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Question & Answer on Fertilizers Industries (Vol-2)

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20552.60169

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Question & Answer on Fertilizers Industries
(Vol-2)
By
Prem Baboo
Retired from
National fertilizers Ltd (India)
&
Dangote Fertilizers Ltd. (Nigeria)
Abstract
After the success of Vol-1, now here is Vol-2,
Vol-1 is very much liked by people. There was a
time when people did not share their knowledge
in public and his knowledge used to be buried
with him but he did not tell anything throughout
his life. But I want to share my rich experience
with people before dying. The practical
knowledge is an important part of life, which is
not found in books, this volume contains
unprecedented experience of my chemical &
fertilizers industries experience. This volume
contains Urea HP/MP/LP/Vacuum and waste
water questions & answer with trouble shooting.
Q-1- Why Reactor heated up to 140-1500C
before Ammoniation?
Ans-The critical temperature of ammonia is
132.40C and critical pressure is 111.3 ata,
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So the heating temperature must be above
critical temperature otherwise the ammonia can
be liquefied.
Q-2-Why cannot pressurize by CO2?
Ans.-Pressurization of HP loop cannot
pressurize by CO2 because it is gaseous state
whenever throttle the valve it will solidified and
line will choke. Expanding to fill its container
like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid
or solid.CO2 Critical temperature is 310C. and
critical pressure is 72,8 atm Supercritical carbon
dioxide is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where
it is held at or above its critical
temperature and critical pressure.
Q-3-How to decide Urea Reactor Volume?
Ans.-Reactor volume depends upon Plants
capacity. The minimum residence time is 20-25
min of the for reaction completion according to
plant load the Volume=Residence time X Feed
Volume, in m3
Reactor Volume=Residence time X (20-30)
min X Feed Volume (m3 /h)
Generally diameter to reactor height =1:18 ratio.
You can see from table, as the plant capacity
increases the size of the reactor also increases
but the size of the reactor does not increase in
capacity proportional.
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The size of the reactor grows marginally. This is

the advantage of high capacity plant; the cost of
the plant is minimized.
Design of Urea Reactor
Residence
Urea Radius, Reactor
Sr. Reactor Reactor Time, Min
Production, Height,
No. ID, Meters Volume.M3
TPD Meters Meter
35
1 1000-1500 2.04 1.02 40.0 135.2
33
2 2100-2500 2.15 1.08 42 157.7
32
2.25
3 2600-3000 1.13 43 177.0
31
4 3100-3500 2.45 1.23 44 215.2
30
5 3600-4000 2.55 1.28 47.0 248.8
29
6 4100-4500 2.6 1.30 48 264.2
28
7 4600-5000 2.7 1.35 49 291.0
27
2.8
8 5100-5500 1.40 50 319.5
Table
Q-4- Earlier there were small capacity plants pressure, e.g. Reactor stripper etc, Urea reactor
but nowadays large capacity plants are Pressure vessels are leak proof containers which
coming, why? contain media under pressure and temperature.
Ans.-The large capacity plants initial cost The term pressure vessel referred to those
comparatively less. You can see in above table reservoirs or containers, which are subjected to
the material cost can be saved in large capacity internal pressure with liner and shell.
vessel like reactor stripper and others heat
exchangers. Despite rapid population growth, Q—6.-How to Classified of Urea Reactor
food production per capita has increased due to Pressure Vessel?
green revolution and agricultural Ans.-urea reactor pressure vessels classified as
intensification in several counties of the world. follow
Over the next five years, the global capacity of 1. Mono wall urea reactor
the production of fertilizers, intermediates and 2. Layered wall urea reactor
raw materials is also expected to increase. Layered wall having three type
Q-5-What is pressure Vessel? 1. Multi wall
Ans. - A pressure vessel is a closed container 2. Coil Layered
designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure 3. Multi layered.
substantially higher or lower than the ambient

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Sr.No Multi wall Vessel Coil Layer vessel Multi-layer vessel

1 They are the proprietary Required thickness is Required thickness is calculated
construction of Struthers calculated as per solid wall as per solid wall construction
Wells Corporation, USA construction formulas formulas subsequently no. of
subsequently no. of layers layers and their thickness is
and their thickness is determined
determined
2 Designed to various Unit cylinders consist of an Inner shells of suitable material
international codes. Inner shells, steel hoop (3 – are used as per process
6 mm thick) coiled around requirement.
the inner shell in volute and
split outer shell of 6-to 12
mm thickness.
3 Required thickness is Uninformative priestess can Then thin plates of high T.S. are
calculated as per solid be obtained by coiling of wrapped on outside of inner shell
wall construction formulas hoop around inner shell. to obtain required thickness.
subsequently no. of layers
and their thickness is
determined
4 Cylindrical shells are Vent holes are provided in Vent holes are provided in all
rolled to desired Dia and all layered sections except layered sections except for inner
welded ( plates THK in for inner shell lining. shell lining.
the range of 1” to 25”

Q-7-Why weeps holes provided in HP vessel? saved from getting damaged this Shell MOC is
Ans.- The weep holes providing for detecting any CS in carbamate environment ,this will damage
leakage to protect the HP shell. The HP vessel very less time because the corrosion rate in CS is
have inside liner and out shell thickness is more, very high
when the leakage occur the vapour/liquid sudden Q-8-If weep hole choked, what will you do?
come out through weep hole, and reactor shell is
3
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Ans.-There are two cases 3. Ammo Laser Leak Detection System

1. When plant is running the inst air is not 1. Pressurized System
coming during routine checking (a) The inst air is circulated through the
2. When plant under shut down for weep hole network. In this system
attending weep hole leakage instrument air is given in each weep
st
In 1 case hole, the pressure maintain is about
In this case you can pressurize by inst air and 0.8-0.9 kg/cm2.This air goes to
steam heating by removing insulation. Or create every weep hole, each weep hole
vacuum inside weep hole by vacuum pump. The with isolation valve vent also
urea/carbamate come out and removed choking. provided in each weep hole for
In 2nd case venting or analysis gas in case of
This typical case number of chances and many leakage. This system is very perfect
plant reported this type of problems. Following method alarm is coming when
procedure can be applied for remove choking leakage started. For confirmation
1. Steam heating check practically by open vent and
2. Vacuum Created by vacuum pump analyzed if required. Some time
3. Pressurized by instrument air(The false alarm also coming in case of
pressure must not be >0.9 kg/cm2g) rain.
4. Liner hammering by mallet. (b) In this system all line are connected
5. If above fails to remove choking then to main header and goes to analyzer
suspected liner petal removed for de where ammonia analyzed , when
choke deposition and then again put leakage occurred it checks by
back and smooth welding to be done. closing isolation valve one by one
Q-9- How many types of weep hole for confirmation from which hole is
monitoring system? leakage. Low flow alarm also
Ans.- There is numbers of weep hole provided.
monitoring. Earlier all the weep all system 2. Weep hole monitoring with vacuum
connected to tube and dip in indicator system
(phenolphthalein) bottle when leakage started In this system a vacuum pump is given
the bottle solution colour turned into pink. But in main header where all lines are
this type of monitoring system is not reliable. connected after that an ammonia
Because the ammonia present in atmosphere of analyzer is given for detection of any
the urea plant the dummy colour appeared on leakage, when ammonia alarm came, the
number of bottles. But basically nowadays weep hole isolation valve closed one by
following type of system for weep hole one for detect leakage from which hole
monitoring generally adopted. Both systems are is leakage. When confirmed the checked
called active leak detection systems. manually .This is the perfect system for
1. Pressurized system leakage detection in weep holes. In case
(a) Analyze with conductivity meter of a vacuum leak detection system,
(b) With ammonia analyzer with low vacuum is maintained behind the
flow alarm complete liner area
2. Weep hole monitoring with vacuum
system

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by vacuum pump and thus the complete liner
area is under direct detection. Not only failures
in the fixed liner welds but all possible failures
Fig-Weep hole monitoring
3. The Ammo Laser Leak Detection System
Among the techniques of gas analysis,
techniques using laser and LED sources are
presently the most prevalent. They guarantee a
brilliant signal-to-noise ratio and high selectivity
of the radiation employed. These solutions are
employed to identify one chosen gas. Systems in
this subsection, which are the most commonly
occurring, such as TDLAS(Tunable diode laser
absorption spectroscopy) , are characterized by a
straightforward design, fast operation, and
sensitivity adequate for multiple applications.
Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy
(TDLAS) is a fast, accurate, non-contact gas
analysis technique that responds quickly to
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modes of the loose liner will be detected
directly.
changing analyte concentrations. It is a proven
technology free of interferences from other
sample stream components.
The Ammo Laser leak detection is the most
reliable HP Equipment Leak Detection System
for loose liners available in the market as it is a
result of detailed safety risk studies and analysis
of industry incidents. A passive leak detection
system is in our view not acceptable anymore
today; this is best illustrated. Most reliable
system and Monitors directly the complete liner
surface does not restrict leakage flow and does
not built up the pressure.
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Fig-Laser leak Detection system

Fig-(Reactor weep hole monitoring system with Ammo laser)

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Q-10-Is steam is dangerous between CS shell
and liner? For clearing the choke.
Ans.-Some of the experts say the steam is
dangerous between CS & liner it will create
corrosion on CS or SCC problem. Cracks in the
carbon steel behind the liner on CS observed
during the liner replacement. But my opinion it
is not dangerous the steam condensate easily
escape by weep hole through vent hole when
system heating started during plant start up. The
heating temperature is 150-1600C is the
sufficient to evaporate condensate inside liner &
CS passage. Don’t worry the cracks developed
when liner leakage occurred.
Fig-(Stripper Leakage detection arrangement)
Q-12-How to detect leakage in HP Carbamate
Condenser tube leakages?
Ans.-For detection of leakage the tube(process
side) manhole cover open and Partition plate
5. Condensate export line.
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Q-11- How to detect leakage in stripper when
tube leakage confirmed?
Ans.-For stripper leakage detection normal shut
down and flushing carried out. After that shell of
stripper pressurized by instrument air along with
PG and pressure regulator valve with venting
provision. As shown in the figure. First of all
blinds provided as shown in the figure then PG,
inst air connection with regulator are provided ,
then pressurized the shell up to 6.5-7 kg/cm2.and
check the leakage in top and bottom dome of the
stripper by soap solution and leakage detects.
removed after that preparation of leakages and
inspection like NDT etc. For leakage detection
the blind provided at following lines
4. Both PSV Line.
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6. Steam condensate import lines. pressurized up to 3.5 kg/cm2 g as shown in the

After providing blinds the entry done in tube below figure and check the leakage by soap
side for detecting of leakages with soap solution solution.
with instrument air pressurization. The shell side

Fig-Leakage detection in HP carbamate condenser.

A Q-13-What type of Problem comes after 6. The empty reactor feed in is different
shut down? from filled reactor hence problems
Ans.-After shut down the different type of occurred molar ratio related if N/C ratio
problems occur you cannot imagine. Each and disturbed then problem occurred in
every shut down these are differ some of the medium pressure absorber and carryover
common problems are below of CO2.If CO2 carryover occurs then
1. The maximum problem due to failure of ammonia booster pump cavitated
instrumentation like level LT., Pressure resulting again feed cut.
PT., Flow (FT) etc. 7. The MP condenser heat exchanger some
2. Pumps suction strainer choked time choked just after shut down
frequently. because the flouting material of shut
3. Prilling bucket choked frequently. down.
4. Some of the calibrated PSV popping 8. Extra burden on process due to
problem. recovery of excess ammonium
5. The Numbers of heat exchangers are carbamate which is stored in taking shut
cleaned; hence the profile of the valve down process. You cannot judge actual
opening will change. N/C and H/C ratio at that time reactor
temperature profile will change.
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9. Some cases weep holes failure after shut down.

10. Cooling water TDS problem occurs due will require PWHT. Based on strength
to less heat load in start up of the plant. calculation, if the corroded spot is small and
11. Cooling water heat exchangers problem shallow enough it may be best to leave it as it is.
occurs due to dosing system properly Install the new liner starting from the bottom up
not stabilized, problem of PO4, Zinc and Install the new liner on the top part. While
pH etc. installing the new liner, a band of at least 600
12. Some cooling water heat exchanger mm across the junction line shall be left without
further choked due to flouting material the liner. The liner to cover this band shall be
stuck up this is due to cooling water inserted into the reactor before the top is joined.
system not drained properly before start Fit up and the top part on the reactor and make
up. the circumferential weld, including the internal
309L.SS-316L(mod)/SS-2RE-69 weld overlay.
Q.14-After shut down the steam requirement Carry out the NDE of the weld. Perform PWHT
in heat exchangers increased and you say the of the new weld and repeat NDE Install and
steam saved after shut down. How would you weld the last strip of liner.
explain? Q-16-Can I suggest to replace SS-316L with
Ans.-Yes, you are correct the steam requirement SS-904L? Or is there any better solution for
increased after shut down in some of the heat that?
exchanger because they are well cleaned and Ans.-Yes, the SS-904L can be replaced with SS-
heat transfer rate increased no doubt steam flow 316L, 904L is more likely to withstand the
increased but the pressure of steam drastically corrosive power of corrosive environment.
Which offers greater resistance to corrosion? It
come down,
is known as Uranus Steel. The both
Hence the LS/LMS generation in HP carbamate compositions are differ and SS-904L is very
condenser increased means the more Steam costly. The plant equipment also designs base on
produced also the MS requirement in MPD cost also. The SS-904L is super austenitic
pressure also come down and hence extraction stainless steel that is designed for moderate to
requirement pressure is less, the latent heat is high corrosion resistance in a wide range of
more at low pressure. So net gain is more even process environments. While the SS316 L is
austenitic Stainless steel.
after steam flow is more.
Sr. Elements SS-904L SS-
Q- 15- What is the procedure for complete No. 316L
replacement of liner of a urea reactor in use 1 Chromium 20-23 % 16-18%
for nearly 25-30 years? 2 Nickel 23-28% 10-14%
Ans.-Following step for replacement of reactor 3 Manganese 2.0% 2.0%
liner 4 Molybdenu 4.5% 2-3%
Cut the pressure shell below the top TL and m
remove the reactor top part. Cut and remove all 5 Silicon 1.0% 1.0%
liner. 6 Copper 1.0-2.0% --
Carry out a complete visual inspection of the 7 Carbon 0.02% 0.03%
pressure shell internal surface. In case that 8 Nitrogen 0.15% 0.1%
corroded areas are detected, a thorough 9 PRE 36.7 26.1
evaluation shall be made about whether a repair PRE is more of SS904L it is better resistance
to localized pitting corrosion
is appropriate or not, because any weld repair

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Q-16- What is the criteria of selection of liner during fabrication, repair or so; generate a
material in Urea reactors? galvanic cell during operations at elevated
Ans.-The material of liner selection depends temperature and results in release of hydrogen
upon temperature, N/C ratio of the Urea reactor. into the metal causing pitting and crack. This
Earlier(1950) some of the process used lead and happens to be a common problem in Titanium
silver was used for liner in the urea reactors. lined reactors. Titanium has also welding
These were good only in the total absence of problem. Many urea plants are using Zirconium
oxygen. At present Titanium, Zirconium and as reactor lining. This zirconium also requires
stainless steel are used as reactor liner. The protective coating of oxygen; one disadvantage
corrosion resistance of titanium is highly is its cost and complicated welding problem.
dependent on the formation of a continuous Extra low carbon stainless steel is now used
protective oxide film which is maintained by widely as liner in urea reactor after it was found
injecting air. However, tramp metallic iron highly satisfactory in presence of oxygen.
which is embedded into surface of titanium following Table for selection of material of liner.
Sr. No. Temperature Liner material Oxygen in CO2 required
of Reactor, 0C
1 205-210 Zirconium 0.1% O2 in CO2
2 196-205 Titanium 0.2% O2 in CO2
3 190-195 Austenitic stainless steel,2RE- 0.3% for N/C ratio 3.5 and 0.4 for
69(25/22/2) and SS-904L N/C ratio 2.8
4 185-190 SS-316L (urea grade) or Mod 0.3% for N/C ratio 3.5 and 0.5 for
N/C ratio 2.8
5 180-185 SS-316L 0.35% for N/C ratio 3.5 and 0.6 for
N/C ratio 2.8
Table (Selection of liner material)
Q-17- What is the advantages of Pre- 4. Concentrator, realizing through Pre
Concentrator? concentrator an energy recovery
5. from the gases of MP Decomposer
Ans.- The Pre-Concentrator is additional stage
Decreasing the waste of this energy into cooling
of Vacuum. This is the energy saving scheme.
water. Moreover the introduction of a dedicated
Introduction of Pre concentrator system
Vacuum System allows the debottlenecking of
(composed of Preconcentrator,85% urea solution
the First Vacuum System with direct impact on
pump with dedicated additional Vacuum System
product quality. The saved low pressure steam is
as well as relevant seal tank and waste water
reused in the Pre-decomposer after being
extraction pumps);
bolstered by means of medium pressure steam.
1. Introduction of Pre-decomposer system
This allows the reduction of Stripper
(composed of Pre-decomposer and
temperature (in this case down to 202 °C), with
2. Steam booster ejector. The purpose of
consequent decrease of stripper consumption, by
this scheme under the
moving the decomposition load to Pre-
3. energetically point of view is to save
decomposer, which is also designed to overcome
low pressure steam from First Vacuum
limitations in MP Decomposer. The total result

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of this scheme is a save in medium pressure
steam requirement for urea plant and, finally,
Fig-(Pre concentrator)
Q-18- What is the advantages double HP
carbamate condenser in High capacity
plants?
Ans.-In large capacity plants two series HP
condenser are used. In 1st condenser LMS (6.5
kg/cm2) is prejudiced and in 2nd LS (3.5-4.0
kg/cm2) is produced.LMS used in distillation
Tower which is operated at 4.5 kg/cm2.The
advantages of two HP carbamate condenser is
absorption of total gases which is decompose in
stripper and utilization of heat and reduced load
in downstream section.
Q-19-Why the HP Carbamate Separator
located more than stripper height?
Ans.- After HP condenser the solution goes to
HP carbamate separator ,this solution also has
inerts and inconesed gases. Incondensable gases,
consisting of inert gases (passivation air plus
inerts with CO2 from B.L.) and containing a
little quantity of NH3 and CO2, come out from
the top of the carbamate separator and flow
directly into the bottom of the medium pressure
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through CO2 Compressor turbine.
decomposer .height is necessary for separation
liquid & vapours above stripper otherwise
gravity will not be developed also proper head
developed for HP carbamate Ejector. The rate of
carbamate sucked by ejector depends on: the
flow rate of motive fluid, the motive fluid
pressure at ejector inlet and the differential
pressure between reactor bottom and carbamate
separator. Mixed phase, coming from carbamate
condenser is divided by gravity in two phases,
liquid and vapor. The vapors are discharged
from the top through the pressure control valve
with a set point of about 146 kg/cm2 g, the liquid
from the bottom goes to Ejector. When level in
HP Carbamate separator increases, in order to
maintain the lowest possible level in this
equipment, by increasing the carbamate
circulation through the ejector.
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Fig-HP section
Q-19 -What is Green Ammonia?
Ans. - Green ammonia production is where the
process of producing ammonia is 100%
renewable and carbon-free. Green ammo ammonia
production is where the process of making
ammonia is 100% renewable and carbon carbon-free.
One way of making green ammonia is by using
hydrogen from water electrolysis and nitrogen
separated from the air. One way of producing
green ammonia is by using hydrogen en from water
electrolysis and nitrogen separated from the air.
A DC electrical power source is connected to
two electrodes, or two plates (typically made
from an inert metal such as platinum or iridium)
which are placed in the water. Hydrogen will
appear at the cathode (where electrons enter the
water), and oxygen will appear at the anode
Assuming ideal faradic efficiency, the amount of
hydrogen generated is twice the amount of
oxygen, and both are proportional to the
total electrical charge conducted bby the
solution. However, in many cells competing side
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reactions occur, resulting in different products
and less than ideal faradic efficiency.
Electrolysis of pure water requires excess energy
in the form of over potential to overcome
various activation barriers.
rriers. Without the excess
energy, the electrolysis of pure water occurs
very slowly or not at all. This is in part due to
the limited self-ionization
ionization of water. Pure water
has an electrical conductivity about one- one
millionth that of seawater. Many electrolytic
cells may also lack the requisite electro catalysts.
The efficiency of electrolysis is increased
through the addition of an electrolyte (such as
a salt, an acid or a base) and the use of electro
catalysts. Currently the electrolytic process is
rarely useded in industrial applications since
hydrogen can currently be produced more
affordably from fossil fuels. Water electrolysis is
the process whereby water is split into hydrogen
and oxygen through the application of electrical
energy, typically, a water electrolysis
ele unit
consists of an anode, a cathode separated with an
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electrolyte, and a power supply. The electrolyte
can be made of an aqueous solution containing
ions, a proton exchange membrane (PEM) or an
oxygen ion exchange ceramic membrane. A
direct current
ent (DC) is applied from the negative
terminal of the DC source to the cathode (seat of
the reduction reaction), where the hydrogen is
produced. At the anode, the electrons produced
by the electrochemical reaction return to the
positive terminal of the DC source.

Hydrogen
ydrogen (which has a specific energy
e of 143
GJ/ton or about 40 MWH/Ton) requires 50–55
kWh of electricity. In terms of money it is
$6000/ton of Hydrogen.
Q-21- Why Copper is not allowed in ammonia
& Urea process?
Ans.- Ammonia reacts with copper ions to
produce a blue precipitate, copper coppe (II)
hydroxide.
NH3 +H2O=NH4(aq) +OH(aq)
Fig-Green Hydrogen production Cu2+(aq)+ 2OH(aq)=Cu(OH)2(Solid)
Q-20-How
How much power consume in one ton of (Blue Precipitate)
Hydrogen? “Copper is not used in ammonia system because
Ans.-Current
urrent best processes for water if there is a little amount of moisture or water is
electrolysis have an effective electrical present ammonia will react rapidly with it to
efficiency of 70-80%,
80%, so that producing 1 ton of form ammonium hydroxide which contains OH-

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ions, these ions react with copper to form the Ans.- At the critical point there is no change of
copper hydroxide of blue colour.” state when pressure is increased or if heat is
added. The triple point of a substance is the
Q-22-What is the critical & triple points temperature and pressure at which the three
conditions of Ammonia? phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of that substance
coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. As
shown in the below figure.

Fig-Thermodynamic properties of ammonia

Q-23-Why sulphur is removed before deactivate. Which have to be removed in order
Reformer feed in? to avoid poisoning of the reforming catalyst in
Ans.-In Ammonia process catalyst is used in the primary reformer and the low temperature
each step. It is the poison for catalyst .The shift catalyst in the CO converter
sulphur reacts with catalyst and makes
, particularly the low temperature shift converter, sulphur-bearing compounds. Prior to
is sensitive to deactivation by sulphur and hydrogenation, the feed gas is mixed with
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Hydrogen rich recycle stream which is coming CO2 + H2 ⇔ CO + H2O

from syn gas compressor 2nd stage discharge. CO2 + H2S ⇔ COS + H2O
Then the Feed gas is heated in heaters and in the Therefore, the presence of CO, CO2 and H2O
reformer flue gas section. Since the gas contains influences the sulphur slippage from
organic sulphur compounds, the downstream the Sulphur absorbers, The catalyst
desulphurization takes place in two stages. The is oxidized at delivery and resumes its activity
organic sulphur compounds are converted to H2S when sulphided. The Catalyst can be sulphided
by the hydrogenation catalyst and the H2S during initial start-up with natural gas feedstock
absorption takes place in the sulphur absorption at not high temperature and not high H2 flow to
catalyst. After desulphurization, the content of minimize the possibility of the MoO3 being
sulphur is less than 0.1 vol. ppm. reduced to MoO2 that means catalyst irreversible
Q-24-What is the reactions of deactivation. In the sulphided state the catalyst is
Hydrogenation? pyrophoric and it must be not exposed to air at
Ans.- Following are the reactions. temperatures above 70°C.
The preheated natural gas is fed to the Q-26- What is the role of H2S absorber?
hydrogenator. The vessel contains HTAS Ans.- The hydrogenated natural gas is fed to the
Hydrogenation Catalyst which is a cobalt- sulphur absorbers. The two sulphur absorbers,
molybdenum based catalyst. Catalyzes the located in series, are identical acts as a guard in
following reactions: case of sulphur breakthrough is taken out of
RSH + H2 → RH + H2S service for catalyst replacement. Each vessel has
R1SSR2 + 3H2 → R1H + R2H + 2H2S one catalyst bed which contains catalyst. This
R1SR2 + 2H2 → R1H + R2H + H2S zinc oxide catalyst is in the form of 4 mm
(CH)4S + 4H2 → C4H10 + H2S extrudates. The normal operating temperature is
COS + H2 → CO + H2S approximately 355°C. The zinc oxide reacts with
Where R is hydrocarbon radical. the hydrogen sulphide and carbonyl sulphide in
Q-25-What is the temperature of the following equilibrium reactions:
Hydrogenation reactions? ZnO + H2S ⇔ ZnS + H2O
Ans.- Increased sulphur slip to the reforming ZnO + COS ⇔ ZnS + CO2
section. The temperature also plays an important The equilibrium composition for the reaction
role with regard to catalyst activity; at low between the zinc oxide and hydrogen sulphide is
temperatures the hydrogenation reactions expressed by the following equation:
progress very slowly and conversion is not Kp(T)=
( )
= 2.5 X10-6 at 3800C.
( )
optimal while at high temperatures undesirable
cracking reactions may occur with deactivation The catalyst is not reacting with oxygen or
of catalyst due to carbon lay-down on the hydrogen at any practical temperature. Zinc
catalyst itself. The optimum temperature range is sulphide is not pyrophoric and no special care
between 350 and 400°C. In case natural gas during unloading is required. Steam operations
containing CO and CO2 is fed to the should not be carried out. The zinc oxide would
Hydrogenator, the following reactions will take hydrate and it would then be impossible to
place: regenerate the ZnO material in the reactor.
Q.-26-What is the reformer sections reaction Ans.- In the reforming section, the desulphurized
equations? gas is converted into synthesis gas by catalytic
reforming of the hydrocarbon mixture with

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steam and the addition of air. The steam
reforming process can be described by the
following reactions:
1. CnH2n+2 + 2H2O ⇔ Cn-1H2n + CO2 + 3H2 -
heat
2. CH4 + 2H2O ⇔ CO2 + 4H2 - heat (39.4
kcal/mol)
3. CO2 + H2 ⇔ CO + H2O - heat (9.84
kcal/mol)
Reaction (1) describes the mechanism of
reforming the higher hydrocarbons, which are
reformed in stages to lower and lower
hydrocarbons, finally resulting in methane,
which is reformed as shown in reaction (2). The
heat input required for the reverse shift reaction
(3) is very small compared to the heat input
required for reaction (1) and (2). The reactions
take place in two steps, primary reforming and
secondary reforming as illustrated in Figure 3:
Reforming section. Thus, the reforming unit
consists of a primary reformer with a waste heat
section and a secondary reformer.
Q-27- How carbon formation takes place in
reforming section and what is role of S/C
ratio?
Ans.- During operation, undesirable carbon
formation may occur outside and/or inside the
catalyst particles in the primary reformer.
Carbon deposits outside the particles will
increase the pressure drop over the catalyst bed,
and deposits inside the particles will reduce the
activity and mechanical strength of the catalyst.
Thermal cracking is favoured by higher
temperature and by lower steam/carbon ratio;
generally, if the S/C ratio is higher than 1.4
formed carbon will not damage the catalyst in a
not reversible way. The higher S/C ratio, the
lower will be the methane leakage that is
desirable since Methane is an inert gas in the
synthesis ammonia section; on the other hand,
increasing too much the S/C ratio means very
high operation cost. The design steam/carbon
ratio is 2.85, sufficiently above the ratio where
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carbon formation on an active catalyst is
possible and sufficiently high to reduce the
methane leakage. Only during reformer start-up
or shut down the S/C ratio will be kept higher;
during start up, load is gradually increased and
the S/C ratio is decreased from an initial value of
6-8 towards normal operating value; during shut
down, load is reduced and S/C ratio is gradually
increased towards even above a value of 10.
Q-28-Which type of reaction of Primary &
Secondary reactions?
Ans.-The primary reaction is endothermic
reaction and secondary is exothermic reaction.
In the primary reformer the heat necessary for
the reaction is supplied in the form of indirect
heat from firing; in the secondary reformer the
heat is direct heat from combustion of the gas
mixture with air. The introduction of air at the
same time provides the nitrogen required for
ammonia synthesis. Since the H2/N2 ratio in the
purified synthesis gas should be maintained at a
value close to 3.0, the amount of air is fixed.
Overall, adjusting the duty of the primary
reformer controls the reforming reaction and
thus the methane leakage from the secondary
reformer.
Q.-29-What is the operation pressure of
reforming section?
Ans.- Since methane is an inert gas in the
ammonia synthesis process, it is desirable to
reduce the methane content of the synthesis gas
to the lowest possible level in order to keep the
level of inert gases low. The methane content in
the synthesis gas is governed by the equilibrium
of reforming reaction (2) at the outlet
temperature and by the catalyst activity.
According to reaction (2), lower methane
content can be obtained by increasing the
temperature, lowering the pressure, or adding
more steam. On the other hand, a relatively high
reforming pressure results in considerable
savings in the power necessary for the
subsequent synthesis gas compression. An
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operating pressure of approximately 40 kg/cm2 g
at the inlet of the primary reformer provides a
reasonable economic compromise.
Ans.- The process gas passes downwards
through vertical tubes containing the nickelbased
catalyst. The required heat is transferred by
radiation from a number of wall burners to the
catalyst tubes. In order to ensure complete
combustion of the fuel gas, the burners are
operated with an excess air ratio of about 10%,
which corresponds to about 2 Vol % (dry) of
oxygen in the flue gas. The hydrocarbons in the
feed to the Primary reformer are converted into
hydrogen and carbon oxides, and the gas from
the Primary reformer contains approximately
11.6 mole% (dry) of methane with a Primary
reformer outlet temperature of about 821°C. The
two furnace chambers have a common flue gas
duct and flue gas heat recovery section. Each
furnace chamber contains a number of vertically
mounted, high alloys Cr-Ni steel tubes filled
with reforming catalyst. The tubes are mounted
in a single row along the centre line of the
chamber. The process gas is flowing downwards
with the gas being distributed to the top of the
tubes from a header through "hairpins" at a
temperature of about 520°C. The gas leaves the
tubes through bottom "hairpins" and enters a
refractory lined collector through high alloy hot
collectors. The tubes are heated by a number of
burners located in each side wall of the furnace
chambers and arranged in horizontal rows at
several elevations to provide easy control of the
uniform temperature profile along the length of
the catalyst tubes. In this manner, the optimal
utilization of the expensive high alloy tubes is
obtained. Flue gas flow is upwards with outlet
near the top of the radiant chamber. The flue gas
outlet system comprises a common flue gas
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Q.-30-What is reformer tube material
(MOC)?
collector mounted between the two radiation
chambers. The flue gas temperature is about
1085°C. The upper part of the reformer tubes is
loaded with catalyst, while the middle part of the
reformer tubes is loaded with catalyst and the
bottom part with other catalyst. The reduced
catalyst is stable in air up to 80°C. If it is
exposed to air at higher temperature it will
oxidize.
Q.-31 what is the improved tube materials of
Reformer tube?
Ans.- Determining factors for such deformation
are the internal pressure and the tube-wall
temperature. The standard material for many
years was the HK 40. The HP modified (1.5%
Nb) material, due to its improved temperature
properties (40 bar reforming pressure at a tube
wall temperature of 900oC), has been used in
many tube replacements and tubes in new plants
. The use of micro alloys containing Ti and Zr
are another improvement. Their use permits the
reduction of tube-wall thickness while
maintaining the same tube lifetime (100,000
hours). By installing tubes with smaller wall
thickness and/or wider diameter the capacity of
the front end of an ammonia plant can be
increased. The use of micro alloyed tubes with
minimum wall thickness can increase the
catalyst volume, increase firing and lower the
pressures drop. According to Fertilizer
Association of India, with the new
improvements in materials it is possible to
increase the life time of the reformer tubes (by
up to 20 000 hours) and have higher tube-wall
temperatures (up to 906 oC)
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Fig-Comparison

Fig-Reformer
Reformer tube material Vs Stress of rupture.

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Q-32- How to use flue gas heat recovery?
Ans.- The flue gas passes via the flue gas duct to
the flue gas heat recovery section, in which the
sensible heat of the flue gas is utilized for the
following duties: -
1. Preheating of the hydrocarbon/steam
mixture going to primary reformer,
2. Final preheating of the process air for
the Secondary reformer.
3. Final superheating of high pressure
steam.
4. Final preheating of natural gas going to
the desulphurization, Superheating of
high pressure steam.
5. Preheating of process air for the
Secondary reformer, Preheating of
natural gas, Boiler feed water
preheating,
At the outlet the flue gas temperature is reduced
to approx. 189°C. A Flue gas blower takes the
flue gas to the Flue gas stack.
Q.-32-What is the Boudouard reaction?
Ans.- The Secondary reformer outlet gas
contains about 14.34 mole% CO and 7.4 mole%
CO2, so there is a theoretical risk of carbon
formation according to the following Boudouard
reaction:
2 CO ⇔ CO2 + C (as soot)
The lower limit for the reaction is 650°C, since
the reaction rate becomes too slow at lower
temperatures. During cooling of the secondary
reformer outlet gas to the inlet temperature for
the HT CO-converter, the gas passes the
temperature window, where the above reaction
can occur. Cooling of the process gas takes place
in the Waste heat boiler.
Q-33-What is the catalyst begins to sintering?
Ans.- Combustion of the process gas with air
produces a gas temperature of 1100- 1200°C in
the upper section of the Secondary reformer.
Because the reforming reaction of methane
absorbs heat, the temperature decreases down
through the catalyst. The catalyst begins to
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sinter in the temperature range of 1400-1500°C.
The activated catalyst must never be exposed to
pure air at temperatures above 100°C, this will
cause spontaneous heating.
Q-34-What is the secondary reformer
catalyst?
Ans.- A top layer of a main layer of the catalyst
bed rests on two layers of alumina balls with
different sizes, and alumina tiles are placed on
top of the catalyst bed to hold down the catalyst
and to protect the catalyst from direct flame
contact.
Q-35- How much steam pressure generated in
waste heat boiler?
Ans.- The 120 kg/cm2 saturated steam
generated in waste heat boilers.
Q-36-How CO converted to CO2?
Ans.-The CO converted to CO2 in CO shift
converter, there are 2-3 number of shift
converter known as HT, MT & LT.
The carbon monoxide in the process gas leaving
the reforming section is converted into carbon
dioxide and hydrogen according to the shift
reaction:
CO + H2O ⇔ CO2 + H2 + heat (9.84 kcal/mol)
Q-37-What parameters to convert CO to
CO2?
Ans.- the reaction rate increases with higher
temperature. The optimum temperature for the
shift reaction depends on the activity of the
catalyst and the composition of the gas. The shift
reaction takes place in the two adiabatic CO
converters (HT and LT), with process gas
cooling after each converter. After reforming,
about 14.3% CO is present in the gas (dry basis).
In the High temperature CO converter, , the CO
content is reduced to approx. 3.5 vol%, and the
temperature increases from 360°C to 436°C. It is
then cooled to 205°C and passed on to the Low
temperature CO converter, in which the CO
content is reduced to approx. 0.3 vol%, while the
temperature increases to 229°C. The heat
content of the effluent from the high temperature
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CO converter is recovered in the Methanator BFW pre heater.

trim heater, in the Waste heat boiler, and in the

Fig-CO shift Converter. Ans.- General Basically, the CO2 removal

Q.-38-What solutions are used for CO2 section compromise one absorber , where the
absorption? CO2 content in the process gas will be absorbed
Ans.-Following solutions are used to CO2 in a liquid phase at a high pressure. The liquid
1. Hot potassium carbonate solution containing the CO2 is transferred to a two tower
2. Activated MDEA solution regeneration unit. In two towers the pressure is
3. Tetra Ethylene Penta Amine (TEPA) low and thereby, due to equilibrium, the CO2
Q.-39-What is the reaction of hot potassium again will be transferred into the gas phase.
Carbonate solution? Carbon dioxide is removed by absorption in the
Ans.- Several reactions occur in the absorber that hot aqueous potassium carbonates solution
remove the carbon dioxide. containing approx 30 wt% potassium carbonate
K2CO3 + H2O + CO2 ¬> 2 KHCO3 (K2CO3) partly converted into bicarbonate
Q-40-What is the reaction of Activated (KHCO3). The solution further contains
MDEA solution? activators, glycine, and a Diethanole amine
Ans.- The overall reactions occurring during the (DEA), and vanadium oxides as corrosