calculating other element parameters such
voltages and currents. But before we proceed let us review the
definition of nodes in a circuit. In the lesson about Kirchhoff’s Laws
we define the node as a “point of connection between two or more
branches/elements in a circuit”. It means that in the circuit shown in
Figure 10.1, there are a total of four (4) nodes. However, since the
node a has only two elements connected to it, then we can disregard
it in using KCL (since we already knew that the current in the 7-V
source and 4-Ω resistor are equal). Therefore, for purposes of Nodal

Analysis we will only consider the nodes with three (3) or more branches/elements connected to it.
In order to understand the concept of node voltages, we need to be reminded that

voltages are the “potential difference” between two points. Therefore, the value of voltages in a
point is relative to the reference point for which the measurement is being measured from. It means
the voltage Vab is defined as voltage from point a to b, and it is the negative of V ba which is the
voltage from b to a. This concept of “reference point” is essential in Nodal Analysis. Nodal Analysis
measures all node voltages from a single reference point. Hence it is essential to identify a single
point (or node) in a circuit for which all node voltages are measured from.
To illustrate the stated point, let us assume that the reference point is node d. If we
measure the voltage of node a, and we name it Va, then that node voltage is equal to the voltage
Vad (the voltage from a to d). Similarly, Vbd can simply be called Vb and Vcd is simply Vc. But this
can only be accurate if the voltage at node d is zero. That is why in Nodal Analysis, the voltage at
the reference node is zero.
Now that we have introduced the concept of node voltages, we can now proceed to the
steps in applying Nodal Analysis.
10.3 Steps in Determining Node Voltages

As mentioned in the previous section, in this method we are interested in finding the node
voltages. Given a circuit with n number of nodes (with three or more elements connected to it), the
nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking the following steps:
1. Select a reference node, and label it as the circuit “ground”.
In choosing the reference node, it is wise to select the one with the most elements
and/or the one with a voltage source connected to it. This will not affect the final answer
but will further simplify the calculations.
We may use any of the symbols for the ground as shown in Figure
10.2. However, in this material we will primarily use the one in (b)
which is called the chassis ground.
2. Assign voltages Va, Vb, Vc, etc. to all non-reference nodes. Figure 10.2
After identifying the ground (reference node), we

can now label all non-reference nodes. In the circuit
shown in Figure 10.3, we have labeled the two nodes
as Va, and Vb. Note that we no longer used the node
between the 7-V source and 4-Ω resistance since
there are only two elements that are connected to it.
3. Apply KCL to each non-reference nodes.
Similar to the process of KVL and KCL, we have to

arbitrarily assign the directions of current in each
branch. Once we are done with that, we can now apply Figure 10.3

KCL to each non-reference node. For our illustration in Figure 10.3, we have:
Node A: I1 – I2 – I3 = 0
Node B: I3 – I4 + 10 = 0
4. Use Ohm’s Law to express the branch currents in terms of the node voltages.
To express the currents in terms of node voltages, the key idea is, by passive
convention, the current flows from higher potential to lower potential. We express this concept
as:
Vhigher − Vlower
I=
R
For illustration purposes we apply this concept to equation generated at Node A. For
I1, we have a voltage supply of 7-V. Therefore, based on its polarity, the node between the
source and the 4-ohm resistor will also have a potential of 7-V with respect to the ground.
Therefore, I1 can be expressed as:
Vhigher − Vlower 7V − Va 7 − Va
I1 = = =
R 4Ω 4
For I2 we observe that the current passes through the 3-ohm resistance from node a to
the reference node. Since we assume that the references node has zero potential, we can
get:
Vhigher − Vlower Va − 0 Va
I2 = = =
R 3Ω 3
For I3 the current passes through the 4-ohm resistance from node a to node b, so we
can say that node a is higher potential than node b. Applying this, we can get:
Vhigher − Vlower Va − Vb Va − Vb
I3 = = =
R 4Ω 4
Substituting these values to equation generated from Node a.
I1 − I2 − I3 = 0
7 − Va Va Va − Vb
( )−( )−( )=0
4 3 4
Simplifying the above equation:
7 − Va Va Va − Vb
[ = + ] (12)
4 3 4

21 − 3Va = 4Va + 3Va − 3Vb
21 = 4Va + 3Va − 3Vb + 3Va

𝟏𝟎𝐕𝐚 − 𝟑𝐕𝐛 = 𝟐𝟏
Applying the same steps for KCL equation from node b:
I3 − I4 + 10 = 0
Va − Vb Vb − 0
( )−( ) + 10 = 0
4 2
Va − Vb Vb
[ − + 10 = 0] (4)
4 2
Va − Vb − 2Vb + 40 = 0
Va − 3Vb + 40 = 0
𝐕𝐚 − 𝟑𝐕𝐛 = −𝟒𝟎
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
After simplifying the equations, we can now used algebraic techniques for
simultaneous equations to solve for the values of the nodal voltages. Below is an illustration
using method of elimination.
Using Method of elimination and substitution.

Step 1: Subtract the two equations to eliminate Vb.
10Va − 3Vb = 21
−[ Va − 3Vb = −40 ]
9Va + 0 = 61
Step 3. Solving for Va:
61
Va = = 6. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
7777 𝑉
9
Step 4. To solve for Vb substitute the value of Va to equation (2).
(6. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
7777) − 3Vb = −40
3Vb = 40 + (6. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
7777)

Vb = 15.5926 𝑉
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ V and 𝟏𝟓. 𝟓𝟗𝟐𝟔 V,

Therefore, the values of Va and Vb are 𝟔. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
respectively.
6. To solve for element voltages and currents, use the node voltages to calculate them.
Since the values of current can be expressed in terms of node voltages, we can readily
solve for it by simply substituting the values of node voltages.
7 − Va 7 − (6.7777)
I1 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟓𝟔 𝑨
4 4
Va (6.7777)
I2 = = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝑨
3 3
Va − Vb (6.7777) − (15.5926)
I3 = = = −𝟐. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟕 𝑨
4 4
Vb (15.5926)
I4 = = = 𝟕. 𝟕𝟗𝟔𝟑 𝑨
2 2
As presented, the currents in each branch can readily be solve using the node
voltages. Similarly, voltages in each branch can also be solved. In the succeeding examples,
we will present different configurations for the circuit.
Example 10.1. Find branch voltages and current in the circuit below.
Solution:
• To analyze the problem, identify the ground, label the node voltages, and identify/assign current
directions.

• Apply KCL at nodes a and b
Node a: 1A – I1 – I2 = 0 ↔ I1 + I 2 = 1 → (1)
Node b: I2 + I3 – 4 = 0 ↔ I2 + I 3 = 4 → (2)
• Apply Ohm’s Law and simplify

For equation (1):
I1 + I2 = 1
Va Va − Vb
[( ) + ( ) = 1] (6)
2 6
3Va + Va − Vb = 6
𝟒𝐕𝐚 − 𝐕𝐛 = 𝟔
For equation (2):

I2 + I 3 = 4
Va − Vb 0 − Vb
[( )+( ) = 4] (42)
6 7
7Va − 7Vb − 6Vb = 168
𝟕𝐕𝐚 − 𝟏𝟑𝐕𝐛 = 𝟏𝟔𝟖
• Solve for Va and Vb:
For Va:
7Va − 13Vb = 168
−[ 4Va − Vb = 6](13)
−45 Va + 0 = 90
90
Va = = −𝟐 𝑽
−45

For Vb:
4Va − Vb = 6
4(−2) − Vb = 6
Vb = −8 − 6 = −𝟏𝟒 𝑽
• Solve for branch circuit currents. Substituting the values of Va and Vb:
Va −2
I1 = = = −𝟏 𝑨
2 2
Va − Vb (−2) − (−14)
I2 = = =𝟐𝑨
6 6
−Vb −(−14)
I3 = = =𝟐𝑨
2 7
• Solve for branch circuit voltages.

Method 1: Use Ohm’s Law.
V1 = I1 R1 = (−1)(2) = −𝟐 𝑽
V2 = I2 R 2 = (2)(6) = 𝟏𝟐 𝑽
V3 = I3 R 3 = (2)(7) = 𝟏𝟒 𝑽
Method 2: Use the Node Voltages.

We can observe from the circuit that the values of the branch voltages are:
V1 = V𝑎 = −𝟐 𝑽
V2 = V𝑎 − V𝑏 = (−2) − (−14) = 𝟏𝟐 𝑽
V3 = 0 − V𝑏 = −(−14) = 𝟏𝟒 𝑽
Example 10.2. In the circuit shown below, solve for the following: (a) Voltage at the 8-ohm resistor,
(b) currents at the two-ohm resistors, and (c) power at the 4-ohm resistor.

Solution:
• Identify the ground, label the node voltages, and identify/assign current directions.
• Apply KCL and Ohm’s Law.

Before we apply KCL at the nodes, let us consider the node a. Since 6-V source is
connected at node a and the ground, we can deduce that:
Va = 6 V
Since we already knew the value of Va we are only left with two unknowns therefore
we only need two equations. We can now apply KCL at nodes b and c:
For Node b:
I1 − I3 − I4 = 0
Va − Vb Vb − Vc Vb
[( )−( ) − ( ) = 0] (4)
2 4 1
2Va − 2Vb − Vb + Vc − 4Vb = 0
2(6) − 7Vb + Vc = 0
𝟕𝐕𝐛 − 𝐕𝐜 = 𝟏𝟐
For Node c:
I2 + I 3 − I 5 = 0
Va − Vc Vb − Vc Vc
[( )+( ) − ( ) = 0] (8)
2 4 8
4Va − 4Vc + 2Vb − 2Vc − Vc = 0
4(6) + 2Vb − 7Vc = 0

𝟐𝐕𝐛 − 𝟕𝐕𝐜 = −𝟐𝟒
• Solve for Va, Vb, and Vc.
For Va: Va = 6 V
For Vb:
[7Vb − Vc = 12](7)
−[𝟐𝐕𝐛 − 𝟕𝐕𝐜 = −𝟐𝟒]
47 Vb + 0 = 108
108
Vb = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟗𝟕𝟗 𝑽
47
For Vc:
7Vb − Vc = 12
7(2.2979) − Vc = 12
Vc = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟖𝟓𝟏 𝑽
• Solve for the required parameters:
For (a) Voltage at 8-ohm resistor, V5:
V5 = Vc = 4.0851 volts
For (b) currents at the two-ohm resistors, I1 and I2:

Va − Vb 6 − 2.2979
𝐼1 = = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟏 𝑨
2 2
Va − Vc 6 − 4.0851
𝐼2 = = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟕𝟒 𝑨
2 2
For (c) power at the 4-ohm resistor, P3:
𝑉32 (Vb − Vc )2 (2.2979 − 4.0851)2

𝑃3 = = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟖𝟔 𝑾
𝑅3 4 4

Example 10.3. Find value of v0 in the circuit below.

Solution:
• Apply KCL and Ohm’s Law in the nodes
For Node a:
I0 − I1 − I2 − 3 = 0
12 − Va Va − 0 Va − Vb
[( )−( )−( ) − 3 = 0] (8)
2 4 8
48 − 4Va − 2Va − Va + Vb − 24 = 0
𝟕𝐕𝐚 − 𝐕𝐛 = 𝟐𝟒
For Node b:
I2 + 3 − I3 = 0
Va − Vb Vb + 5v0 − 0
[( )+3−( ) = 0] (8)
8 1
Va − Vb + 24 − 8Vb − 40v0 = 0
Va − 9Vb − 40v0 + 24 = 0

We can observe from the circuit the v 0 is equal to (12 – Va) since it is the voltage across the 2-ohm
resistor, substituting this to the above equation:
Va − 9Vb − 40(12 − Va ) + 24 = 0
Va − 9Vb − 480 + 40Va + 24 = 0
𝟒𝟏𝐕𝐚 − 𝟗𝐕𝐛 = 𝟒𝟓𝟔
• Solve for node voltage, Va:

For Va:
[ 7Va − Vb = 24] (9)
− [41Va − 9Vb = 456]
22Va + 0 = −240
−240
Va = = −𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝑽
22
• Solve for the value of v0:
v0 = 12 − Va = 12 − (−10.9091) = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝑽
In these series of examples, we have shown that Nodal Analysis simplifies the process of
solving different types of circuit. However, there is another configuration that we have to look at that
affects the process of applying nodal analysis.
10.4 SUPERNODE
There are some circuits where a voltage source is directly connected to two non-reference
nodes. In cases like this, we cannot simply apply the same process as before, because Nodal
Analysis requires as using KCL and there is no way for us to express current from (or to) a voltage
source in terms the nodal analysis (i.e., because the is no presence of resistance).
Circuit books define the non-reference nodes that encloses voltage source (independent or
dependent) as “supernodes”.
SUPERNODE is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage

source connected between two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in
parallel with it.

Consider the circuit shown, we can observe that there are three (3) non-reference nodes
(a, b, and c) if we chose node d as the reference. Take a look at the 3-V source, it is directly
enclosed by nodes b and c. Therefore, based on previously stated definition, we can consider it as
a supernode b-c.
When applying KCL at supernodes we will treat them as a single node, (or as if the
voltage source does not exist). Hence in the case of our example, we will apply the KCL directly to
nodes b and c (or supernode b-c) at the same time.
Since the number of nodes are reduced, then the total KCL equations are also reduced.
To compensate for this problem, and achieve the desired number of equations, we will apply KVL
at the supernode to determine the equation that relates the node voltages in the supernode and the
voltage source.
To illustrate this, consider the succeeding examples.
Example 10.4. Find value of node voltages in the circuit below.
Solution:
• Apply KCL and Ohm’s Law

For supernode a-b:
10 − I1 − I2 − 2 = 0

Va − 0 Vb − 0
[10 − 2 − ( )−( ) = 0] (4)
2 4
32 − 2Va − Vb = 0
𝟐𝐕𝐚 + 𝐕𝐛 = 𝟑𝟐
For the second equation, we use KVL to get the relationship between the V a and Vb in terms of the
4-V source.
Va + 4 − Vb = 0
𝐕𝐚 − 𝐕𝐛 = −𝟒
• Solve for node voltage, Va:

For Va:
[2Va + Vb = 32]
+ [ Va − Vb = −4]
3Va + 0 = 28
28
Va = = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑽
3
For Vb:
Va − Vb = −4
Vb = 4 + Va = 4 + 9.3333
𝐕𝐛 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑽
Example 10.5. Find value of node voltages in the circuit below.
Solution:


For supernode a-b-c:
−𝑖 − I1 − I2 = 0
Va − 0 Vb − 0 Vc − 0
[( )+( )+( ) = 0] (12)
2 3 4
𝟔𝐕𝐚 + 𝟒𝐕𝐛 + 𝟑𝐕𝐜 = 𝟎
For the second and third equation, we use KVL to get the relationship between the Va and Vb in
terms of the voltage sources.
For the 12-V Source:

Va − 12 − Vb = 0
𝐕𝐚 − 𝐕𝐛 = 𝟏𝟐
For the 5i Source:

Vb + 5𝑖 − Vc = 0
Recall that i = Va / 2:
Va
[Vb + 5 ( ) − Vc = 0] (2)
2
𝟓𝐕𝐚 + 𝟐𝐕𝐛 − 𝟐𝐕𝐜 = 𝟎

• Solve for node voltages:

For Va:
[6Va + 4Vb + 3Vc = 0](2)
+ [5Va + 2Vb − 2Vc = 0](3)
27Va + 14Vb + 0 = 0
[27Va + 14Vb = 0]
+ [ Va − Vb = 12](14)
41Va + 0 = 168
168
Va = = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟔 𝑽
41
For Vb:
Va − Vb = 12
Vb = Va − 12 = 4.0976 − 12
𝐕𝐛 = −𝟕. 𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝑽
For Vc:
5Va + 2Vb − 2Vc = 0
5Va + 2Vb 5(4.0976) + 2(−7.9024)

Vc = =
2 2
𝐕𝐜 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟔 𝑽
Example 10.6. Find value of current being supplied by the 12-V source in the circuit below.

Solution:
Note that the required is the value of IS. We can also note that the circuit has a supernode
(a-c) that connects the 12-V resistance.

For supernode a-c:
−I1 − I2 + I3 − I4 = 0
Vc − Vb Vc − 0 Vb − Va Va − 0
[( )+( )−( )+( )
2 3 8 4
= 0] (24)
12Vc − 12Vb + 8Vc − 3Vb + 3Va + 6Va = 0
𝟗𝐕𝐚 − 𝟏𝟓𝐕𝐛 + 𝟐𝟎𝐕𝐜 = 𝟎
For node b:
I1 − I3 + 1 = 0
Vc − Vb Vb − Va
[( )−( ) + 1 = 0] (8)
2 8
4Vc − 4Vb − Vb + Va + 8 = 0
𝐕𝐚 − 𝟓𝐕𝐛 + 𝟒𝐕𝐜 = −𝟖
For third equation, we use KVL to get the relationship between the Va and VC in terms of the
voltage sources.
Va + 12 − VC = 0

𝐕𝐚 − 𝐕𝐜 = −𝟏𝟐
• Solve for node voltages:

For Va:
[9Va − 15Vb + 20Vc = 0]
− [ Va − 5Vb + 4Vc = −8](3)
6Va + 0 + 8Vc = 24
[6Va + 8Vc = 24]

+ [ Va − Vc = −12](8)
14Va + 0 = −72
−72
Va = = −𝟓. 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟗 𝑽
14
For Vc:
Va − Vc = −12
Vc = Va + 12 = −5.1429 + 12
𝐕𝐜 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟓𝟕𝟏 𝑽
For Vb:
Va − 5Vb + 4Vc = −8
Va + 4Vc + 8 (−5.1429) + 4(6.8571) + 8

Vb = =
5 5
𝐕𝐛 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟏 𝑽
• Solve for the required IS, using KCL at node c:
IS −I1 − I2 = 0
Vc − Vb Vc − 0
IS = I1 + I2 = ( )+( )
2 3
6.8571 − 6.0571 6.8571

IS = +
2 3
𝐈𝐒 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝟓𝟕 𝑨

WORKSHEET 10
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

Time Duration:
1. Using Nodal Analysis, calculate the current and voltages in each resistor in the circuit
shown below:
2. Choose at least two networks below and calculate the node voltages.

LESSON
GENERAL MESH
11
Lesson 11: General Mesh Analysis
ANALYSIS
Another general procedure in analyzing circuit that we can use is called the Mesh
Analysis. This analysis differs compared to the previously discussed Nodal Analysis in two major
things: Mesh Analysis uses the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law rather than the Current Law (KCL) and it
uses Mesh Current as variables rather than node voltages.
In the following sections, we will be introduced to the process of using the technique as
well as several examples considering different network configurations.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss and apply the process of Mesh Analysis.
2. Solve problems involving multiple sources using Mesh Analysis.
11.1 Introduction
Mesh Analysis, just like Nodal Analysis, aims to simplify the solution for circuit analysis by
reducing the number of unknown one considers in the calculation process. Specifically, nodal
analysis uses mesh currents as the variable. Mesh is defined as loops in the circuit that does not
overlap with other loops. Or simply, the mesh are the “inner loops” of the given circuit.
Though the mesh analysis is a very effective tool, unlike Nodal Analysis, it can only be
used in planar circuits. This is because the process cannot accommodate overlapping branches
that are common in non-planar circuits. Before we proceed on the actual process of applying Mesh
Analysis, let us first familiarize ourselves with the concept of mesh current(s).
11.2 Mesh Currents

To better understand the concept of mesh currents, let us learn how to identify mesh and
differentiate it from the loops. Consider the circuit below, we can observe that there are three loops:
abef, abcdef, and bcde. However, of these three, only two can be considered a mesh, the loop
abef, and loop bcde. Loop abcdef covers overlaps with the other two loops, hence we cannot
consider it as a mesh. Interestingly, loops abef ang
bcde are internal loops, hence we can also say the
mesh are the internal loops in a circuit.
Now that we have identified the meshes in

the circuit, we can assign a mesh current (or loop
current) in each mesh. In our sample circuit, we have
mesh current IA and IB. Note that though the direction
of the mesh currents may be chosen arbitrarily, it is
advisable to maintain a single direction (i.e.,
clockwise, or counterclockwise direction). This

decision will affect your solution later as you apply Mesh Analysis in the circuit.
Suppose we have already calculated the values of these mesh currents. How can we now
calculate the values of individual branch circuit currents? It is actually very straightforward, if we
look at R1 from the circuit, we can observe that the branch circuit current flowing through it is the I 1
and the loop current flowing to it is IA, therefore we can say that I1 is equal to IA. Furthermore, since
their directional flow are the same, then we the value of I 1 is +IA. However, if the branch circuit
currents and mesh currents are opposite in direction, then the value of the branch circuit current is
the negative of the mesh current (e.g., I1 = – IA). Similarly, for R2 since its currents are I2 and IB and
they are flowing in the same direction, then we can say that I2 = IB. For R3, we can observe that
both IA and IB are flowing through R3. To determine the value of I3 we just follow get the algebraic
sum of the mesh currents (+if same direction, and – if not). Since IA flows in the same direction as I3
and IB is in the opposite direction, therefore I3 = IA – IB.
With this, we are now ready to explore the procedures in applying Mesh Analysis.
11.3 Steps in Determining Mesh Currents

As mentioned in the previous section, in this method we are interested in finding the mesh
currents. To do this we have to observe the followings steps.
1. Assign mesh currents (IA, IB, IC, etc.) to each mesh in the circuit.
Recall that it is advisable to assign mesh currents using a single direction (use either
clockwise or counterclockwise).
2. Apply KVL to each meshes and use Ohm’s Law to express voltages in terms of the mesh
currents.
Consider the circuit above, we have three mesh currents (I A, IB, and IC). However, by
inspection we can observe that Mesh current IC directly flows in a branch with a current
source. In such cases, we can readily express the value of IC based on the value of the
current source. Since IC flows opposite to the 10-A current source, then we can say that:
IC = – 10 A
We can now apply KVL at meshes A and B. For Mesh A, we have a voltage source 7-
V (a voltage rise with respect to loop A) and mesh current I A produces voltage drops for

the 4-ohm and 3-ohm resistances while IB produces a voltage rise in the 3-ohm resistance
(since it is opposite in direction loop A). Mathematically we can express that as:
+7 − IA (4 + 3) + IB (3) = 0
Simplifying the equation, we have:
7IA − 3IB = 7 → (1)
For Mesh B, the loop passes through the 3-V source (a voltage rise with respect to
loop B), the mesh current IB produces voltage drops to the 3-ohm and 2-ohm resistances,
while mesh currents IA and IC produces voltage rise in the 3-ohm and 2-ohm resistance,
respectively. Mathematically we can express that as:
3IA + 3 − IB (3 + 2) + IC (2) = 0
Simplifying the equation and substituting the value of IC, we have:
3IA − 5IB + 2IC + 3 = 0
3IA − 5IB + 2(−10) + 3 = 0
3IA − 5IB = 17 → (2)
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown mesh currents.
After simplifying the equations, we can now used algebraic techniques for
simultaneous equations to solve for the values of the mesh currents. Below is an illustration
using method of elimination.
Using Method of elimination and substitution.
[7IA − 3IB = 7](5)

−[3IA − 5IB = 17](3)
26IA + 0 = −16
Solving for IA:
−16
IA = = −0.6154 𝐴
26
To solve for IB substitute the value of IA to equation (1).

7(−0. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
615384 ) − 3IB = 7
3IB = 7(−0.6154) − 7
𝐈𝐁 = −𝟑. 𝟕𝟔𝟗𝟐 𝐀
Therefore, the values of IA and IB are −𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟓𝟒 𝑨 and −𝟑. 𝟕𝟔𝟗𝟐 𝑨 ,
respectively.
Example 11.1. Find branch voltages and current in the circuit below using Mesh Analysis.
Solution:
• To analyze the problem, identify/assign branch current and mesh current directions.
• Since both IA and IC are passing through a branch with a current source, then we can say that:
IA = 1 A IC = 4 A
• Apply KVL and Ohm’s Law at Loop B.
+IA (2) − IB (2 + 6 + 7) + IC (7) = 0
Simplifying the equation and substituting the values of I A and IB, we have:

2IA − 15IB + 7IC = 0
15IB = 2IA + 7IC = 2(1) + 7(4)
𝐈𝐁 = 𝟐𝐀
• Solve for branch circuit currents,
I1 = I𝐴 − I𝐵 = 1 − 𝟐 = −𝟏 𝑨
I2 = I𝐵 = 𝟐 𝑨
I3 = I𝐶 − I𝐵 = 4 − 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝑨
• Solve for branch circuit voltages.
V1 = I1 R1 = (−1)(2) = −𝟐 𝑽
V2 = I2 R 2 = (2)(6) = 𝟏𝟐 𝑽
V3 = I3 R 3 = (2)(7) = 𝟏𝟒 𝑽
Example 11.2. Find value of mesh currents in the circuit below.
Solution:
• To analyze the problem, identify/assign mesh current directions. In this particular circuit, we can
observe that there are two voltage sources, one of which is a CCVS with 5i as its value.
Furthermore, we can observer that the current i will have a value of IB since the loop current I B
passes through the 2-ohm resistance. Therefore:
5i = 5IB
• Apply KVL and Ohm’s Law at Loop A.

−12 + 5IB − IA (4) = 0
4IA − 5IB = −12 → (eq. 1)
• Apply KVL and Ohm’s Law at Loop B.
12 − IB (2 + 3) + IC (3) = 0
5IB − 3IC = 12 → (eq. 2)
• Apply KVL and Ohm’s Law at Loop C.
−5IB + IB (3) − IC (3 + 4) = 0
2IB + 7IC = 0 → (eq. 3)

• Solve for node voltages using equations 1, 2, and 3.
4IA − 5IB = −12 → (eq. 1)

5IB − 3IC = 12 → (eq. 2)
2IB + 7IC = 0 → (eq. 3)
Using eq. 2 and eq. 3, eliminate the variable I C and solve for IB:
[5IB − 3IC = 12](7)

+[2IB + 7IC = 0](3)
41IB + 0 = 84
Solving for IB:
84
IB = = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟖 𝑨
41
Solving for IC:
2IB + 7IC = 2(2.0488) + 7IC = 0
2(2.0488)
IC = − = −𝟎. 𝟓𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝑨
7
Solving for IA:

4IA − 5IB = −12
5IB − 12 5(2.0488) − 12
IA = =
4 4
𝐈𝐀 = −𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟗 𝐀
Therefore, the following are the loop/mesh currents of the circuit: IA = – 0.4390 A, IB =
2.0488 A, and IC = – 0.5854 A.
11.4 SUPERMESH
In the previous examples, we have learned that if a circuit contains a current source, the mesh
current passing through the current source will be equal (in magnitude) to the value of the current
source. However, this can only be true if the current source has only one mesh current passing in
its branch, in cases which two mesh currents passes to a branch with current source, then the two
mesh currents can form an equation that can be expressed in terms of the magnitude of the current
source. This particular case occurs when a current source is between two meshes.
Since we can not apply KVL in a branch with a current source (since current sources cannot
be readily expressed as voltage) then we have to have a different approach in this case, we call it
the “supermesh”.
Consider the circuit shown below, we can observe that the loop currents I A and IB both passes
through the current source 1-A. Therefore, loops A and B are considered as a supermesh. For this
type of circuit configuration, we will apply KVL to only two loops, the loop C and the supermesh A-
B. Since there are only two equations that can be generated from two KVL equations, we have to
create another equation relating IA and IB in terms of the current source 1-A. The next example
demonstrates the steps in solving circuits involving supermesh.
SUPERMESH
A-B

Example 11.3. Find value of mesh currents in the circuit shown above.
Solution:
• As previously discussed, the circuit above contains a supermesh (the combination of mesh A
and B). Hence, we first establish the equation relating IA and IB in terms of the current source 1-
A. Since IA follows the direction of the 1-A current source, it is positive, conversely, the IB is
negative.
I A − IB = 1 → (eq. 1)
• Apply KVL and Ohm’s Law at supermesh A-B.
−IA (8 + 4) − IB (2 + 3) + IC (2 + 8) = 0
12IA + 5IB − 10IC = 0 → (eq. 2)
• Apply KVL and Ohm’s Law at Loop C.
−12 + IA (8) + IB (2) − IC (8 + 2) = 0
8IA + 2IB − 10IC = 12 → (eq. 3)
• Solve for node voltages using equations 1, 2, and 3.
I A − IB = 1 → (eq. 1)
12IA + 5IB − 10IC = 0 → (eq. 2)
8IA + 2IB − 10IC = 12 → (eq. 3)
Using eq. 2 and eq. 3, eliminate the variable I C:
12IA + 5IB − 10IC = 0

−[ 8IA + 2IB − 10IC = 12]
4IA + 3IB = −12 → (eq. 4)
Using eq. 1 and eq. 4, eliminate the variable I B and solve for IA.
[ IA − IB = 1](3)
+[4IA + 3IB = −12]
7IA + 0 = −9

Solving for IA:
−9
IA = = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟕 𝑨
7
Solving for IB:
I A − IB = 1
IB = IA − 1 = −1.2857 − 1 = −𝟐. 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟕 𝑨

Solving for IC:
12IA + 5IB − 10IC = 0
12IA + 5IB 12(−1.2857) + 5(−2.2857)

IC = =
10 10
𝐈𝐂 = −𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝟓𝟕 𝐀
Therefore, the following are the loop/mesh currents of the circuit: IA = –1.2857 A, IB = –
2.2857 A, and IC = –2.6857 A.

WORKSHEET 11
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________


1. Using MESH Analysis, calculate the current and voltages in each resistor in the circuit
Time Duration:
shown below:
2. Consider the networks below and calculate the mesh currents.

UNIT 3: CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

TECHNIQUES & THEOREMS


LESSON LINEARITY &
12
Lesson 12: Linearity & Superposition Theorem
SUPERPOSITION
THEOREM
In the previous two lessons, we have learned that we can analyze circuits that contains
two or more independent sources and calculate specific variable (voltage or current) by using nodal
or mesh analysis. In this lesson we will introduce a theorem or method in calculating specific
variables in a circuit by determining the contribution of each independent source to the variable and
then add them up.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss and apply the process of Superposition.
2. Solve problems involving multiple sources using Superposition.
12.1 Introduction
Values of currents and voltages of elements in a circuit are determined by the sources
(voltage and current source) that is being introduced in the circuit. With these, it follows that
individual source in multi-sourced circuits directly contributes to the branch circuit currents and
voltages. The said principle is explored in the theorem called superposition.
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that
element due to each independent source acting alone.
The key word here is “acting alone” because this method of analysis follows the process
of analyzing the effect of the sources in an element, one at a time. The principle of superposition
helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one independent source by calculating the
contribution of each independent source separately. However, to apply the superposition principle,
we must keep two things in mind:
1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are
turned off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit),
and every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and
more manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.
With these in mind, we apply the superposition principle in three steps:
12.2 Steps in using Superposition Theorem

As mentioned in the previous section, in this method we are interested in finding the node
voltages. Given a circuit with n number of nodes (with three or more elements connected to it), the
superposition theorem of the circuit involves taking the following steps:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due
to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.
Note that analyzing a circuit using superposition has one major disadvantage: it may very
likely involve more work. If the circuit has three independent sources, we may have to analyze
three simpler circuits each providing the contribution due to the respective individual source.
However, superposition does help reduce a complex circuit to simpler circuits through replacement
of voltage sources by short circuits and of current sources by open circuits.
Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity. For this reason, it is not applicable to
the effect on power due to each source, because the power absorbed by a resistor depends on the
square of the voltage or current. If the power value is needed, the current through (or voltage
across) the element must be calculated first using superposition.
Consider the example to better understand the process involved in using superposition
theorem. Suppose we have the circuit below with two sources, and we are to calculate the value of
v0 using superposition. First let us define v0 as:
𝑣0 = 𝑣0′ + 𝑣0′′
Where 𝑣0′ is the effect of the 8-A current

source, while 𝑣0′′ is the effect of the 12-V voltage
source.
To calculate value of 𝑣0′ , we will “turn-off” the

independent sources except for the 8-A current
source that we are considering.
Observe that in the process of “turning off” voltage sources, we simply “short” the branch to achieve
a 0 V as the replacement of the voltage source in that branch.
We can observe that based on the circuit diagram,

the value of 𝑣0′ is:
𝑣0′ = 𝐼0′ × 2Ω = 2𝐼0′
Therefore, to calculate the value of 𝑣0′ , we have

to calculate first the value of 𝐼0′ . To calculate this,
use Circuit Division Theorem (CDT):
𝑅2 5
𝐼0′ = 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑇 ( ) = (8𝐴) [ ] = 4𝐴
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 (2 + 3) + 5
Therefore, the value of 𝑣0′ is:

𝑣0′ = 2𝐼0′ = 2(4) = 𝟖𝑽

Now that we have calculated the effect of the 8-A supply, we can now calculate the effect
of the other sources. To calculate value of 𝑣0′′ , we will “turn-off” the independent sources except
for the 12-V voltage source that we are considering.
Since the circuit is reduced

to a simple series circuit, we can
observe that the value of 𝑣0′′ can be
calculated using Voltage Division
Theorem (VDT). Hence, 𝑣0′′ is:
𝑅3 2
𝑣0′′ = 𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑇 ( ) = (20𝑉) [ ] = 𝟒𝑽
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 5+3+2
Now that we have already calculated the effects of all independent sources, we can now
calculate the total value of 𝑣0 .
𝑣0 = 𝑣0′ + 𝑣0′′
𝑣0 = 8𝑉 + 4𝑉
𝒗𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽
Example 12.1. Find value of I in the circuit shown below using superposition theorem.
Solution:
Since there are three (3) independent sources, let:
I = I ′ + I ′′ + I ′′′

Where:
I′ → effect of the 12V supply
I ′′ → effect of the 24V supply
I ′′′ → effect of the 3A supply
The first step is to calculate the value of I’ by turning off the independent sources except
for the 12-V that we are considering (see figure below). The new circuit diagram shows that there
are four (4) resistances connected
to the 12-V source. The 8-ohm
and 4-ohm are connected in
series and their combination is
connected in parallel with the
other 4-ohm resistor. Therefore,
we can calculate their equivalent
as:
4(4 + 8)
𝑅=
4 + (4 + 8)
𝑹 = 𝟑Ω
Now the circuit is reduced to a simple series circuit. Using Ohm’s law, we can calculate the value of
I’:
𝑉𝑇 12𝑉
𝐼′ = = = 𝟐𝑨
𝑅𝑇 (3 + 3)Ω
The second step is to calculate the value of I’’ by turning off the independent sources
except for the 24-V that we are considering (see figure
below).
I’
’
To calculate the value of I” we will use CDT, but we first need the value of the total current and total
resistance.
𝑅3 𝑅4 (4)(3) 96
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + =8+4+ = Ω
𝑅3 + 𝑅4 4+3 7

To calculate the value of IT:
𝑉𝑇 24𝑉
𝐼𝑇 = = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝑨
𝑅𝑇 (96/7)Ω
To calculate the value of I” we will use CDT. However, please take note that due to the polarity of
the 24-V voltage source the direction of the total current is opposite to the direction of I”. In this
case, the value of I” will be negative.
𝑅3 4
𝐼 ′′ = −𝐼4 = −𝐼𝑇 ( ) = −1.75 [ ] = −𝟏𝑨
𝑅3 + 𝑅4 (4 + 3)Ω
The third step is to calculate the value of I’’’ by turning off the independent sources except
for the 3-A that we are considering (see figure below).
To calculate I’’’, we will use CDT. But to do this, we will be needing the amount of current flowing in
the branch that contains the 3-ohm resistance we are interested it. So, let R A be the total resistance
of the combination of inner resistances (4-, 4-, and 3-ohm), let us calculate the value of the current
flowing through RA:
𝑅3 𝑅4 4×3 40
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅2 + ( )=4+( )= Ω
𝑅3 + 𝑅4 4+3 7
𝑅𝐵 8
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝑇 ( ) = 3𝐴 [ ] = 1.75𝐴
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 40
( + 8) Ω
7
To calculate the value of I’’’ we will use CDT where IA as the input current to the parallel branch.
𝑅3 4
𝐼 ′′′ = 𝐼4 = 𝐼𝐴 ( ) = 1.75 [ ] = 𝟏𝑨
𝑅3 + 𝑅4 (4 + 3)Ω
The final step is to calculate the value of I by algebraically adding the values we have previously
calculated.

I = I ′ + I ′′ + I ′′′ = 2𝐴 + (−1𝐴) + 1𝐴
𝐈 = 𝟐𝑨
TRY THIS! Find value of (a) I and (b) V0 in the circuit shown below using superposition theorem.
Example 12.2. Find value of vx in the circuit shown below using superposition theorem.
Solution:
Though there are three (3) sources, we will
only consider the independent sources (the 10-V
and 2-A source).
v𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥′ + 𝑣𝑥′′
Where:
𝑣𝑥′ → effect of the 10V supply

𝑣𝑥′′ → effect of the 2A supply
The first step is to calculate the value of 𝑣𝑥′ by turning off the independent sources except for the
10-V source.

To calculate 𝑣𝑥′ , apply nodal analysis:
I1 − I2 + 0.1𝑣𝑥′ = 0
10 − 𝑣𝑥′ 𝑣𝑥′ 1
− + 𝑣𝑥′ = 0
20 4 10
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 20, and simplifying we can get the value of 𝑣𝑥′ :
10 − 𝑣𝑥′ − 5𝑣𝑥′ + 2𝑣𝑥′ = 0
4𝑣𝑥′ = 10
𝑣𝑥′ = 2.5
Now, we can calculate the value of 𝑣𝑥′′ :
To calculate 𝑣𝑥′′ , apply nodal analysis:
I1 + 2 − I2 + 0.1𝑣𝑥′′ = 0
0 − 𝑣𝑥′′ 𝑣𝑥′′ 1
+2− + 𝑣𝑥′′ = 0
20 4 10
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 20, and simplifying we can get the value of 𝑣𝑥′′ :
−𝑣𝑥′′ + 40 − 5𝑣𝑥′′ + 2𝑣𝑥′′ = 0
4𝑣𝑥′′ = 40
𝑣𝑥′′ = 10
Now we can calculate the value of v𝑥 :
v𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥′ + 𝑣𝑥′′ = 2.5 + 10
𝐯𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝑽

Example 12.3. Find value of Ix in the circuit shown below using superposition theorem.
Solution:
Though there are three (3) sources, we will only consider the independent sources (the
12-V and 3-A source).
I𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥′ + 𝐼𝑥′′
Where:
𝐼𝑥′ → effect of the 12V supply
𝐼𝑥′′ → effect of the 3A supply
The first step is to calculate the value of 𝐼𝑥′ by turning off the independent sources except for the
12-V source.
To calculate 𝐼𝑥′ , apply mesh analysis:
For (A):
12 − 𝑣𝑥′ − 4(I𝐴 − I𝐵 ) = 0
12 − (2I𝐴 ) − 4I𝐴 + 4I𝐵 = 0

6I𝐴 − 4I𝐵 = 12 → (1)
For (B):
5𝑣𝑥′ − (4 + 8 + 1)I𝐵 + 4I𝐴 = 0
5(2I𝐴 ) − (13)I𝐵 + 4I𝐴 = 0
14I𝐴 − 13I𝐵 = 0 → (2)
Solving for IB, using method of substitution:
84
I𝐵 =
11
Since 𝐼𝑥′ is equal to IB, then:
𝐼𝑥′ = 84/11 A.
The second step is to calculate the value of 𝐼𝑥′′ by turning off the independent sources except for
the 3-A source.
To calculate 𝐼𝑥′′ , apply mesh analysis:
By inspection,
I𝐷 − I𝐸 = 3 → (1)
For (C):
−(2 + 4)I𝐶 + 4I𝐷 = 0
6I𝐶 − 4I𝐷 = 0 → (2)
For supermesh (D-E):

5𝑣𝑥′′ + 4I𝐶 − (4 + 1)I𝐷 − 8I𝐸 = 0
5(2I𝐶 ) + 4I𝐶 − 5I𝐷 − 8I𝐸 = 0
14I𝐶 − 5I𝐷 − 8I𝐸 = 0 → (3)
Solving for IE, using method of substitution and elimination:
39
I𝐸 =
11
Since 𝐼𝑥′′ is equal to IE, then:
𝐼𝑥′′ = 39/11 A.
Now we can calculate the value of I𝑥 :
84 39
I𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥′ + 𝐼𝑥′′ = +
11 11
𝐈𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝑨

WORKSHEET 12
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. Choose at least one parameter in the circuits below and calculate the value of that
parameter using superposition theorem. Verify your answer using another of analysis.


LESSON
SOURCE
13
Lesson 13: Source transformation
TRANSFORMATION
In any given electrical network, there are two possible types of active element, i.e., voltage
source and a current source. However, in some cases it is easier to simplify electrical networks if
we are only dealing with a single type of source. Hence, in this lesson, we will explore a technique
that allows us to transform or convert one type of source into another.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss and apply the process of Source Transformation.
2. Solve problems involving multiple sources using Source Transformation technique.
13.1 Introduction
Source transformation is a process of converting a voltage source to a current source or
a current source to a voltage source while maintaining the same behavior of the original circuit. The
process of source transformation involves replacing a voltage source with a current source, or vice
versa, to simplify the analysis of a circuit. The importance of source transformation in circuit
analysis cannot be overstate since it is an essential tool that simplifies circuit analysis and makes it
easier to solve complex circuits.
The fundamental principle of this method is to convert one type of source to another type
of source (e.g., voltage source to current source and vice versa) in a way that the same current
flows through and the same voltage drops across the circuit elements. This means that the
transformed circuit should have the same behavior as the original circuit, in terms of the
current-voltage characteristics.
As previously mentioned, there are two types of sources in electrical circuits, voltage
sources and current sources. Voltage sources are the sources that provide a constant voltage
across a circuit, while current sources provide a constant current through a circuit. When
converting a voltage source to a current source, the current source is placed in parallel with a
resistor, where the value of the resistor is equal to the voltage source divided by the current source.
When converting a current source to a voltage source, the voltage source is placed in series with a
resistor, where the value of the resistor is equal to the voltage source divided by the current source.
R1 = R 2 = 𝑅
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼

Source transformation is an essential tool in circuit analysis because it allows for the
simplification of complex circuits. By transforming a voltage source to a current source or a current
source to a voltage source, the analysis of the circuit can be simplified, and the circuit can be
solved using more straightforward methods. It is important to note that source transformation can
only be applied to linear circuits with resistors and ideal sources. Non-linear elements, such as
diodes or transistors, cannot be transformed using this method.
The following sections presents the process of using this method.
13.2 Steps in using Source Transformation
Before we begin, keep in mind that this method should not be expected to be used
independently. This method is used in conjunction with other simplification methods that we already
discussed in this material. The idea is to identify source(s) that can be transformed so that the
overall circuit will be simpler and easier to analyze. In general, the following steps may be involved
in analyzing circuits using source transformation.
• Step 1: Identify the source to be transformed. Firstly, identify the voltage or current source
that needs to be transformed. This can be done by looking at the circuit diagram and
locating the source that is causing complexity in the circuit.
• Step 2: Determine the value of the source. Determine the value of the source to be
transformed. This can be done by looking at the voltage or current value specified in the
circuit diagram.
• Step 3: Determine the value of the resistor. Determine the value of the resistor connected
to the source. Note that for a voltage source, the resistor should be in series, while parallel
on a current source.
• Step 4: Determine the value of the conversion component. Using Ohm’s law calculate the
value of the equivalent source that can replace the source that we want to replace. For
example, if we are converting a voltage source to a current source, we will replace the
voltage source with a current source in parallel with the resistor. If we are converting a
current source to a voltage source, we will replace the current source with a voltage
source in series with the resistor.
• Optional Step: Verify the circuit behavior. Verify that the circuit behavior after source
transformation is the same as before the transformation. This can be done by analyzing
the circuit using Kirchhoff's laws, Ohm's law, and other circuit analysis techniques.
• Step 5: Simplify the circuit. If the circuit behavior is confirmed to be the same after source
transformation, then the transformed circuit can be simplified further. This could involve
combining resistors in the circuit or using other circuit analysis techniques to solve the
circuit.

To illustrate this process, consider the given circuit below. Suppose we have the circuit
below with two sources, and we are to calculate the value of v0 using source transformation.
Suppose we are interested in converting the 20-V voltage source into a current source so
that the equivalent circuit will only have current sources. Applying the steps above, we can
calculate the equivalent source that can replace the 20-V source.
The equivalent circuit will be:
Using the transformed circuit, we can further simplify the circuit to calculate the required
the of v0. Since the two currents sources are now in parallel, we can now calculate their total by
simply getting their algebraic sum.
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 8𝐴 + 4𝐴
∴ 𝐼 = 12𝐴
Therefore, the equivalent circuits become:

At this point, the value of v0 can be calculated by first calculating the current flowing in that
branch using current division theorem (CDT) and then using the branch current and given
resistance to calculate for the v0. However, for purposes of this lesson, we will use another source
transformation technique to further simplify the circuit.
Considering the 12-A current source, we will convert it to its equivalent voltage source as
shown below.
The value of the voltage source is calculated as follows: V = IR = (12A) × (5Ω) = 60V
Finally, v0 can be calculated using the voltage division theorem as presented below.
𝑅0 2
𝑣0 = 𝑉𝑇 ( ) = (60) ( ) = 𝟏𝟐𝑽
𝑅𝑇 2+3+5
TRY THIS!
Consider the circuits below, calculate the value of IL if RL is equal to (a) 6 ohms, (b) 16 ohms, (c)
zero ohms.
Answer: 3A; 1.5A; 7.5A.

WORKSHEET 13
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. Using the source transformation method, find the value of i.


LESSON
THEVENIN’s
14 THEOREM
& EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Lesson 14: Thevenin’s Theorem and Equivalent Circuits
In previous lessons we investigate methods where we have to analyze the whole circuit
every time changes occur in one or more component of the system. However, in real world, it is not
very practical. In this lesson we will look into another theorem that capitalizes on the fixed nature of
certain part of the circuit and allows the designer to provide simpler analysis for other variable loads
in the system.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss the process of Thevenin’s theorem; and
2. Implement the theorem by analyzing electrical circuits.
14.1 Introduction
In practical electrical circuits, it is often the case that certain elements within the circuit are
variable (typically referred to as the "load"), while other elements remain fixed. For instance, in a
household electrical system, the outlets remain fixed, while the appliances that are plugged into
them vary. The problem with variable elements is that every time the load is changed, the entire
circuit must be re-analyzed. This process can be time-consuming and frustrating. However,
Thevenin's theorem provides a solution to this problem by offering a technique for replacing the
fixed portion of the circuit with an equivalent circuit.
Essentially, Thevenin's theorem enables us to simplify a complex circuit by replacing the
fixed portion of the circuit with a simpler equivalent circuit that only contains a few basic
components. This equivalent circuit can then be used to analyze the entire circuit, regardless of the
variable load. By utilizing Thevenin's theorem, we can save time and effort when working with
electrical circuits, as we can avoid the need to repeatedly analyze the entire circuit each time the
load changes.
Furthermore, Thevenin's theorem is a really useful concept in
electrical engineering that can help us make sense of complicated circuits.
Basically, it says that any linear electrical network (which just means a
network where the output is directly proportional to the input) can be
simplified to an equivalent circuit with just one voltage source and one
resistor. We call this equivalent circuit the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
So, let's say we have a complex electrical circuit with lots of
different components like resistors and voltage sources. Trying to analyze
this circuit can be a real pain, but if we use Thevenin's theorem, we can
simplify things a lot. By finding the Thevenin voltage and resistance, we can
create a Thevenin equivalent circuit that behaves exactly the same as the
original circuit.
Leon Charles Thevenin

Finding the Thevenin voltage and resistance just means figuring out the voltage across
the terminals of the circuit when all sources are turned off (replaced with their internal resistances)
and the equivalent resistance of the circuit as seen from the terminals with all sources turned off.
Once we have those values, we can build the Thevenin equivalent circuit by connecting a voltage
source with the Thevenin voltage in series with a resistor with the Thevenin resistance.
In a nutshell, Thevenin's theorem lets us take complicated circuits and break them down
into simpler, more manageable parts. It's a really useful tool for anyone working in electrical
engineering, and it can save a lot of time and effort when analyzing circuits.
14.2 Concept of the Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the
open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.
Thevenin’s theorem claims that regardless of the complexity of the circuit, it can be
reduced to a simple circuit with a single voltage source and series resistance. Though we will not
show mathematically the proof of this here, we can confirm this using our practical experience in
practice (or in your laboratory classes). Intuitively we can confirm the theorem by considering any
point in a given physical electrical circuits (or the electrical circuit in your household). By using a
voltmeter you can determine a single voltage on the terminal of the circuit, and by using ohmmeter
you can determine a single value of resistance. This shows that given a point in the circuit, we can
reduce it to a simple circuit as Thevenin’s claims.
14.3 Steps in implementing Thevenin’s Theorem
To apply Thevenin’s theorem, first we have to identify a given load (single or connected
elements that forms the load), then identify the points (or termina) that we will analyze. Once that is
done, the analysis of the circuit using the theorem involves taking the following steps:
1. Open the circuit by removing the load that we want to consider.

2. Calculate the open-circuit voltage on the terminals of the load. Use Nodal, Mesh,
Superposition, or other appropriate methods.
3. Calculate the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance (Rth) or the looking-back resistance as
measured from the open-circuit terminals. Take note that to do this, you have to “turn-
off” all independent sources similar to what we did in superposition theorem.
4. Construct the Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit (TEC) by using the calculated voltage and
resistance from steps 2 and 3, respectively.

5. Re-connect the load in the terminal and determine the required load voltage or
current.
To demonstrate these steps, we will consider the circuit shown below. we are to calculate
the value of v0 using Thevenin’s Theorem. The first step is to open the circuit by removing the load
as shown below.
The second step is to calculate the open-circuit voltage or the Thevenin’s equivalent
voltage (Vth) across terminal a-b.
Applying Mesh Analysis, we can get:
20 − 5𝐼𝐴 − 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 0
By inspection, we can say that 𝐼𝐴 = −8𝐴, therefore the value

of Vth is:
20 − 5(−8) − 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 0
𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟔𝟎𝑽
The third step is to calculate the Thevenin’s equivalent

resistance (Rth) across terminal a-b. We turned-off the voltage
and current source by replacing it with a shorted line and open-
line, respectively.
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 3𝛺 + 5𝛺 = 𝟖𝜴
Now that we have calculated both the Vth and Rth, we can now draw the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit as shown here. Re-connect the load branch that we have removed earlier to
complete the circuit.

The final step is to simply calculate 𝑣0 using voltage division theorem as shown below:
𝑅𝐿 2
𝑣0 = 𝑉𝑡ℎ ( ) = 60 ( ) = 𝟏𝟐𝑽
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ 2+8
The 12-V value of the unknown voltage is consistent with the results that we got from the
previous lesson when we solve the same problem using different method. This confirms that our
answer is correct.
The beauty of this theorem or technique is that we can now analyze various value of load
resistance with ease. We just have to repeatedly use the Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit (TEC) that
we have developed and plug in new values for RL and calculate the voltage with simple analysis.
TRY THIS!
Consider the circuits below, calculate the value of I L if RL is equal to (a) 6 ohms, (b) 16 ohms, (c)
zero ohms.
Answer: 3A; 1.5A; 7.5A.

WORKSHEET 14
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. Using the Thevenin’s Theorem, find the value of i.
2. Repeat problem 1by using varying values of R L. Do this for at least three (3)
sets of resistances. Present your results in a table.


LESSON
NORTON’s
15
Lesson 15: Norton’s Theorem and Equivalent Circuits
THEOREM
& EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
In the previous lesson, we have explored the Thevenin’s Theorem that uses an equivalent
circuit defined by an open-circuit voltage. However, there are cases where it is more convenient to
deal with currents (I) rather than voltages (V). In this lesson, we will explore another circuit theorem
that deals with current rather than voltages.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss the process of Norton’s theorem; and
15.1 Introduction
Norton's Theorem is another important concept in electrical engineering, and it's closely
related to Thevenin's Theorem. In fact, the two theorems are essentially equivalent - they're just
two different ways of looking at the same thing. Like Thevenin's Theorem, Norton's Theorem lets us
simplify complex electrical circuits by creating equivalent circuits that are much easier to analyze.
Specifically, Norton's Theorem states that any linear electrical network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit that contains a single current source and a single resistor in parallel.
So, how does Norton's Theorem relate to Thevenin's Theorem? Well, Thevenin's Theorem
is all about replacing a complex circuit with a single voltage source and a single resistor in series.
Norton's Theorem, on the other hand, replaces the complex circuit with a single current source and
a single resistor in parallel. In fact, using source transformation method, we can convert the
Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit (TEC) with a Norton’s Equivalent Circuit (NEC) and vice versa.
Figure 15.1. Conversion of TEC to NEC using Source Transformation
To find the Norton equivalent circuit, we follow a process like the one used for Thevenin's
Theorem. Specifically, we need to find the Norton current (which is the short-circuit current that
flows through the load when the load is removed) and the Norton resistance (which is the
resistance seen from the terminals with all sources turned off). Once we have these values, we can

create the Norton equivalent circuit by connecting a current source with the Norton current in
parallel with a resistor with the Norton resistance.
While both Thevenin's and Norton's Theorems are useful for simplifying complex electrical
circuits, there are certain scenarios where one might be more applicable or useful than the other.
Here are a few examples:
• When analyzing circuits with current sources: If a circuit contains current sources (as
opposed to voltage sources), Norton's Theorem can be more useful than Thevenin's
Theorem. This is because Norton's Theorem is based on a current source, so it naturally
works well with circuits that have current sources.
• When designing circuits with specific current requirements: If you need to design a circuit
that delivers a specific current to a load (such as an LED or a motor), Norton's Theorem
can be more useful than Thevenin's Theorem. This is because Norton's Theorem provides
a direct current source that you can use to power the load, whereas Thevenin's Theorem
requires you to calculate the voltage needed to deliver the desired current.
In general, the choice of which theorem to use depends on the specific characteristics of
the circuit you're analyzing or designing. However, by understanding both Thevenin's and Norton's
Theorems, you'll have a wide range of tools at your disposal for simplifying complex electrical
circuits and solving a variety of engineering problems.
15.2 Steps in implementing Norton’s Theorem
To apply Norton’s theorem, first we have to identify a given load (single or connected
elements that forms the load), then identify the points (or termina) that we will analyze. Once that is
done, the analysis of the circuit using the theorem involves taking the following steps:
1. Remove the load branch and short the load terminals.

2. Calculate the short circuit current (IN) on the terminals of the load. Use Nodal, Mesh,
Superposition, or other appropriate methods.
3. Calculate the Norton’s equivalent resistance (RN) or the looking-back resistance as
measured from the open-circuit terminals. This is just equal to Rth.
4. Construct the Norton’s Equivalent Circuit (NEC) by using the calculated short-circuit
current and resistance from steps 2 and 3, respectively.
5. Re-connect the load in the terminal and determine the required load voltage or
current.
To demonstrate these steps, we will consider the circuit shown below. we are to calculate
the value of v0 using Norton’s Theorem. The first step is to open the circuit by removing the load as
shown below.

The second step is to calculate the short-circuit current or the Norton Current (IN) through
terminal a-b.
We will use Mesh Analysis to calculate IN.
20 − 5𝐼𝐴 − 3𝐼𝐵 = 0
8 + 𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 = 0
Solving IB we get:
IA = - 0.5 A and IB = 7.5 A
Since IN is simply equal to IB, then:
𝑰𝑵 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝑨
The third step is to calculate the Norton’s equivalent resistance

(RN) across terminal a-b. This is just equal to the Rth in previous
lesson, hence RN = Rth = 8 ohms.
Now that we have calculated both the IN and RN, we can now draw the Norton’s equivalent
circuit as shown here. Re-connect the load branch that we have removed earlier to complete the
circuit.
The final step is to simply calculate 𝑣0 using simple analysis as shown below:
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑁 2×8
𝑣0 = 𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼𝑁 ( ) = 7.5𝐴 ( ) = 𝟏𝟐𝑽
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑁 2+8
The 12-V value of the unknown voltage is consistent with the results that we got from the
previous lesson when we solve the same problem using different method. This confirms that our
answer is correct.
Based on these examples, we can deduce the following relationships between the
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s Theorem.
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝑹𝑵

𝑽𝒕𝒉
𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝑰𝑵 𝑹𝒕𝒉 𝑰𝑵 =
𝑹𝑵
TRY THIS!
Consider the circuits below, calculate the value of I L if RL is equal to (a) 6 ohms, (b) 16 ohms, (c)
zero ohms.
Answer: 3A; 1.5A; 7.5A.

WORKSHEET 15
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. Using the Norton’s Theorem, find the value of i.
2. Repeat problem 1by using varying values of RL. Do this for at least three (3)
sets of resistances. Present your results in a table.


LESSON
MAXIMUM
16
Lesson 16: Maximum power transfer
POWER TRANSFER
In this lesson, we look into one of the theorems that is very practical in dealing with
problems involving power. In particular, in this lesson we will be introduced to the concept of
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem (MPTT).
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss the concept and process of maximum power transfer theorem; and
16.1 Introduction
In practical scenarios, circuits are often created to supply power to a load. While electric
utilities focus on minimizing power losses during transmission and distribution for efficiency and
economic reasons, other applications such as communications require maximizing the power
supplied to a load. The objective is to deliver the maximum power to the load, considering the
known internal losses of the system. However, it is important to note that this will result in
significant internal losses that may be equal to or greater than the power delivered to the load.
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem (MPTT) is a fundamental concept in electrical

engineering that describes the conditions under which maximum power is transferred from a source
to a load. It states that the maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the load
impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the source impedance. In simpler terms, if a load
impedance is matched to the source impedance, then the load will receive maximum power from
the source.
The MPTT is used in various electrical and electronic applications. It is commonly used in
power systems to maximize the power transfer efficiency. For example, in power transmission
systems, the MPTT is used to match the impedance of the transmission line with the impedance of
the load to reduce the power loss during transmission. The MPTT is also used in audio systems to
maximize the power transfer between amplifiers and speakers. In this case, the speaker
impedance is matched to the amplifier output impedance to ensure maximum power transfer and
optimal sound quality.
While the MPTT is a useful concept, it has some limitations. One of the major limitations is
that it assumes that the source and load impedances are fixed and do not change with time. In
practical applications, the impedance of the load may vary with the operating conditions, and it may
not always be possible to match the impedance of the load to the source impedance. Another
limitation of the MPTT is that it only applies to linear systems. In non-linear systems, the transfer of
maximum power may not occur even when the load impedance is matched to the source
impedance. Finally, the MPTT assumes that the source is a voltage source or a current source. In

real-world systems, sources may have complex characteristics, which may require a more complex
analysis to maximize power transfer.
In conclusion, the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is a fundamental concept in

electrical engineering that describes the conditions for maximum power transfer from a source to a
load. It has many practical applications in power systems, audio systems, and other fields.
However, it also has some limitations that need to be considered in practical applications.
16.2 Process and Concept of MPPT

The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a
linear circuit can deliver to a load. We assume that we can adjust the load
resistance RL. If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent
except for the load, as shown in Fig. 16.1, the power delivered to the load is:
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
For a given circuit, Vth and Rth are fixed. By varying the load Fig. 16.1. MPPT Equivalent Circuit
resistance RL, the power delivered to the load varies as sketched in Fig. 16.2.
We notice from the figure that the power is small for small or large values of
RL but maximum for some value of RL between 0 and ∞. We now want to
show that this maximum power occurs when R L is equal to Rth. This is known
as the maximum power theorem.
Substituting the value of RL as equal to Rth to derive the formula as
shown below:
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =( ) 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝑡ℎ
Fig. 16.2. Power delivered to the load as
𝑉𝑡ℎ 2
=( ) 𝑅𝑡ℎ a function of RL.
2𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑉𝑡ℎ 2
= 𝑅𝑡ℎ
4𝑅𝑡ℎ 2
𝑽𝒕𝒉 𝟐
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟒𝑹𝒕𝒉
Let us demonstrate this procedure by considering the circuit below and solving for the
maximum power that the R can receive.

Solution:
First, calculate the Vth of the circuit as shown. Calculate the

mesh current I.
8 − 10𝐼 − 20𝐼 = 0
8 4
𝐼= = 𝐴
30 15
Calculate Vth using KVL:
8 − 10𝐼 + 𝑉𝑡ℎ − 12 = 0
𝑉𝑡ℎ = −8 + 10(4/15) + 12
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 6.667 𝑉
Calculate Rth:
10(20)
𝑅𝑡ℎ = = 6.667 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
10 + 20
Using the principle in MPTT, we can say that:
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 6.667 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
For max. power:
𝑉𝑡ℎ 2 (6.667)2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
4𝑅𝑡ℎ 4(6.667)
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝑾

WORKSHEET 16
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. Using the MPPT, find the value of maximum power on the load.

LESSON CIRCUITS WITH
17 CONTROLLED SOURCES
& THE IDEAL OP-AMP
Lesson 17: Circuits with controlled sources and the ideal op amp
In this lesson, we look into one of the theorems that is very practical in dealing with
problems involving power. In this lesson we will be introduced to the concept of Maximum Power
Transfer Theorem (MPTT).
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss the concept and process of maximum power transfer theorem; and
17.1 Introduction to Circuit with Controlled Sources

If you've ever wondered how electronic devices work, chances are you've come across
the concept of controlled circuits. A controlled circuit is an electronic circuit in which the output
signal is determined by an input signal. In other words, the output signal can be controlled or
manipulated based on the input signal that's fed into the circuit. There are different types of
controlled circuits, including voltage-controlled, current-controlled, phase-controlled, and pulse
width modulation-controlled circuits.
Definition of Controlled Circuits

In more technical terms, a controlled circuit is an electronic circuit in which the output
signal is determined by a specified input signal. The input signal could be voltage, current, or
phase, and the output signal changes based on the input signal. For example, in a voltage-
controlled circuit, the output voltage changes based on the input voltage, while in a current-
controlled circuit, the output current is manipulated based on the input current.
Importance of Controlled Circuits

Controlled circuits are critical components in modern electronic devices and systems
because they allow for precise and accurate control over the output signal. They play an essential
role in regulating and controlling various electronic devices, making them important in applications
such as audio amplifiers, motor control, temperature control, and lighting control.
For instance, voltage-controlled circuits are commonly used in audio amplifiers to regulate
the output voltage and maintain consistent sound quality. In motor control, current-controlled
circuits are used to regulate the output current and ensure that the motor operates safely and
efficiently. In short, controlled circuits are essential because they allow for accurate control over the
output signal and make it possible to regulate and control various electronic devices and systems.
Applications of Controlled Circuits

Controlled circuits have numerous applications across various industries. In power
electronics, they are used to regulate voltage and current in electronic devices such as power

supplies, inverters, and converters. In lighting control systems, they are used to regulate the
brightness and color of lights. In temperature control systems, they are used to regulate
temperature and prevent overheating.
17.2 Types of Controlled Circuits

Controlled circuits come in different types, each with its unique characteristics and
applications. Here are the four main types of controlled circuits:
Voltage Controlled Circuits

In voltage-controlled circuits, the output
voltage changes based on the input voltage. These
circuits are commonly used in audio amplifiers, where
the output voltage needs to be regulated to maintain
consistent sound quality. Voltage-controlled circuits are
also used in power electronics, where they are used to
regulate the output voltage of devices like power
supplies, inverters, and converters.
Current Controlled Circuits

Current-controlled circuits manipulate the
output current based on the input current. These
Figure 17.1. Circuit diagrams of voltage-controlled and current-
circuits are commonly used in motor control, where the
controlled sources
output current needs to be regulated to ensure the
motor operates safely and efficiently. Current-controlled
circuits are also used in power electronics, where they
are used to regulate the output current of devices like
power supplies, inverters, and converters.
Phase Controlled Circuits

Phase-controlled circuits manipulate the phase of the output signal based on the input
signal. These circuits are commonly used in electronic devices like dimmer switches, where the
phase of the AC voltage is manipulated to control the brightness of a light. Phase-controlled circuits
are also used in power electronics, where they are used to regulate the phase of the output voltage
of devices like power supplies, inverters, and converters.
Pulse Width Modulation Controlled Circuits

Pulse width modulation (PWM) controlled circuits manipulate the width of the output pulse
based on the input signal. These circuits are commonly used in electronic devices like servo
motors, where the width of the output pulse needs to be regulated to control the position of the
motor. PWM controlled circuits are also used in power electronics, where they are used to regulate
the output voltage or current of devices like power supplies, inverters, and converters.
17.3 Components of Controlled Circuits

Controlled circuits are made up of various electronic components that work together to
manipulate and control the output signal. Here are the four main components of controlled circuits:

1. Transistors
Transistors are semiconductor devices that can amplify or switch electronic
signals. They are used in controlled circuits to amplify the input signal and regulate the
output signal. Transistors come in different types, including bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs) and field-effect transistors (FETs), and are used in various types of controlled
circuits, such as voltage-controlled and current-controlled circuits.
2. Operational Amplifiers
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are high-gain electronic amplifiers that can
amplify signals with a wide range of frequencies. They are used in controlled circuits to
amplify and manipulate the input signal and regulate the output signal. Op-amps are
commonly used in voltage-controlled circuits, where they can amplify and regulate the
input voltage to maintain a constant output voltage.
3. Diodes
Diodes are semiconductor devices that allow current to flow in one direction only.
They are used in controlled circuits to regulate the flow of current and manipulate the
output signal. Diodes come in different types, including Zener diodes, which are used in
voltage-controlled circuits to regulate the output voltage, and Schottky diodes, which are
used in current-controlled circuits to regulate the output current.
4. Integrated Circuits
Integrated circuits (ICs) are miniature electronic circuits that are fabricated on a
single piece of semiconductor material. They contain various electronic components, such
as transistors, diodes, and resistors, and are used in controlled circuits to manipulate and
regulate the output signal. ICs are commonly used in pulse width modulation-controlled
circuits, where they can generate a precise output signal based on the input signal.
17.4 Applications of Controlled Circuits

The following are some of the common applications of controlled circuits that you may
encounter in electrical and electronics engineering practice.
1. Power Electronics
Power electronics is the application of controlled circuits in power conversion and
control. It involves the use of various controlled circuits, such as voltage-controlled and
current-controlled circuits, to regulate the flow of power in electronic systems. Power
electronics is used in a wide range of applications, such as power supplies, DC-DC
converters, motor drives, and renewable energy systems.
2. Motor Control
Controlled circuits are widely used in motor control applications to regulate the
speed and direction of electric motors. Motor control circuits can be voltage-controlled or
current-controlled, and can use various components such as transistors, op-amps, and
integrated circuits. Motor control circuits are used in a wide range of applications, such as
robotics, industrial automation, and home appliances.
3. Lighting Control

Controlled circuits are used in lighting control applications to regulate the

intensity and color of lighting systems. Lighting control circuits can be voltage-controlled or
current-controlled, and can use various components such as diodes, transistors, and
integrated circuits. Lighting control circuits are used in a wide range of applications, such
as home lighting systems, commercial lighting systems, and stage lighting systems.
4. Temperature Control
Controlled circuits are used in temperature control applications to regulate the
temperature of electronic systems. Temperature control circuits can be voltage-controlled
or current-controlled, and can use various components such as temperature sensors, op-
amps, and integrated circuits. Temperature control circuits are used in a wide range of
applications, such as home HVAC systems, industrial process control, and scientific
research.
5. Audio Amplifiers
Controlled circuits are widely used in audio amplifiers to amplify and manipulate
audio signals. Audio amplifier circuits can be voltage-controlled or current-controlled and
can use various components such as op-amps, transistors, and diodes. Audio amplifier
circuits are used in a wide range of applications, such as home audio systems, live music
events, and recording studios.
17.5 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Operational amplifiers, or op-amps, are one of the most

important and widely used components in electronics. They are versatile
and powerful building blocks that are used in countless electronic devices
and systems, from audio amplifiers to industrial control systems. Op-amps
are used to amplify, filter, and manipulate signals in electronic circuits,
and are known for their high input impedance, low output impedance, and
large open-loop gain.
Internal Components of Operational Amplifiers

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are complex electronic devices Fig. 17.1. Op-amp pin configuration
that are composed of several internal components. Understanding these
components is essential to understanding the operation of op-amps and
designing circuits that use them effectively. The main internal components
of op-amps include the inverting and non-inverting inputs, the differential
amplifier, the gain stage, and the output stage.
A. Inverting and Non-Inverting Inputs

The inverting and non-inverting inputs of an op-amp are
two of the most important internal components. The non-
inverting input is typically labeled as "+" and the inverting input is Fig. 17.2. Op-amp Circuit diagram
labeled as "-". The inputs are designed to accept analog signals
and are used to amplify the signal.
In an ideal op-amp, the input impedance is infinite,

meaning that no current flows into the input terminals. The inputs are also designed to
have very high input resistance and very low input capacitance, which allows the op-amp
to respond quickly to input signals.
B. Differential Amplifier
The differential amplifier is another important internal component of an op-amp. It
amplifies the difference between the two input signals and is responsible for the high gain
of op-amps. The differential amplifier consists of two input transistors, which are
connected in a way that ensures that the output voltage is proportional to the difference
between the input voltages.
C. Gain Stage
The gain stage of an op-amp is responsible for providing the high gain that is
characteristic of op-amps. The gain stage typically consists of several transistors and
resistors that are configured in a way that amplifies the signal. The gain stage also
provides the ability to adjust the gain of the op-amp by adjusting the value of a feedback
resistor.
D. Output Stage
The output stage of an op-amp is responsible for providing a low impedance
output that can drive external loads. The output stage typically consists of a push-pull
amplifier that is designed to provide a high output current while maintaining a low output
impedance.
Basic Operation of Operational Amplifiers

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are electronic devices that are designed to amplify input
signals. They are commonly used in electronic circuits to perform tasks such as signal
amplification, filtering, and signal conditioning. The basic operation of op-amps can be broken down
into four main categories: amplification of signals, inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, voltage
follower, and summing amplifier.
1. Amplification of Signals
One of the primary functions of op-amps is to amplify signals. This is achieved by
taking an input voltage signal and amplifying it to a higher output voltage signal. The
amount of amplification is determined by the gain of the op-amp, which is typically set by
external resistors in a feedback network.
2. Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifiers

Inverting and non-inverting amplifiers are two common types of op-amp
configurations that are used to amplify input signals. In an inverting amplifier, the output
signal is inverted with respect to the input signal. The gain of an inverting amplifier is
typically set by the value of an external feedback resistor.
In a non-inverting amplifier, the output signal is in phase with the input signal.
The gain of a non-inverting amplifier is typically set by the ratio of the feedback resistor
and the input resistor.
3. Voltage Follower

A voltage follower, also known as a unity gain amplifier, is a type of op-amp

configuration that has a gain of one. The output voltage of a voltage follower is equal to
the input voltage, making it useful for buffering and impedance matching applications. The
voltage follower is often used in circuits where the input impedance of the next stage is
low and the output impedance of the previous stage is high.
4. Summing Amplifier
A summing amplifier is a type of op-amp configuration that is used to add
multiple input signals together. The output of a summing amplifier is the sum of the input
signals multiplied by their respective gain factors. The gain factors are typically set by the
value of external feedback resistors.
Example 17.1. Calculate the output voltage of an inverting amplifier with a gain of -10 when the
input voltage is 2 V.
Solution:
The formula for the output voltage of an inverting amplifier is Vout = -Vin x (Rf/Rin), where Vin is the
input voltage, Rf is the feedback resistor, and Rin is the input resistor.
In this problem, the input voltage is 2V and the gain is -10. Therefore, the output voltage can be
calculated as follows:
𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝑖𝑛 ( ) = −(2𝑉)(−10) = 𝟐𝟎𝑽
𝑅𝑖𝑛
So, the output voltage of the inverting amplifier is 20 V.
Example 17.2. Calculate the gain of a non-inverting amplifier with a feedback resistor of 10 kΩ and
an input resistor of 1 kΩ.
Solution:
The formula for the gain of a non-inverting amplifier is 1 + (Rf/Rin), where Rf is the feedback resistor
and Rin is the input resistor.
In this problem, the feedback resistor is 10 kΩ and the input resistor is 1 kΩ. Therefore, the gain
can be calculated as follows:
𝑅𝑓 10
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 1 + ( ) = 1 + ( ) = 𝟏𝟏
𝑅𝑖𝑛 1

WORKSHEET 17
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

I. ESSAY
1. Describe the operation and characteristics of a voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
Provide an example circuit and explain how the VCVS is used in the circuit.
2. Explain the concept of negative feedback in op-amp circuits. Describe how negative
feedback affects the input impedance, output impedance, gain, and bandwidth of an op-
amp circuit.
3. Describe the operation and characteristics of a current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).

Provide an example circuit and explain how the CCVS is used in the circuit.
4. Explain the concept of positive feedback in op-amp circuits. Describe how positive
feedback affects the stability and operation of an op-amp circuit.
5. Describe the operation and characteristics of a voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).

Provide an example circuit and explain how the VCCS is used in the circuit.
II. PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Design a non-inverting op-amp amplifier with a gain of 10. The op-amp has an input
impedance of 1 MΩ and an output impedance of 100 Ω. The input signal is a 1 V peak-to-
peak sine wave with a frequency of 1 kHz.
2. Design an inverting op-amp amplifier with a gain of -5. The input signal is a 5 V peak-to-
peak square wave with a frequency of 100 Hz. The op-amp has an input impedance of 10
kΩ and an output impedance of 100 Ω.
3. Design a summing amplifier using an op-amp that can add two input signals, one with a
voltage of 2 V and the other with a voltage of 5 V. The output voltage should be 3 times
the sum of the two input voltages.
4. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) is used to amplify a 1 V peak-to-peak sine

wave with a frequency of 1 kHz. The VCVS has a gain of 5 and an output impedance of
50 Ω. Calculate the output voltage of the VCVS and the power delivered to a 1 kΩ load
resistor.
5. An inverting op-amp amplifier is used to amplify a 2 V peak-to-peak sine wave with a

frequency of 10 kHz. The op-amp has an input impedance of 10 kΩ and an output
impedance of 100 Ω. If the gain of the amplifier is -3, calculate the output voltage of the
amplifier and the power delivered to a 100 Ω load resistor.


UNIT 4: INTRO. TO
ALTERNATING CURRENT
(AC) CIRCUITS


LESSON
CAPACITORS &
18
Lesson 18: Capacitors and Capacitance
CAPACITANCE
This lesson discusses the concept and some applications of capacitors and capacitance.
The highlight of this lesson is the discussion on calculation of circuits involving capacitors and its
dielectrics.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Define capacitor and discuss its concepts.
2. Derive the formula for capacitors.
3. Calculate equivalent capacitance in series and parallel.
4. Calculate the amount of energy stored in a capacitor.
5. Discuss the concept of dielectrics and how it affects the value of capacitance of a
capacitor.
18.1 Introduction
A capacitor is an electronic component that is used to store electric charge. To understand
how it does this, we first need to know what components comprises a capacitor. A capacitor is
basically made up two conductors that are in parallel and separated with a gap. The gap between
the two conductors is fitted with any insulating material, which is called the dielectric. The concept
of dielectric is further discussed in the latter part of this material.
There are several types of capacitors, but for this lesson we will focus on the parallel-plate
type of capacitor. Consider figure 1.
Figure 1. Parallel-plate capacitor

The capacitor is measured by its capacitance, in Farad (F). The capacitance is defined as
the amount of charge (Q), in coulombs (C) per unit voltage (Vab), in volts. 1 Farad is equal to 1
Coulomb of charge per 1 volt of voltage; hence, 1 Farad is equal to 1 coulomb/volt.
Note that the charge Q is the net charge available in the parallel plates. For purposes of
capacitance, the charge is always measured as “positive”, though in reality the positive and
negative charges exist in the plates – positive (+) charge in the upper plates, and negative (-)
charge in the bottom plate. The reason that there is no movement between the proton (+) and
electron (-) in the plates is because of the insulators that separates the plates.
The voltage mentioned in the above definition is defined as the electrical potential
between the two plates. The formula for the capacitance is shown below:
𝑸
𝑪=
𝑽𝒂𝒃
Note that in practice, the capacitance is not measured via a full Farad (F), rather it is
measured in either microfarad (µF) or picofarad (pF) which is equivalent to 10 -6 F and 10-12 F,
respectively.
18.2 Calculating Capacitance: Capacitors in Vacuum

We can calculate the capacitance C of a given capacitor by finding the potential difference
Vab between the conductors for a given magnitude of charge Q and then using the equation
discussed above. For now, we will consider only capacitors existing in vacuum; It means that empty
space separates the parallel conductors of the capacitor.
From Gauss Law, we can derive that the voltage between plate is equal to:
𝟏 𝑸∙𝒅
𝑽𝒂𝒃 =
𝜺𝟎 𝑨
where: Q = amount of charge, in Coulombs

d = the distance between the two plates, in meters
A = the area of the parallel plate, in m2
ε_0 = the electric constant which is equal to 8.85 x 10-12 F/m
From the above formula, we can derive another formula for the capacitance in terms of its
area (A) and distance between plates (d):
𝟏 𝑸∙𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝟏 𝒅 𝑸 𝜺𝟎 𝑨
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = ; = ( ); =
𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝑸 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝒅
Therefore, since C = Q/ Vab,

𝜺𝟎 𝑨
𝑪=
𝒅

Let us consider the following examples to illustrate this concept.
Example 18.1. The parallel plates of a 1.0-F capacitor are 10 mm apart. What is their area?
Given:
C = 1.0 F d = 10mm (1m / 1000 mm) = 0.01 m
Required: A in m2
Solution:
Using formula, we can solve for C.
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
𝐶∙𝑑 (1𝐹) ∙ (0.01𝑚)
𝐴= =
𝜀0 8.854 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚
𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝟐
Note: The result is a very large area and creating a capacitor of that size is not feasible or practical.
That is why a one (1) Farad of capacitor rarely exist.
Example 18.2. The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are 5 mm apart and 2 m2 in area.
A 10 kV potential difference is applied across the capacitor. Compute (a) the
capacitance; and (b) the charge on each plate.
Given:
A = 2 m2 V = 10 kV = 10,000 V d = 5 mm (1m / 1000 mm) = 0.005
m
Required: (a) C; (b) Q
Solution:
For (a):
𝜀0 𝐴 (8.854 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚)(2 𝑚2 )
𝐶= =
𝑑 (0.005 𝑚)
𝑪 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝑭 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟒 𝒏𝑭
For (b):
𝑄
𝐶= ;
𝑉𝑎𝑏
𝑄 = 𝐶 × 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = (3.54 × 10−9 𝐹)(10000𝑉)
𝑸 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑪 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟒 𝝁𝑪

18.3 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
Capacitors are manufactured with certain standard capacitances and working voltages.
However, these standard values may not be the ones you need in a particular application. You can
obtain the values you need by combining capacitors; many combinations are possible, but the
simplest combinations are a series connection and a parallel connection. But before we proceed let
us discuss the electrical symbols that you may encounter.
The first two symbols are the symbols for the capacitor, they are called non-polarized and
polarized capacitors, respectively. The non-polarized capacitor are capacitors with no identified +
or – terminals, unlike the polarized capacitors whose terminals are identified. Simply put, a non-
polarized capacitor may be connected arbitrarily while the polarized capacitors need to be
connected with considerations to their terminals. For purposes of this class, we will only deal with
non-polarized capacitors.
The third figure is a symbol for the battery (or power supply in general) and the fourth
figure represents an open and closed switch.
Capacitor in Series
Figure below is a schematic diagram of a series connection. Two capacitors are
connected in series (one after the other) by conducting wires between points a and b. When a
constant positive potential difference Vab is applied between points a and b, the capacitors become
charged; the figure shows that the charge on all conducting plates has the same magnitude.
Therefore, in a series connection the magnitude of charge on all plates is the same.
Furthermore, we can observe from the figure above that the voltage across capacitors 1
and 2 are V1 and V2 respectively. And the total voltage Vab is equal to Vac + Vcb, which is the same
as V1 + V2. Therefore, we can derive the following relationships:

Vab = Vac + Vcb = V1 + V2

Recall also that:
𝑄𝑇 𝑄1 𝑄2
Vab = ; V1 = ; and V2 = ;
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2
Substituting the values of V1 and V2:
Vab = V1 + V2
𝑄𝑇 𝑄1 𝑄2
= +
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2
Since, in a series connection, the value of Q is constant (the same in all plates) the formula can
now be reduces to:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑪𝑻 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
The above equation shows the formula for calculating the equivalent (or total) capacitance
of two capacitances in series. Conversely, for ‘n” number of capacitors in series, “the reciprocal of
the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances” or:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + ⋯+
𝑪𝑻 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝒏
Example 18.3. There are two capacitors connected in series, the values are C1 = 3 µF and C2 = 6
µF. If the series connected capacitors are connected across a 12-V battery, calculate
the following: (a) total capacitance, (b) the amount of charge in the system, and (c)
the voltages across each capacitor.
Given:
C1 = 3 µF; C2 = 6 µF; VT = 12 volts
Solution:
(a) For the total capacitance:
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + =
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 3𝜇𝐹 6𝜇𝐹 2
𝑪𝑻 = 𝟐𝝁𝑭
(b) For the value of QT:
𝑄𝑇 = 𝐶𝑇 × 𝑉𝑇 = (2 𝜇𝐹)(12 𝑉)
𝑸𝑻 = 𝟐𝟒 𝝁𝑪
(c) For the values of V1 and V2:

𝑄1 24 𝜇𝐶
V1 = = =𝟖𝑽
𝐶1 3 𝜇𝐹
𝑄2 24 𝜇𝐶
V2 = = =𝟒𝑽
𝐶2 6 𝜇𝐹
To check, the sum of V1 and V2 should be equal to VT.
V𝑇 = V1 + V2 = 8V + 4V = 12V (correct)
Capacitor in Parallel
The arrangement shown in figure below is called a parallel connection. Two capacitors are
connected in parallel between points a and b. In this case the upper plates of the two capacitors
are connected by conducting wires to form an equipotential surface, and the lower plates form
another. Hence in a parallel connection the potential difference for all individual capacitors is the
same and is equal to Vab = V.
Another important relationship that we need to note is the relationship between the
charges (Q) in each branch. Since the connection is in parallel, the total charge (QT) flowing from
the source voltage is divided between the branches. From the abovementioned relationships we
can derive the following equations:
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 ; 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
Since Q = CV, the first equation becomes:
𝐶𝑇 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
Dividing both side by V since VT = V1 = V2 = V:
𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐
The above equation shows the formula for calculating the equivalent (or total) capacitance
of two capacitances in parallel. Conversely, for ‘n” number of capacitors in parallel, “the equivalent
capacitance is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances” or:
𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑪𝒏

Example 18.4. There are two capacitors connected in series, the values are C 1 = 3 µF and C2 = 6
µF. If the series connected capacitors are connected across a 12-V battery, calculate
the following: (a) total capacitance, (b) the amount of charge in the system, and (c)
the charges in each capacitor.
Given:
C1 = 3 µF; C2 = 6 µF; VT = 12 volts
Solution:
(a) For the total capacitance:
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 3𝜇𝐹 + 6𝜇𝐹
𝑪𝑻 = 𝟗 𝝁𝑭
(b) For the value of QT:
𝑄𝑇 = 𝐶𝑇 × 𝑉𝑇 = (9 𝜇𝐹)(12 𝑉)
𝑸𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝁𝑪
(c) For the values of Q1 and Q2:
Q1 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 = (3 𝜇𝐹)(12𝑉) = 𝟑𝟔 𝝁𝑪
Q 2 = 𝐶2 𝑉2 = (6 𝜇𝐹)(12𝑉) = 𝟕𝟐 𝝁𝑪
To check, the sum of Q1 and Q2 should be equal to QT.
Q 𝑇 = Q1 + Q 2 = 36μF + 72μF = 108μF (correct)
18.4 Energy Stored in Capacitors
Many of the most important applications of capacitors depend on their ability to store
energy. The electric potential energy stored in a charged capacitor is just equal to the amount of
work required to charge it — that is, to separate opposite charges and place them on different
conductors. When the capacitor is discharged, this stored energy is recovered as work done by
electrical forces.
We can calculate the potential energy E of a charged capacitor by calculating the work W
required to charge it. Suppose that when we are done charging the capacitor, the final charge is Q,
and the final potential difference is V. These quantities are related by:
𝑸
𝑽=
𝑪
Since we knew that the value of W for a given capacitor, we can calculate the stored energy E.

𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑾=
𝟐 𝑪
Therefore,
𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑬=
𝟐 𝑪
We can also derive another formula for energy if we substitute the value of Q in terms of V and C.
1 𝑄 2 1 (𝐶𝑉)2
𝐸= =
2 𝐶 2 𝐶
𝟏 𝟐
𝑬= 𝑽 𝑪
𝟐
We can also derive another formula for energy if we substitute the value of C in terms of V and Q.
1 𝑄2 1 𝑄2
𝐸= =
2 𝐶 2 (𝑄/𝑉)
𝟏
𝑬= 𝑸𝑽
𝟐
Example 18.5. We connect a capacitor C1 = 8.0µF to a power supply, charge it to a potential

difference V0 = 120 V, and disconnect the power supply (see figure below). Switch S
is open. (a) What is the charge Q0 on C1? (b) What is the energy stored in C1? (c)
Capacitor C2 = 4.0 µF is initially uncharged. We close switch S. After charge no
longer flows, what is the potential difference across each capacitor, and what is the
charge on each capacitor? (d) What is the final energy of the system?
Solution:
(a) The initial charge Q0 on C1 is:
𝑄0 = 𝐶1 𝑉0 = (18𝜇𝐹)(120𝑉)
𝑸𝟎 = 𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝝁𝑪
(b) The energy initially stored in C1 is:
1 1
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄0 𝑉0 = (960 𝜇𝐶)(120𝑉)
2 2
𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟖 𝑱

(c) When we close the switch, the positive charge Q0 is distributed over the upper plates
of both capacitors and the negative charge - Q0 is distributed over the lower plates.
Let Q1 and Q2 be the magnitudes of the final charges on the capacitors. Conservation
of charge requires that Q1 + Q2 = Q0. The potential difference V between the plates is
the same for both capacitors because they are connected in parallel, so the charges
are Q1 = C1V and Q2 = C2V. We now have three independent equations relating the
three unknowns Q1, Q2, and V. Solving these, we find:
𝑄1 960 𝜇𝐶
𝑉= =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 8 𝜇𝐹 + 4 𝜇𝐹
𝑉 = 𝟖𝟎 𝑽
To solve for Q1 and Q2:
Q1 = 𝐶1 𝑉 = (8 𝜇𝐹)(80𝑉) = 𝟔𝟒𝟎 𝝁𝑪
Q 2 = 𝐶2 𝑉 = (4 𝜇𝐹)(80𝑉) = 𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝝁
(d) The final energy of the system is:

1 1 1
𝐸 = 𝑄1 𝑉 + 𝑄2 𝑉 = 𝑄0 𝑉
2 2 2
1
𝐸 = (960 𝜇𝐶)(80𝑉)
2
𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟖𝑱
18.5 Dielectrics
Most capacitors have an insulator (nonconducting material) between their parallel conducting
plates. The said material is called dielectric. The material is sandwiched between the parallel plates
forming a unit that can provide a capacitance of several microfarads in a compact package (see
figure shown).
Placing a solid dielectric between the plates of a capacitor serves three (3) functions.
• First, it solves the mechanical problem of maintaining two large metal sheets at a very
small separation without actual contact.
• Second, using a dielectric increases the maximum possible potential

difference between the capacitor plates. Using a dielectric allows a capacitor
to sustain a higher potential difference V and so store greater amounts of
charge and energy.
• Third, the capacitance of a capacitor of given dimensions is greater

when there is a dielectric material between the plates than when there is
vacuum.
The effect of a dielectric in the capacitance as discussed above can

be described using a constant “k” called “dielectric constant. Mathematically, k

is the ratio between the capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric to its capacitance in vacuum.
𝑪
𝒌=
𝑪𝟎
The dielectric constant (k) is always greater than 1 since C is always greater than C0.
Shown in the table below are the dielectric constant of some common materials:
Table 1. Values of Dielectric Constants (k) at 20°C
Effect of Dielectric to Capacitance

In the previous sections, we have presented the formula for capacitance in terms of its
area and the distance between its plates. If the dielectric is used, the formula will reflect the
dielectric constant as follows:
Capacitance in vacuum:
𝜺𝟎 𝑨
𝑪𝟎 =
𝒅
Capacitance at dielectric with constant k:
𝜺𝟎 𝑨
𝑪=𝒌
𝒅
Example 18.6. A parallel plate capacitor is filled with an insulating material. The distance between
the plates of the capacitor is 2 mm and the area of the plate is 3 m 2. Find the
dielectric constant if the capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric is 34 nano-farad
(nF).
Solution:
Solve for the dielectric constant using the formula:
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=𝑘
𝑑
𝐶𝑑 (34 × 10−9 𝐹)(0.002 𝑚)
𝑘= =
𝜀0 𝐴 10−12 𝐹
(8.854 × ) (3 𝑚2 )
𝑚

𝒌 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟔
WORKSHEET 18
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. A parallel plate capacitor is filled with an insulating material with a dielectric constant of
2.6. The distance between the plates of the capacitor is 0.0002 m. Find the plate area if
the new capacitance (after the insertion of the dielectric) is 3.4µF.
2. If parallel plate capacitor went through the following changes (a) simultaneously and (b)
one a time, how would the capacitance be affected?
i. “k” doubles
ii. plate separation halves
iii. plate area quadruples
3. A square parallel plate capacitor (length of each side = x) with plate separation d and a
circular parallel plate capacitor (diameter = x and separation d) are both filled with the
same dielectric material (k = 3.8). Which of the capacitors have a larger capacitance?
Explain your answer. Given that the length of the square plates is 1.65 m, determine the k
for the dielectric that must be inserted into the circular capacitor so that equal capacitance
results for each capacitor.
4. During a lightning storm the potential difference between a cloud and the ground can be
extremely high. If this difference is 1.5x109 V (ground relative to cloud) and -19 C of
charge (via movement of electrons) is transferred from the cloud to the ground during a
lightning strike, determine the following:
a. How much work is done by the electric field?
b. If this work was performed on a truck with a mass of 10000 kg, find the speed
that can be attained by the truck if started from rest.
5. A capacitor is fully charged by a battery and then disconnected. An insulator is then

inserted into the capacitor. Explain how each of the following would change.
a. The capacitance
b. The voltage
c. The electric field
d. The charge on the plates


LESSON
CAPACITORS &
18
Lesson 19: Inductors and Inductance
CAPACITANCE
This lesson discusses the concept and some applications of inductors and inductance in
relation to its importance in electrical circuits analysis. It is important to note that just like
capacitors, inductors play an important role in any electrical systems.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Define inductor and discuss its concepts.
2. Derive the formula for inductors.
3. Calculate equivalent inductance in series and parallel.
4. Calculate the amount of energy stored in an inductor.
19.1 Introduction
Definition of Inductor
An inductor, also known as a coil or reactor, is an electrical component that stores energy
in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. It consists of a conducting wire wound into
a coil around a core, which can be made of various materials such as air, iron, or ferrite. Shown
below are the sample inductors and the basic schematic of an inductor.
Figure 18.1. (Left)Pictures of various types of inductors commonly used in an electrical system.
(Right) Schematic diagram and basic parts of a simple inductor.

Types of Inductors
As shown in the figure, there are several types of inductors that can be used in an
electrical systems. Listed below are some of these types based on their construction.
• Air-core Inductors: These inductors have a core made of air and are used in high-frequency
applications where low inductance and high Q (quality factor) are required.
• Iron-core Inductors: These inductors have a core made of iron or steel and are used in low-
frequency applications where high inductance is required.
• Ferrite-core Inductors: These inductors have a core made of ferrite and are used in high-
frequency applications where high inductance and high Q are required.
• Toroidal Inductors: These inductors have a donut-shaped core and are used in high-
frequency applications where high inductance and low EMI (electromagnetic interference)
are required.
Importance of Inductors in Electrical Circuits

Inductors are essential components in many electrical circuits because of their ability to
store energy in a magnetic field. They are commonly used in various applications, such as:
1. Power Supplies: Inductors are used in power supplies to filter out unwanted signals
and stabilize the output voltage. They are often used in conjunction with capacitors to
create a low-pass filter that removes high-frequency noise and ripple from the DC
output.
2. Filters: Inductors are also used in filters to pass certain frequencies while blocking
others. They are used in band-pass, band-stop, and low-pass filters, among others. In
audio circuits, inductors are used in tone controls and equalizers to boost or cut
certain frequency ranges.
3. Transformers: Inductors with iron or ferrite cores are used in transformers to step-up
or step-down voltage levels. Transformers are used in many applications, including
power transmission, audio amplifiers, and switch-mode power supplies.
4. Induction Heating: Inductors are used in induction heating applications to generate a

magnetic field that heats a conductive material. This is commonly used in industrial
processes such as welding, brazing, and melting.
5. Electromagnetic Interference Suppression: Inductors are also used to suppress

electromagnetic interference (EMI) in electronic circuits. They are commonly used in
power supplies, audio circuits, and digital circuits to filter out unwanted noise and
improve the overall performance of the circuit.
As presented, inductors play a critical role in the functioning of electronic devices and are
essential components in many modern technologies.

Historical Overview of Inductors

Inductance was first discovered by Joseph Henry in 1831. He found
that a changing current in one coil could make a current flow in a nearby coil.
This is called mutual inductance and it is what makes transformers and other
important electrical components work. Later, in 1834, Michael Faraday
discovered self-inductance. This is when a changing current in a coil makes a
voltage that works against the current in the same coil. These discoveries led
to the invention of inductors and the practical use of electromagnetic theory.
Since then, inductors have become an important part of modern technology
and are used in many things.
John Henry 19.2 Inductance
Inductance is the property of an inductor that describes its ability to

store energy in a magnetic field when a current flows through it. It is
measured in Henrys (H) and is defined as the ratio of the voltage induced
across an inductor to the rate of change of current flowing through it.
The inductance of an inductor can be calculated using the formula:
𝛍𝐀𝐍 𝟐
𝐋=
𝐥
where: L is the inductance in Henrys, N is the number of turns of

wire in the coil, μ is the magnetic permeability of the core material. This is
equal to: μ = μ0 μr; A is the cross-sectional area of the coil; and l is the length
of the coil.
Michael Faraday
Alternatively, the inductance can be calculated using the formula:
𝐕
𝐋=
(𝒅𝒊/𝒅𝒕)
where V is the voltage induced across the inductor

(di/dt) is the rate of change of current flowing through the inductor
Factors Affecting Inductance
There are several factors that affects the inductance an inductor as presented in the
formula above. Let us discuss them one by one.
1. Number of Turns: The inductance of an inductor is directly proportional to the square

of the number of turns of wire in the coil.
2. Cross-sectional Area of Coil: The inductance of an inductor is directly proportional to

the cross-sectional area of the coil.

3. Core Material: The inductance of an inductor is influenced by the magnetic

permeability of the core material. Materials with high permeability, such as iron,
increase the inductance of the inductor.
4. Coil Length: The inductance of an inductor is inversely proportional to the length of
the coil. A longer coil will have a lower inductance compared to a shorter coil with the
same number of turns and cross-sectional area.
Example 19.1. Find the self-inductance of a 100-turns solenoid with cross-sectional area 10 cm2
and length of 62.8cm. Assume that the value of relative permeability is 1.0.
Solution:
We can use the formula for inductance of an inductor:
μAN2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 AN2
L= =
l l
Substituting the given values, we get:
H
(4π × 10−7 ) (1.0)(10 cm2 )(100)2 1m
L= m ( )
(62.8 cm) 100cm
𝐋 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐇
Therefore, the inductance of the coil is 20 µH.
Note that the unit of inductance is Henries (H), but it is often expressed in millihenry (mH)
or microhenry (μH) for convenience.
Example 19.2. There is a solenoid with an inductance 0.285mH, a length of 36cm, and a cross-
sectional area of 6 × 10-4 m2. (a) Find the number of turns of the solenoid. (b)
Suppose at a specific time the emf is −12.5mV find the rate of change of the current
at that time.
Solution:
For (a):
We can use the formula for inductance of an inductor:
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 AN2 𝐿𝑙
L= ; N2 =
l 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 A
𝐿𝑙 (0.285 × 10−3 H)(0.36𝑚)
N2 = =
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 A (4π × 10−7 H ) (1.0)(6 × 10−4 m2 )
m
𝐍 = 𝟑𝟔𝟗 turns

For (b):
A changing current causes a self-induced emf in the solenoid whose magnitude
is determined by formula:
𝒅𝒊
𝐯 = −𝐋
𝒅𝒕
Where the negative indicates the direction of the emf. Putting known values into
above and solving for di/dt, we get:
𝑑𝑖
−12.5mV = −(0.285𝑚𝐻)
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒊
= +𝟒𝟑. 𝟖 𝐀/𝐬
𝒅𝒕
The positive shows that the current is increasing. On the other hand, we can
deduce that the induced emf is in the opposite direction of the current in the circuit.
19.3 Inductance in Series and Parallel
Inductance in Series
When inductors are connected in series, the total inductance of the circuit is
increased. This is because the magnetic fields produced by the individual inductors add up,
resulting in a stronger overall magnetic field. The total inductance of two inductors in series can
be calculated using the formula:
𝑳𝑻 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐
where L1 and L2 are the inductances of the two inductors.

If more than two inductors are connected in series, the formula can be extended as:
𝑳𝑻 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 + 𝑳𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑳𝒏
When inductors are connected in series, they can also affect each other's behavior due to
mutual inductance. Mutual inductance occurs when the magnetic field produced by one inductor
induces a voltage in the other inductor.

The effect of mutual inductance can be minimized by spacing the inductors apart or by
using shielded inductors. Shielded inductors have a metal shield around the coil, which helps to
reduce the magnetic field outside of the coil.
Another important aspect to consider when connecting inductors in series is the potential
difference across each inductor. In a series circuit, the same current flows through each
component, but the potential difference is divided among the components based on their resistance
or impedance. In the case of inductors, the potential difference is divided based on their
inductance.
Inductance in Parallel
When inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance of the circuit is decreased.
This is because the magnetic fields produced by the individual inductors partially cancel each other
out, resulting in a weaker overall magnetic field. The total inductance of two inductors in parallel
can be calculated using the formula:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐
= + ; 𝑳𝑻 =
𝑳𝑻 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐
where L1 and L2 are the inductances of the two inductors. If more than two inductors are
connected in parallel, the formula can be extended as:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + ⋯+
𝑳𝑻 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝒏
When inductors are connected in parallel, they can also affect each other's behavior due
to mutual inductance. Mutual inductance occurs when the magnetic field produced by one inductor
induces a voltage in the other inductor. The effect of mutual inductance can be minimized by
spacing the inductors apart or by using shielded inductors. Shielded inductors have a metal shield
around the coil, which helps to reduce the magnetic field outside of the coil.
Another important aspect to consider when connecting inductors in parallel is the potential
difference across each inductor. In a parallel circuit, the same potential difference is applied across
each component, but the current is divided among the components based on their resistance or
impedance. In the case of inductors, the current is divided based on their inductance. The current
through each inductor can be calculated using the formula I = V/R, where I is the current, V is the
potential difference, and R is the total resistance of the circuit, which includes the resistance of any
other components in the circuit.

Example 19.3. Consider the following inductances L1 = 5µF, L2 = 10µF, and L3 = 15µF. (a) Find
the equivalent inductance of the circuit if they are connected in: (a) series and (b)
parallel.
Solution:
For (a): The formula for series-connected inductances is:
𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑛
𝐿 𝑇 = 5µF + 10µF + 15µF
𝑳𝑻 = 𝟑𝟎µ𝐅
For (b): The formula for series-connected inductances is:

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯+
𝐿 𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿𝑛
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐿 𝑇 5µF 10µF 15µF
𝑳𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟔𝟕 µ𝐅
19.4 Stored Energy in Inductors
In an electrical circuit containing an inductor, energy is stored in the magnetic field around
the inductor. When the current through the inductor changes, the magnetic field also changes,
causing energy to be stored or released. Understanding how energy is stored in an inductor is
important for designing efficient electrical circuits.
The amount of energy stored in an inductor can be calculated using the formula:
𝟏 𝟐
𝑬= 𝑳𝑰
𝟐
where E is the energy stored in joules, L is the inductance in Henries, and I is the current
flowing through the inductor in amperes. This formula shows that the energy stored in an inductor is
directly proportional to the square of the current flowing through it and the inductance of the
inductor.
When current flows through an inductor, it generates a magnetic field around it. As the
current changes, the magnetic field also changes, and this change in the magnetic field generates
an electromotive force (EMF) in the inductor. The EMF opposes the change in current flowing
through the inductor, which leads to the inductor storing energy in the magnetic field. When the
current is increasing, the magnetic field is also increasing, and the energy is stored in the inductor.
When the current is decreasing, the magnetic field is also decreasing, and the energy is released
from the inductor. This energy can be used by other components in the circuit or dissipated as
heat.

Example 19.4. A 5 H inductor is connected to a 12 V DC power supply. If the current flowing

through the inductor is 3 A, what is the energy stored in the inductor?
Solution:
We can use the formula E = ½ LI2 to find the energy stored in the inductor:
1 1
𝐸 = 𝐿𝐼 2 = (5 𝐻)(3 𝐴)2
2 2
𝑬 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝑱
Therefore, the energy stored in the inductor is 22.5 joules.
Example 19.5. An inductor with an inductance of 10mH and a resistance of 5 ohms is connected in
series with a 100-ohm resistor and a 12 V DC power supply. What is the total energy
stored in the circuit when the current has reached its steady-state value?
Solution:
We can first calculate the current flowing through the circuit using Ohm's law:
𝑉 12 𝑉
𝐼= =
𝑅 + 𝑅1 5 𝛺 + 100 𝛺
𝐼 = 0.114 𝐴
Next, we can calculate the energy stored in the inductor using the formula:
1 1
𝐸 = 𝐿𝐼 2 = (10 𝐻)(0.114 𝐴)2
2 2
𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟓 𝑱
Therefore, the energy stored in the inductor is 0.065 joules.

WORKSHEET 19
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. A 500-turn solenoid have a cross-sectional area 20 m2. If its self-inductance is 20H, then
find the length of the solenoid.
2. A solenoid with 100 turns have a length of 25cm and loop's radius of 10cm. The current in
it is changing constantly from 30A to zero in 0.02s. What is the self-induced emf of the
solenoid?
3. At the moment that the rate of change of the current through an ideal inductor is
increasing as 0.064A/s, the magnitude of the self-induced emf is 0.016V.
a. What is the inductance of the inductor?
b. Let this inductor be a 400-turns solenoid. How much magnetic flux passes
through each turn of it when the current is 0.720A?
4. In a 500-turn coil, the current is changing from 2A to 2.05A in the time interval Δt. During
this time, the flux changes from 5000μWb to 5025μWb. What is the self-inductance of the
coil in henry?
5. At a given instant of time, the current and induced emf in an inductor are shown below.
a. Is the current increasing or decreasing?
b. If the induced emf is 25V and the rate of change of the current is 10kA/s, then
find the inductance of the inductor.


LESSON
ANALYSIS OF RL
20
Lesson 20: Analysis of RL and RC Circuits
& RC CIRCUITS
Unlike most of this lesson that only considers the effect of a resistor (R) in a given circuit,
this circuit will discuss the effect of Capacitors (C) and Inductors (L) in a circuit. In particular, this
lesson discusses the behavior of when a circuit contains both R and L as well as R and C. Two
scenarios are also observed, i.e., when the circuit is source-free and driven. All of these shall be
explored in this lesson.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss the behavior of a RL and RC Circuits.
2. Discuss the behavior of RL and RC circuits if it is source-free.
3. Discuss the behavior of RL and RC circuits if it is driven.
4. Calculate some problems involving RL and RC elements.
20.1 Introduction
RL and RC circuits are two types of passive electronic circuits that are commonly used in
a variety of applications. As the name suggests, they are made by combining different components,
such as resistors (R), capacitors (C), and inductors (L), in different ways. The figure below shows
the basic configuration of an RC (figure 1.a) and RL (figure 1.b) circuits.
Figure 20.1. Schematic diagram of a simple RC and RL Circuits
We can observe in the diagram that the two circuits are a simple series-connected
elements connected in a voltage (or current source). This particular circuit can be classified as a
“driven circuit” which will be discussed in Section 20.3. In contrast, an RL or RC circuit not
connected in a voltage (or current) source is classified as “source-free circuit” which is discussed in
Section 20.2. For purposes of this introduction, we will only discuss RL and RC in general without
regard to whether it is driven or source-free.
To understand the behavior of RL and RC circuits, we use mathematical equations that
describe how current and voltage flow through the circuit. These equations are based on

Kirchhoff's laws of circuit analysis, which describe how current, and voltage are conserved in an
electrical circuit. For example, in an RL circuit, we can use Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) to derive a
differential equation (see equation below) that describes the relationship between the current
flowing through the circuit and the voltage across the inductor. This equation can then be solved to
determine the behavior of the circuit over time.
𝑑𝑖
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 ( ) + 𝑅 ∙ 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Similarly, in an RC circuit, we can use Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) to derive a differential
equation (see equation below) that describes the relationship between the current flowing through
the capacitor and the voltage across the capacitor. This equation can also be solved to determine
the behavior of the circuit over time.
𝑑𝑣 1
+ ( ) ∙ 𝑣(𝑡) = 0; 𝑡≥0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
Understanding how these circuits work is important because it allows engineers to design
better electronic devices. For example, in audio amplifiers, RC circuits are used to filter out
unwanted frequencies, while RL circuits are used to control the frequency response of the amplifier.
In power supplies, RL circuits are used to filter out unwanted noise and ripple from the output
voltage, while RC circuits are used to limit the rate of change of the output voltage.
20.2 Source-free RL and RC circuits
As previously mentioned, that when we talk about electronics, we often deal with circuits
that have different components like resistors (R), capacitors (C), and inductors (L). These
components are usually connected to a voltage or current source to make them work. However,
there are times when we need to understand how the circuit behaves without any external
source. This is where the idea of source-free circuits comes in.
Source-free circuits are circuits that don't have any external voltage or current source
connected to them. The only energy that flows through the circuit comes from the components
themselves. We can use these circuits to study how components interact with each other and how
energy flows through the circuit.
Understanding source-free circuits is important in electronics for several reasons. For one,
we can use them to test and troubleshoot circuits. By disconnecting a circuit from its external
sources and observing its behavior, we can diagnose potential problems and find solutions.
Additionally, source-free circuits can help simplify circuit analysis by reducing the number of
variables we need to consider. This makes it easier to perform calculations and understand how
the circuit behaves.
Moreover, source-free circuits can be used to simulate and test the behavior of circuits
before they are constructed. This helps engineers optimize their designs and identify any potential
issues that might arise in real-world applications.
So, in short, source-free circuits are essential tools in electronics that help us understand
how circuits behave without any external sources. This knowledge is crucial for troubleshooting,
circuit analysis, and circuit design. In this section, we will explore the source-free circuit
connections.

RL Circuits
As we already know, the inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in
a magnetic field when a current flows through it while the resistor is a component that resists the
flow of electric current. Since both of these behave differently in relation to the energy in a system,
it is interesting to look into the behavior of an RL circuit if not connected to an active source.
Consider the figure shown, we are interested in
deriving a formula to relate the voltages and currents in R and
L elements of the circuit.
To derive the formula for a source-free RL circuit, we
can start with Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL), which states that
the sum of voltages in a closed loop must be zero. In an RL
circuit, the voltage across the inductor is proportional to the
rate of change of current through the inductor. Therefore, we
can write:
Figure 20.22. Source-free RL
𝑑𝑖 Circuit
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 ( )
𝑑𝑡
where vL is the voltage across the inductor, L is the inductance of the inductor, and di/dt is
the rate of change of current through the inductor. We can also use Ohm's law to relate the voltage
and current in the resistor:
𝑣𝑅 = 𝑖 ∙ 𝑅
where vR is the voltage across the resistor, R is the resistance of the resistor, and i is the
current flowing through the resistor. Since the circuit is source-free, there is no voltage source
present. Therefore, the sum of voltages in the loop consisting of the resistor and the inductor must
be zero. We can write this as:
𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐿 = 0
Substituting the expressions for vR and vL from Ohm's law and the equation for the voltage
across the inductor, respectively, we get:
𝑑𝑖
𝑖∙𝑅 +𝐿( ) = 0
𝑑𝑡
This is a first-order linear differential equation that describes the behavior of the current in
the source-free RL circuit. To solve this equation, we can rearrange it as:
𝑑𝑖 𝑅
+ ( )𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
This is a homogeneous first-order linear differential equation, which has the general solution:
𝑅 −𝑡
𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡( 𝐿 ) = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝜏

where I0 is the initial current in the circuit at time t = 0, and tau (τ) is the time constant of
the circuit, given by tau = L/R. The time constant represents the time it takes for the current in the
circuit to change to approximately 63.2% of its steady-state value.
Thus, the formula for the current in a source-free RL circuit is:
−𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆 𝝉
The transient response of an RL circuit refers to the behavior of the circuit when the
voltage source is turned on or off. When the voltage source is turned on, the current in the circuit
initially starts at zero and gradually increases to a steady-state value determined by the applied
voltage and the resistance of the circuit. Conversely, when the voltage source is turned off, the
current in the circuit decreases gradually to zero over time.
The time constant of an RL circuit determines the rate at which the current in the circuit
changes. A larger time constant means that the current changes more slowly, while a smaller time
constant means that the current changes more quickly.
Figure 20.3. Current vs. Time Response of an RL Circuit
Example 20.1. The switch in the circuit below has been closed for a long time. At t = 0, the switch
is opened. Calculate i(t) for t > 0.
Solution:
When t < 0, the switch is closed, and the inductor acts as a short circuit to dc. The 16-
resistor is short-circuited; the resulting circuit is shown below, we combine the 4-ohm and 12-ohm
resistors in parallel to get:

4 × 12
= 3𝛺
4 + 12
Hence,
40
𝑖1 = =8𝐴
2+3
We obtain i(t) from i1 using current division, by writing:
12 12
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖1 = (8𝐴) = 6 𝐴
12 + 4 16
When t > 0, the switch is open, and the voltage source is disconnected. We now have the RL circuit
in circuit shown. Combining the resistors, we have:
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (12 + 4)||16 = 8 𝛺
The, the time constant can be calculated as:

𝐿 2
𝜏= = = 0.25 𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑞 8
Thus,
−𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆 𝝉 = 𝟔𝒆−𝟒𝒕 𝑨
Since we are done looking into the behavior of a RL Circuit, we will now consider the
behavior of a RC Circuit.
RC Circuits
A source-free RC circuit, as the name suggests, is a
circuit that consists of a resistor, a capacitor, and no voltage
source. Similar to that of a RL circuit, the behavior of a source-
free RC circuit is determined by the time constant (tau) of the
circuit, which is given by the product of the resistance and the
capacitance.
When a voltage source is connected to an RC circuit,
the capacitor charges up and the current through the circuit
gradually decreases until it reaches a steady state. However, in
Figure 3. Source-free RC Circuit
a source-free RC circuit, there is no voltage source to
charge the capacitor, so the capacitor retains its initial
charge and the current in the circuit gradually decreases to
zero.
The behavior of a source-free RC circuit can be described by a first-order linear differential

equation that relates the rate of change of the charge on the capacitor to the voltage across the
capacitor. Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, we can write:
𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐶 = 0

where vR is the voltage across the resistor and vC is the voltage across the capacitor.
Using Ohm's law and the capacitance equation, we can write:
𝑣𝑅
𝑖 =
𝑅
𝑑𝑣𝐶
𝑖 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡
where i is the current flowing through the circuit, R is the resistance of the resistor, C is the
capacitance of the capacitor, and dvC/dt is the rate of change of the voltage across the capacitor.
Substituting the expressions for i and vR in the KVL equation, we get:
𝑑𝑣𝐶 𝑣𝐶
𝐶 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
This is a first-order linear differential equation that describes the behavior of the voltage across the
capacitor in the source-free RC circuit. To solve this equation, we can rearrange it as:
𝑑𝑣𝐶 1
+ ( ) 𝑣𝐶 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
This is a homogeneous first-order linear differential equation, which has the general solution:
1 −𝑡
−𝑡(
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶) = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝜏
where V0 is the initial voltage across the capacitor at time t = 0, and tau (τ) is the time
constant of the circuit, given by tau (τ) = RC.
Thus, the formula for the voltage across the capacitor in a source-free RC circuit is:
−𝒕
𝒗𝑪 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆 𝝉
This equation shows that the voltage across the capacitor decays exponentially with time,
with a time constant determined by the resistance and capacitance values in the circuit.
Figure 20.4. Current vs. Time Response of an RC Circuit

Example 20.2. In the circuit below, let vC(0) = 15 V. Find vC, vx , and ix for t > 0.
Solution:
We first need to make the circuit conform with the standard RC circuit (resistor and
capacitor in series). We can do this by finding the equivalent resistance or the Thevenin resistance
at the capacitor terminals. Our objective is always to first obtain capacitor voltage vC. From this, we
can determine vx and ix. The 8-ohm and 12-ohm resistors in series can be combined to give a 20-
ohm resistor. This 20-ohm resistor in parallel with the 5-ohm resistor can be combined so that the
equivalent resistance is:
20 × 5
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = =4𝛺
20 + 5
Using this, we can calculate the time constant as:
𝜏 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐶 = 4 × 0.1 = 0.4 𝑠
Thus, vC is:
−𝑡
𝑣𝐶 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝜏 = 𝟏𝟓𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕
For vX we can use voltage division theorem,

12 6
𝑣𝑋 = ( ) 𝑣 = ( ) (15𝑒−2.5𝑡 ) = 𝟗𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕
12 + 8 10
Finally, for iX:
𝑣𝑥 9𝑒−2.5𝑡
𝑖𝑥 = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒆−𝟐.𝟓𝒕
12 12
Now that we have completed our discussion on the concept of source-free RL and RC
circuits, it is time for us to look into the effect of an active element (voltage and/or current sources)
in an RL and RC Circuits. Let us start.
20.3 Driven RL and RC circuits.
Driven RL and RC circuits are circuits that contain an external voltage or current source
that drives the behavior of the circuit. These circuits are different from source-free RL and RC
circuits, which do not contain any voltage or current source and relies only on the initial
charge/energy in the L or C elements.
In a driven RL circuit, the behavior of the circuit is determined by the interaction between
the external voltage source and the inductor. When a voltage source is applied to the circuit,

the inductor resists any changes in current, causing the current to lag behind the voltage.
The behavior of the circuit can be described by a second-order linear differential equation that
relates the rate of change of the current in the circuit to the voltage across the inductor and the
resistance of the circuit.
Similarly, in a driven RC circuit, the behavior of the circuit is determined by the interaction
between the external voltage source and the capacitor. When a voltage source is applied to the
circuit, the capacitor charges up and stores energy, which can be released when the voltage
source is removed. The behavior of the circuit can be described by a first-order linear differential
equation that relates the rate of change of the voltage across the capacitor to the voltage source
and the resistance and capacitance values of the circuit.
Compared to source-free RL and RC circuits, driven RL and RC circuits exhibit more
complex behavior due to the presence of an external voltage or current source. In a driven circuit,
the voltage or current source can be used to control the behavior of the circuit, allowing it to be
used in a variety of applications, such as in signal processing and power electronics.
However, driven RL and RC circuits also require more careful design and analysis than
source-free circuits, as the behavior of the circuit can be affected by the properties of the external
voltage or current source, as well as the resistance, inductance, and capacitance values of the
circuit itself. Therefore, it is important to understand the behavior of driven RL and RC circuits in
order to design and analyze them effectively. We will begin by looking into driven RL Circuits.
RL Circuits
In this lesson we will only consider a DC source, AC sources
will be covered in Electrical Circuits 2. A driven RL circuit with a DC
(direct current) supply is a circuit that consists of a resistor, an inductor,
and a DC voltage source that drives the behavior of the circuit. In this
case, the voltage across the circuit is constant, and the inductor resists
any changes in the current flowing through the circuit.
To analyze the behavior of a driven RL circuit with a DC
supply, we can use Kirchhoff's voltage law to write:
Figure 20.5. Driven RL Circuit
𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐿 − 𝑣𝑆 = 0
where vR is the voltage across the resistor, vL is the voltage across the inductor, and vS is
the DC voltage of the supply. Using Ohm's law and Faraday's law, we can write:
𝑣𝑅
𝑖=
𝑅
𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 ( )
𝑑𝑡
where i is the current flowing through the circuit, R is the resistance of the resistor, and L
is the inductance of the inductor. Substituting the expressions for i and vR in the KVL equation, we
get:
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 ( ) + 𝑅 ∙ 𝑖 + 𝑣𝑆 = 0
𝑑𝑡

This is a first-order linear differential equation that describes the behavior of the current in
the driven RL circuit with a DC supply. To solve this equation, we can use the method of integrating
factors, which involves multiplying both sides of the equation by a factor that simplifies the
equation.
In this case, the integrating factor is e^(Rt/L), and multiplying both sides of the equation by
this factor, we get:
𝑑𝑖 (𝑅 )𝑡 𝑅
( )𝑡
𝑅
( )𝑡
𝐿 ( ) 𝑒 𝐿 + 𝑅 ∙ 𝑖 ∙ 𝑒 𝐿 + 𝑣𝑆 ∙ 𝑒 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
The left-hand side of the equation can be written as the derivative of the product of
e^(Rt/L) and i, using the product rule of differentiation:
𝑑 (𝑅 )𝑡 𝑅
( )𝑡 𝑑𝑖 𝑅
( )𝑡
[𝑒 𝐿 𝑖] = 𝑒 𝐿 𝐿 ∙ + 𝑒 𝐿 𝑅 ∙ 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Substituting this expression in the equation above, we get:
𝑑 (𝑅 )𝑡 𝑅
( )𝑡
[𝑒 𝐿 𝑖] + 𝑒 𝐿 𝑣𝑠 = 0
𝑑𝑡
This is a separable differential equation that can be solved by integrating both sides with
respect to time:
𝑑 𝑅
( )𝑡
𝑅
( )𝑡
∫ ( ) [𝑒 𝐿 𝑖] 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑒 𝐿 𝑣𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡
The first integral on the left-hand side can be written using the chain rule of differentiation:
𝑑 𝑅
( )𝑡
𝑅
( )𝑡
∫ ( ) [𝑒 𝐿 𝑖] 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 𝐿 𝑖
𝑑𝑡
Integrating the second integral on the left-hand side with respect to time gives:
𝑅
( )𝑡 𝐿 𝑅
( )𝑡
∫𝑒 𝐿 𝑣𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = ( ) 𝑣𝑠 [𝑒 𝐿 − 1]
𝑅
The right-hand side of the equation is simply the constant of integration. Substituting these
expressions in the equation above, we get:
𝑅
( 𝐿 )𝑡 𝐿 𝑅
( )𝑡
𝑒 𝑖 + ( ) 𝑣𝑠 [𝑒 𝐿 − 1] = 𝐶
𝑅
where C is the constant of integration. To determine C, we can use the initial condition
that at t = 0, the current I = 0. Substituting these values in the equation above, we get:

𝐿
𝐶 = − ( ) 𝑣𝑠
𝑅
Substituting this value of C in the equation above, and simplifying the resulting equation,
we get:
𝒗𝒔 −(𝑹)𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = ( )𝒆 𝑳
𝑹
This is the formula for the current in a driven RL circuit with a DC supply. It shows that the
current in the circuit is an exponential function that decays over time, with a time constant of L/R.
The larger the value of R, the faster the current decays, and the smaller the value of L, the faster
the current changes.
The presence of the DC supply in the circuit makes the behavior of the circuit more
predictable and stable compared to a source-free RL circuit. However, the initial transient response
of the circuit may still exhibit oscillations and overshoot, depending on the values of the circuit
parameters.
In summary, a driven RL circuit with a DC supply exhibits exponential decay in the current,
with a time constant determined by the values of the resistance and inductance in the circuit. The
analysis of the circuit can be done using the methods of linear differential equations and the theory
of electrical circuits.
RC Circuits
An RC (resistor-capacitor) circuit is a type of circuit that
includes a capacitor and a resistor. The capacitor, denoted by C, stores
energy in the form of an electric field when a charge is stored on its
plates. The resistor, denoted by R, dissipates energy in the form of heat
as current flows through it. In an RC circuit, the voltage across the
capacitor is given by the equation:
𝑄
𝑣𝑐 = Figure 20.6. Driven RC Circuit
𝐶
where vC is the voltage across the capacitor, Q is the charge stored on the capacitor, and
C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
When the RC circuit is driven by a DC (direct current) supply, the voltage across the
capacitor is initially zero. As the DC voltage is applied across the circuit, the capacitor charges up,
and the voltage across the capacitor increases. The rate of charging of the capacitor depends on
the time constant of the circuit, which is given by the product of the resistance and capacitance, τ =
RC.
The charging process can be described by the equation:
𝑡
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑠 [1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 ]

where vC is the voltage across the capacitor, Vs is the supply voltage, t is time, and τ is the
time constant of the circuit.
After a long enough time has elapsed, the capacitor is fully charged, and the voltage
across the capacitor reaches the same value as the supply voltage. At this point, the current
flowing through the circuit becomes zero as there is no voltage drop across the resistor. The
voltage across the capacitor remains constant at the supply voltage, and the circuit is said to be in
a steady state.
Using Ohm's law, we can find the current flowing through the resistor as:
𝑣𝑅
𝑖=
𝑅
Substituting the value of vR as Vs - vC, and the value of vc as presented above, we get:
𝑡
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 )
𝑖=[ ]
𝑅
Simplifying, we get:
𝑽𝒔 − 𝒕
𝒊= 𝒆 𝝉
𝑹
Therefore, the current flowing through the RC circuit decreases exponentially with time.

WORKSHEET 20
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. Given the circuit below, let vC(0) = 30 V. Determine vC, vx , and io for t ≥ 0.
2. If the switch in the given circuit opens at t = 0, find v(t) for t ≥ 0 and wC(0).
3. Assuming that i(0) = 10 A, calculate i(t) and ix (t) in the circuit below.

LESSON
ANALYSIS OF
21
Lesson 21: Analysis of RLC circuits
RLC CIRCUITS
In Lesson 20, we explored circuits that contain only one type of storage element, either an
inductor or a capacitor. However, in this lesson, we will dive deeper into circuits that involve both an
inductor and a capacitor. These types of circuits, called RLC circuits, are essential components in
many electronic devices and electrical systems and have fascinating behaviors that we will
investigate together.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Discuss the behavior of a RLC series circuits.
2. Discuss the behavior of a RLC parallel circuits.
3. Calculate some problems involving RLC elements.
21.1 Introduction
When we apply a Direct Current (DC) voltage to an RLC circuit, the behavior of the circuit
is different than when we apply an Alternating Current (AC) voltage. In a DC RLC circuit, the
capacitor acts like it's not even there, and the inductor acts like a piece of wire. This means that the
circuit behaves just like a circuit with only resistors.
In a series DC RLC circuit, the total resistance of the circuit is the
sum of the resistance of the resistor, inductor, and capacitor. The current
flowing through the circuit is determined by the applied voltage and the total
resistance of the circuit, according to Ohm's law. In a parallel DC RLC circuit,
the total current is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through the resistor,
inductor, and capacitor. The impedance of the circuit is a function of the
parallel combination of the resistor and the reciprocal of the parallel
combination of the inductor and capacitor.
The behavior of RLC circuits on a DC supply is more straightforward
and easier to analyze than their behavior on an AC supply. However, in
practical circuits, we often use an oscillator or a switching regulator to convert
DC voltage into AC voltage. In those circuits, the inductor and capacitor play
an important role in filtering out unwanted AC components of the signal, and
the impedance of the circuit becomes a function of frequency.
In summary, RLC circuits on a DC supply behave like a circuit with
only resistors. Although this is simpler to analyze, in practical circuits, we often
use an oscillator or a switching regulator to convert DC voltage into AC
voltage, and the behavior of the RLC circuit is analyzed on an AC supply,
where the inductor and capacitor play an important role in filtering and tuning
Figure 21.1. Sample RLC Circuits
the signal.

21.2 Source-free Series RLC circuits
A source-free series RLC circuit is a circuit containing resistor,

inductor, and capacitor in series that does not have any external
voltage or current source connected to it. The goal is to find the voltage
across each element and the current flowing through the circuit as a
function of time.
Since there is no external source connected to the circuit, the
sum of the voltage drops across the resistor, inductor, and capacitor
must be zero, according to Kirchhoff's voltage law. Therefore:
𝒗𝑹 + 𝒗𝑳 + 𝒗𝑪 = 𝟎
Figure 21.2. Source-free series RLC circuit
Substituting the equations for these voltages, we get:
𝑑𝑖 1
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
We can rearrange the equation to get a second-order homogeneous

differential equation:
𝑑2𝑖 𝑑𝑖 1
𝐿 2
+𝑅 + 𝑖 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
The solution to this differential equation depends on the values of L,

R, and C. There are three possible cases depending on the relative
values of L, R, and C:
1. Overdamped case: If (R/L)2 > (1/LC), the roots of the
characteristic equation are real and distinct. The general
solution is:
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝛼1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛼2 𝑡
where α1 and α2 are the roots of the characteristic equation:
−𝑅 ± √𝑅 2 − 4𝐿/𝐶
𝛼1 , 𝛼2 =
2𝐿
The constants A1 and A2 are determined by the initial

conditions of the circuit.
Figure 21.3. Damping Responses

2. Critically damped case: If (R/L) 2 = (1/LC), the roots of the characteristic equation are
real and equal. The general solution is:
𝐼 (𝑡) = (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
where α is expressed by the characteristic equation:

𝑅
𝛼=
2𝐿
The constants A1 and A2 are determined by the initial conditions of the circuit.
3. Underdamped case: If (R/L)2 < (1/LC), the roots of the characteristic equation are
complex conjugates. The general solution is:
𝐼 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 [𝐴1 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝛽𝑡 ]
where α and β is expressed by the equation:
𝑅 1 𝑅 2
𝛼 = 2𝐿 𝛽 = √𝐿𝐶 − (2𝐿)
In all three cases, the current flowing through the circuit eventually approaches zero as
time goes to infinity. The time constant of the circuit is given by: τ = L / R. The time constant
determines how quickly the current approaches zero. The larger the value of R or the smaller the
value of L, the faster the current decays.
Example 21.1. In Fig. 21.2, R = 40 ohms, L = 4 H, and C = 1/4 F. Calculate the characteristic roots
of the circuit. Is the natural response overdamped, underdamped, or critically
damped?
Solution:
To determine this, we need to test it using the equation:
𝑅 2 1
( ) =?
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶
Substituting the given values
40 2 1
[ ] =?
2(4) (4)(0.25)
25 > 1
Then the circuit is overdamped.

21.3 Source-free Parallel RLC circuits
A source-free parallel RLC circuit is a circuit consists of a

resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor connected in parallel that does
not have any external voltage or current source connected to it. In
other words, the circuit is isolated from any external electrical
energy sources. Since they are in parallel, the goal is to find the
current flowing through each element and the voltage across the
circuit as a function of time.
Since the three elements are in parallel, they have the
same voltage across them, according to Kirchhoff's voltage law.
Therefore:
Figure 21.4. Source-free parallel RLC circuit
𝒗𝑹 = 𝒗𝑳 = 𝒗𝑪
By applying KCL, we can also get the following relationship:
𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝑳 + 𝑰𝑪 = 𝟎
Substituting the equations for these currents, we can get:
𝑣 1 𝑑𝑣
+ ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 =0
𝑅 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
Getting the derivative with respect to t and dividing the equation by C, we get:
𝑑2𝑣 1 𝑑𝑣 1
2
+ + 𝑣=0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
The solution to this differential equation depends on the values of L, R, and C. There are three
possible cases depending on the relative values of L, R, and C:
1. Overdamped case: If (R/L)2 > (1/LC), the roots of the characteristic equation are real and
distinct. The general solution is:
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝛼1𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛼2 𝑡
where α1 and α2 are the roots of the characteristic equation:
−1 1 2 1
𝛼1 , 𝛼2 = ± √( ) −
2𝑅𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶

2. Critically damped case: If (R/L)2 = (1/LC), the roots of the characteristic equation are real
and equal. The general solution is:
𝑣(𝑡) = (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
where α is expressed by the characteristic equation:
1
𝛼=
2𝑅𝐶
3. Underdamped case: If (R/L)2 < (1/LC), the roots of the characteristic equation are
complex conjugates. The general solution is:
𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 [𝐴1 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝛽𝑡 ]
where α and β is expressed by the equation:
1 1 𝑅 2
𝛼 = 2𝑅𝐶 𝛽 = √𝐿𝐶 − (2𝐿)
In all three cases, the current flowing through the circuit eventually approaches zero as
time goes to infinity. The time constant of the circuit is given by: τ = RC. The time constant
determines how quickly the current approaches zero. The larger the value of R or the smaller the
value of L, the faster the current decays.
Example 21.2. In Fig. 21.4, let R = 2 ohms, L = 0.4 H, C = 25 mF, v(0) = 0, i(0) = 3 A. Find v(t) for t
> 0.
Solution:
To determine this, we need to test it using the equation:
1 1
=?
2𝑅𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
Substituting the given values
1 1
=?
2(2)(25 × 10−3 ) √(0.4)(25 × 10−3 )
10 = 10
then the circuit is critically damped.

Calculating the values of α:

1 1
𝛼 = 2𝑅𝐶 = = 10
2(2)(25×10−3 )
Therefore, the general solution is:
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑒 −10𝑡 [𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑡]
Solving for the values of A1 and A2. At t = 0,
0 = 𝑒 −10(0)[𝐴1 + 𝐴2 (0)]
Therefore, A1 = 0. Solving for A2:
𝑑𝑣(0) 𝑣 (0)+𝑅𝑖(0) 0+(2)(3)

=− = − (2)(25×10−3) = −120
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
Getting the derivative of v(t):
𝑑𝑣
= −10𝑒−10𝑡 [𝐴1 + +𝐴2 𝑡] + 𝐴2 𝑒−10𝑡
𝑑𝑡
At t = 0,
−120 = 𝐴2 𝑒−10(0)
Therefore, A2 = -120. Substituting the values:
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑒 −10𝑡 [0 − 120𝑡]
𝒗(𝒕) = −𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒕𝒆−𝟏𝟎𝒕
21.4 Complete Response of a Series RLC circuits
In this section, we will look into the response of a series

RLC circuit upon sudden application of a DC source. Following
the same derivation process, we can apply KVL to the circuit,
then we get:
𝒗𝑹 + 𝒗𝑳 + 𝒗𝑪 = 𝑽𝒔
Figure 21.5. Driven Series RLC circuit

Substituting the equations for these voltages, we get:

𝑑𝑖 1
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Note that since Vs is a constant, we can arrive in the same equations as previously presented in
section 21.2. Therefore, we can conclude the following solutions to the voltage response:
1. Overdamped case:
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝛼1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛼2 𝑡
2. Critically damped case:
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 + (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
3. Underdamped case:
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 [𝐴1 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝛽𝑡]
The values of the constants A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions: v(0) and
dv(0)/dt. Keep in mind that v and i are, respectively, the voltage across the capacitor and the
current through the inductor. Therefore, equations above only apply for finding v. But once the
capacitor voltage vC = v is known, we can determine i = C dv/dt, which is the same current through
the capacitor, inductor, and resistor. Hence, the voltage across the resistor and inductor are:
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
21.5 Complete Response of a Parallel RLC circuits
As previously presented, since the DC source that will be

introduced is constant, we can expect the same results as that of
previous section. To demonstrate this, consider the parallel RLC
circuit shown, we can get the following relationships using KCL:
𝑣 𝑑𝑣
+𝑖+𝐶 = 𝐼𝑠
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
Substituting the value of v as equal to L(di/dt), we can get:

Figure 21.6. Driven parallel RLC circuit
𝑑2𝑖 1 𝑑𝑖 𝑖 𝐼𝑠
+ + =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶

Note that since Is is a constant, we can arrive in the same equations as previously presented in
section 21.2. Therefore, we can conclude the following solutions to the voltage response:
1. Overdamped case:
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑠 + 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝛼1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛼2𝑡
2. Critically damped case:
𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑠 + (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
3. Underdamped case:
𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑠 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 [𝐴1 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝛽𝑡]
The values of the constants A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions: i(0) and
di(0)/dt.

WORKSHEET 21
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. Find v(t) for t > 0 in the RLC circuit below.
2. The circuit below has reached steady state at t = 0−. If the makebefore-break switch
moves to position b at t = 0, calculate i(t) for t > 0.
3. In your own words describe the behavior of series and parallel RLC considering the
following scenarios:
a. Overdamp response
b. Critically damp response
c. Underdamp response


LESSON SINUSOIDAL STEADY-
22 STATE ANALYSIS IN THE

FREQUENCY DOMAIN
Lesson 22: Sinusoidal Steady-state Analysis in the Frequency Domain
We have reached the last lesson of this course. Up until this point, we have dealt with the
effect of inductors and capacitors in terms of time domain. Similarly, in previous lessons we have
only considered DC power supplies to our circuits. In this lesson, we will explore analysis of circuit
with an Alternating Current (AC) supply on frequency domain. This lesson is critical in preparing
you in the next course Electrical Circuits 2.
Lesson Outcomes
1. Analyze and discuss concepts of phasors.
2. Discuss the concept of impedance and admittance. Solve problems involving these
parameters using Ohm’s Law.
3. Apply Nodal and Mesh Analysis in simple electrical circuits involving impedances.
22.1 Introduction
So far, we have only looked at circuits that are powered by constant or unchanging
sources of electricity. We did this because it makes it easier to understand and teach, and because
historically, most power sources were like this until the late 1800s. After that, people started
arguing over which was better: direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). AC won because it's
more efficient for sending electricity over long distances.
Now we're going to start looking at circuits that are powered by sources of electricity that
change over time. Specifically, we're going to focus on sources that change in a particular way
called a "sinusoid," which is a fancy word for a smooth, repeating pattern.
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function. Direct Current
A sinusoidal current is a type of alternating current (AC) that regularly switches between
positive and negative values. Circuits powered by sinusoidal current, or voltage sources are called
AC circuits.
We're interested in sinusoids for several reasons. First, they're a common natural
phenomenon, appearing in things like pendulum motion, ocean ripples, and economic trends.
Second, they're easy to generate and transmit, and are used worldwide to power homes and
businesses. Third, any periodic signal can be represented by a sum of sinusoids through Fourier
analysis, so they're important for analyzing these types of signals. Finally, sinusoids are easy to
work with mathematically.

A sinusoidal input produces both a natural (transient) response and a forced (steady-
state) response in a circuit. The natural response is determined by the circuit's characteristics,
while the steady-state response follows the same pattern as the input. After a while, the natural
response dies out and only the steady-state response remains. When this happens, we say the
circuit is operating at sinusoidal steady state, which is what we're interested in studying in this
lesson.
Sinusoids
Consider the sinusoidal voltage v(t) = Vm sin (ωt)
where Vm is the amplitude of the sinusoid, ω is the angular
frequency in radians, and ωt is the argument of the sinusoid.
The sinusoid is shown in Figure 22.1(a) as a function

of its argument and in Fig. 22.1(b) as a function of time. It is
evident that the sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds; thus, T
is called the period of the sinusoid. From the two plots, we
observe that ωT = 2π, therefore the period is:
𝝎
𝑻=
𝟐𝝅
As previously stated, the period T of a periodic

function represents the duration of one entire cycle or the
amount of time per cycle. The inverse of this value gives us the Figure 22.1. Sketch of the sinusoid v(t).
frequency of the sinusoid, also known as the cyclic frequency f,
which indicates the number of cycles that occur within one
second. Therefore, we can get the following relationships:
𝟏
𝒇= ∴ 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇
𝑻
Let us now consider a more general expression for the sinusoid, v(t) = Vm sin (ωt + Ф)
where Ф is the phase. Both argument and phase can be in radians or degrees. The concept of
phase, which determines the separation between several sinusoids will be critical in the next
lesson.
22.2 Phasors and Phasor Diagram
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more

convenient to work with than sine and cosine functions. Phasors offer a
straightforward method to examine linear circuits that are stimulated by
sinusoidal sources. Without phasors, it would be very difficult to solve such
circuits. Charles Steinmetz introduced the idea of using phasors to solve AC
circuits in 1893. However, before we can use phasors for circuit analysis, it's
essential to have a solid understanding of complex numbers. Since we will no
longer cover complex numbers, please find time to familiarize with it first.
Charles Steinmetz

Now, we can proceed with our discussion on phasors. Consider the figure below, we can
deduce that there is a direct relationship between a sinusoid and its phasor equivalent. As a
complex quantity, a phasor may be expressed in rectangular form, polar form, or exponential form.
Since a phasor has magnitude and phase (“direction”), it behaves as a vector and is printed in
boldface. For example, phasors V = Vm ∠φ and I = Im ∠−θ are graphically represented in Fig. 22.3.
Such a graphical representation of phasors is known as a phasor diagram.
Figure 22.2. Representation of v(t) Figure 22.3. Sample Phasor diagrams
By suppressing the time factor, we transform the sinusoid from the time domain to the
phasor domain. This transformation is summarized as follows:
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + Ф) ↔ 𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠Ф
To obtain the phasor representation of a sinusoid, we need to represent it in cosine form

and determine its magnitude and phase. Conversely, to convert a phasor into its time-domain
representation, we use a cosine function with the same magnitude as the phasor and its argument
as ωt plus the phase of the phasor. The concept of expressing information in different domains is
essential to all engineering fields.
Example 22.1. Express these sinusoids as phasors:

(a) v = -7 cos (2t + 40°)
(b) i = 4 sin (10t + 10°)
Solution:
For (a): Since − cos(𝐴) = cos (𝐴 + 180) then,
𝑣 = −7 cos(2𝑡 + 40) = 7 cos(2𝑡 + 40 + 180) = 7cos (2𝑡 + 220)

Converting this to phasor form we get:
𝑽 = 𝟕∠𝟐𝟐𝟎°
For (b): Since sin(𝐴) = cos (𝐴 − 90) then,
𝑖 = 4 sin(10𝑡 + 10) = 4 cos(10𝑡 + 10 − 90) = 4cos (10𝑡 − 80)

Converting this to phasor form we get:
𝑰 = 𝟒∠ − 𝟖𝟎°
22.3 Phasor Relationships for Circuit elements
After learning how to represent voltage or current in the phasor or

frequency domain, we need to apply this knowledge to circuits that contain
passive elements such as R, L, and C. To do so, we must convert the voltage-
current relationship for each element from time domain to frequency domain. We
will be keeping the passive sign convention in all our analysis.
Resistor
For resistors, we will simply apply the Ohm’s law to determine the
Fig. 22.4. V-I relation in a resistor.
relationship between the voltage across and current through it.
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑅 ∙ 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + Ф)
The phasor form of this voltage becomes:
𝐕 = RIm ∠Ф or 𝐕 = R𝐈∠Ф
As presented in the phasor diagram, the voltage and current in a

resistor are in-phase. This is an important characteristic of a purely resistive
circuit. Fig. 22.5. Phasor diagram for a Resistor.
Inductor
Applying similar procedures, we can derive the relationship between
voltage and current in an inductor.
𝑑𝑖 𝑑
𝑣=𝐿 =𝐿∙ [𝐼 cos(𝜔𝑡 + Ф)] = −𝜔𝐿 ∙ 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + Ф)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
Converting back the equation to its cosine form, we get:

Fig. 22.6. V-I relation in an inductor.
𝑣 = −𝜔𝐿 ∙ 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + Ф) = 𝜔𝐿 ∙ 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + Ф + 90°)
𝐕 = ωLIm ∠(Ф + 90°) or 𝐕 = ωL𝐈∠(Ф + 90°)
This relationship is shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. 22.7. We can observe
that the voltage out-of-phase current by 90°. Since the voltage are commonly
used as reference, then we can say that the current lags the voltage by 90°
for a purely inductive circuit. Fig. 22.7. Phasor diagram for a Resistor.

Capacitor
For the capacitor, the current is expressed by:
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡
1 1
𝑣= ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = ∫[𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + Ф)]𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝐶
1
𝑣= [𝐼 sin(𝜔𝑡 + Ф)]
𝜔𝐶 𝑚
Converting back the equation to its cosine form, we get:

1 1
Fig. 22.8. V-I relation in a Capacitor. 𝑣= [𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + Ф)] = [𝐼 cos(𝜔𝑡 + Ф − 90°)]
𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶 𝑚
1 𝐈
𝐕= Im ∠(Ф − 90°) or 𝐕 = ∠(Ф − 90°)
𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶
This relationship is shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. 22.9. We can

observe that the voltage out-of-phase current by 90°. Since the voltage
are commonly used as reference, then we can say that the current leads
the voltage by 90° for a purely capacitive circuit.
Fig. 22.9. Phasor diagram for a Capacitor.
22.4 Impedance and Admittance
As presented in the previous section, the following are the voltage-current relationship in
each element:
𝐈
𝐕 = R𝐈, 𝐕 = jωL𝐈, 𝐕=
jωC
These can be expressed as a ratio between the voltage and current:
𝐕 𝐕 𝐕 1
= R, = jωL, =
𝐈 𝐈 𝐈 jωC
From these three expressions, we obtain Ohm’s law in phasor form for any type of element as:
𝐕
=𝐙 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐙
𝐈
where Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known as impedance, measured in ohms. The

impedance represents the opposition which the circuit exhibits to the flow of sinusoidal
current. Although the impedance is the ratio of two phasors, it is not a phasor, because it does not
correspond to a sinusoidally varying quantity.

Considering a circuit wherein all these elements (R, L,

and C) are present and connected in series as shown, we can
deduce the relationship between these impedances.
We can observe that these elements are not in-phase ZR ZL
with each other. If we add these impedances, we get:
ZC
1
𝐙 = R + jωL +
jωC
or
1
𝐙 = R + j (ωL − ) = R + j(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
ωC
This is the general form for the impedance where the real component is R and the
imaginary component is the net reactance X. XL is called the inductive reactance and XC is called
the capacitive reactance expressed as:
1 1
𝑋𝐿 = ωL = 2πfL; 𝑋𝐶 = =
ωC 2πfC
In general, impedance can be expressed as:
𝐙 = R + jX = |Z|∠θ
where:
𝑋
|Z| = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2 and θ = tan−1 ( )
𝑅
It is sometimes convenient to work with the reciprocal of impedance, known as

admittance. Simply put, admittance (Y) is simply the reciprocal of impedance Z. Hence,
𝟏 1 R − jX R jX
𝐘= = = 2 2 = 2 2 + (− 2 ) = 𝐆 + 𝐣𝐁
𝒁 R + jX R + X R +X R + X2
The admittance shall have the following components: conductance (G) and susceptance
(B). Take note that the conductance here is not simply (1/R) but rather equal to [R/(R 2 + X2)] as
shown above.
Example 22.2. Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuits shown below:

Solution:
For (a):
Calculate the phasor value of supply voltage:
𝐕𝐬 = 5∠ − 90°
Calculating the impedance:
𝐙 = R + j(ωL) = 4 + 𝑗[10 × 0.2]
𝐙 = 4 + 𝑗2 𝛺
Calculate the current:

𝐕 5∠ − 90°
𝑰= = = −0.5 − 𝑗 = 1.1180∠ − 116.57°A
𝐙 4 + 𝑗2 𝛺
Therefore, the value of i(t) is:
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟏𝟎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟏𝟔. 𝟓𝟕°) 𝑨

For the voltage in the inductor,
𝑽 = 𝐈𝐙 = (−0.5 − 𝑗)(𝑗2) = 2 − 𝑗 = 2.236∠ − 26.565°A
Therefore, the value of v(t) is:
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟏𝟎𝒕 − 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟔𝟓°) 𝑨
For (b):
Calculate the phasor value of supply voltage:
𝐕𝐬 = 10∠0°
Calculating the impedance:

1 1
𝐙 = R−j( ) = 5 −𝑗[ ]
ωC 4 × 0.1
𝐙 = 5 − 𝑗2.5 𝛺
Calculate the current:

𝐕 10∠0°
𝑰= = = 1.6 + 𝑗0.8 = 1.789∠26.57°A
𝐙 5 − 𝑗2.5 𝛺
Therefore, the value of i(t) is:
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟗 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟒𝒕 + 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟕°) 𝑨

For the voltage in the capacitor,
𝑽 = 𝐈𝐙 = (1.6 + 𝑗0.8)(−𝑗2.5) = 4.47∠ − 63.43°A
Therefore, the value of v(t) is:
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟕 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟒𝒕 − 𝟔𝟑. 𝟒𝟑°) 𝑨

Impedance Combination
AC circuits that contains multiple impedances can be simplified and analyzed using the
techniques that we have discussed in Lessons 5 to 9 in this workbook. Provided that each element
of the circuit is already expressed in phasor form.
As a quick review, the following are the formula that can be used in a simple AC circuit.
Impedances in Series 𝑍𝑛 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
Impedances in Parallel = + + + ⋯+
𝑍𝑛 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍3 𝑍𝑛
Similarly the following formula derived from Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law and Current Law is
applicable to the AC circuit. Extra care should be made to ensure that calculations are made based
on rules governing complex numbers.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛 = 0 (𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛 = 0 (𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒)
To illustrate this, below is a simple example.
Example 22.3. Determine the input impedance of the circuit in Fig. 9.24 at ω = 10 rad/s.
Solution:
The first step is to convert all elements in phasor form, i.e., calculate the value of the
impedances.
Value Impedance
1 1
2mF 𝑍1 = −𝑗 = −𝑗 = −𝑗50Ω
𝜔𝐶 10 × 0.002
20Ω 𝑍2 = 20Ω
1 1
4mF 𝑍3 = −𝑗 = −𝑗 = −𝑗25Ω
𝜔𝐶 10 × 0.004
2H 𝑍4 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗(10 × 2) = 𝑗20Ω
50Ω 𝑍5 = 50Ω
As observed in the circuit above, the following relationship can be derived:
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 ||(𝑍4 + 𝑍5 )

Substituting the values, we get:
−𝑗25(𝑗20 + 50)
𝑍𝑇 = −𝑗50 + 20 +
−𝑗25 + 𝑗20 + 50
𝒁𝑻 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 − 𝒋𝟕𝟑. 𝟕𝟔𝜴
As demonstrated by the previous example, we can easily apply all simplification

techniques we previously discussed in an AC circuit in phasor or frequency domain.
22.5 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Similar to the other techniques, the nodal and mesh analysis that we have learned in Unit
2 is applicable to AC circuits on frequency domain. To recall the process of Nodal Analysis, the
following are the steps we need to take:
Steps in Nodal Analysis
1. Select a reference node, and label it as the circuit “ground”.
2. Assign voltages Va, Vb, Vc, etc. to all non-reference nodes.
3. Apply KCL to each non-reference nodes.
4. Use Ohm’s Law to express the branch currents in terms of the node voltages.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
6. To solve for element voltages and currents, use the node voltages to calculate them.
Similarly, the following are the steps in conducting Mesh Analysis:
Steps in Mesh Analysis
1. Assign mesh currents (IA, IB, IC, etc.) to each mesh in the circuit.
2. Apply KVL to each meshes and use Ohm’s Law to express voltages in terms of the
mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown mesh currents.
To demonstrate this, try the following problem and refer to Unit 2 for the step-by-step
demonstration of these techniques.

TRY THIS!
Calculate current Io in the circuit below.
Answer: 5.075 ∠5.943° A.
Calculate V1 and V2 in the circuit below.
Answer: V1 = 19.36 ∠69.67° V; V2 = 3.376 ∠165.7° V.

WORKSHEET 22
Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

1. Calculate the equivalent impedance of the following circuits.
f = 2kHz
w = 50 rad/s
2. Find Z in the network shown, given that Vo = 4∠0◦ V.

3. A capacitance bridge balances when R1 = 100Ω, R2 = 2kΩ, and Cs = 40 µF. What is Cx ,

the capacitance of the capacitor under test?
4. An inductive bridge balances when R1 = 1.2kΩ, R2 = 500Ω, and Ls = 250 mH. What is the
value of Lx , the inductance of the inductor under test?
5. An industrial load is modeled as a series combination of a capacitance and a resistance

as shown below. Calculate the value of an inductance L across the series combination so
that the net impedance is resistive at a frequency of 5 MHz.

REFERENCES
References
Bird, J. (2003). Electrical circuit theory and technology. Routledge.
Charles, K. A., & Matthew, N. O. (2017). Fundamentals of electric circuits. McGraw-hill

Education.
Floyd, T. L., & Buchla, D. M. (2004). Electric circuits fundamentals. Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Kang, J. S. (2016). Electric circuits. Cengage Learning.
Kidwell, W. (1969). Electrical instruments and measurements. McGraw-Hill.
Nahvi, M., & Edminister, J. A. (2014). Schaum's outline of Electric Circuits. McGraw-Hill
Education.
O'Malley, J. (2011). Schaum's Outline of Basic Circuit Analysis (pp. 232-238). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Olivier, J. C. (2018). Electrical Circuits: a Primer. Artech House.
Salam, M. A., & Rahman, Q. M. (2018). Fundamentals of electrical circuit analysis (pp. 1-463).
New York: Springer.
Smith, K. C., Smith, K. C. A., & Alley, R. E. (1992). Electrical circuits: an introduction.
Cambridge University Press.
Svoboda, J. A., & Dorf, R. C. (2013). Introduction to electric circuits. John Wiley & Sons.
Theraja, B. L. (2008). A textbook of electrical technology. S. Chand Publishing.


ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Pee Jay N. Gealone is a Registered Electrical Engineer (REE) currently

employed in Bicol University College of Engineering with Assistant Professor
rank. He earned his BS Electrical Engineering degree from Bicol University last
2010 and his Master of Engineering degree from Camarines Sur Polytechnic
Colleges last 2021. Currently, he is pursuing his PhD in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering in UP Diliman under CHED SIKAP scholarship. He has
more than ten (10) years’ experience in teaching electrical circuits courses and
other EE professional courses. He also has presented papers at conferences
held in both local and international settings. His research and publication
interests include engineering education, innovative designs of instructional
modules, and innovative designs of electrical devices.
Alwin M. Lunas is a practicing Professional Electrical Engineer (PEE) and

Assistant Professor in Bicol University College of Engineering. He has three
decades of combined industry and academic experience locally and abroad.
He is a candidate for the degree Doctor of Business Management form
University of Northeastern Philippines and a Master of Engineering Technology
holder from Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges and BS Electrical
Engineering degree from Bicol University. He is a seasoned trainer and
speaker of various EE professional and technical seminars and workshops
conducted by IIEE both in regional and national level. Currently, he is also
serving as member of IIEE Professional Practice Committee and PEE
Mentoring Committee.


COURSE SYLLABUS










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ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 1

PEE JAY N. GEALONE, REE, MEng

2 |BUCENG | Gealone & Lunas

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How much better to get wisdom than gold,

6 |BUCENG | Gealone & Lunas

Lesson 0: BU and BUCENG VMGO and Quality Policy

Pre-test. Fill in the blanks the keywords of BU Vision.

Lesson Activity 0.1

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Lesson Activity 0.2

Apply knowledge of mathematics and science

Recognize ethical professional responsibilities

Communicate effectively with a range of

8 |BUCENG | Gealone & Lunas

Understand the impact of engineering

Lesson Activity 0.3

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UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF

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LESSON INTRO. TO DC/AC

But what is electricity? Meriam-Webster define electricity as a

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The rate of this flow of electron is called current.

14 |BUCENG | Gealone & Lunas

(DC) – current that remains constant with time.

A common time-varying current is the sinusoidal current called alternating current.

Alternating Current (AC) – current that varies sinusoidally with time

Since we defined current as the movement of charge/electron, then we expect it to have an

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𝐪 = −𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟔

Note: the negative (-) sign denotes an electron.

In order to move the electron from one point to another a work or

The term potential difference best represents the concept of voltage,

Example 1.4. Consider the diagram below, determine the following:

vac = vab + vbc = 10V + 6V = 16 V

(b) For vbd:

Vbd = vbc + vcd = 6V + (-6V) = 0 V

(c) For vda:

Vda = vdc + vcb + vba = -(-6V) + (-6V) + (-10V) = -10 V

1.5 Power & Energy

where: p is power in watts

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Consider figure (a), the current is directed from the “+”

One of the most important things that we must remember

18 |BUCENG | Gealone & Lunas

Recall that voltage is defined as dw/dq, while dq is i×dt, therefore:

Therefore, the voltage drop across the bulb is 40 volts.

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = (2𝑖 )𝑖 = 2𝑖 2 = 2(5 cos 𝜋𝑡)2

𝑝 = 2(25)(cos 𝜋𝑡)2 = 50 cos 2 𝜋𝑡

𝑝 = 50 cos 2 𝜋𝑡 = 50[cos(5 × 10−3 × 𝜋)]2

Therefore, the power delivered to the element is 50 watts.

1.6 DC & AC Sources

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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

Time Allotment: 30 mins

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22 |BUCENG | Gealone & Lunas

Name: _________________________ Date:

Name: _________________________ Date:

Name: _________________________ Date:

Name: _________________________ Date: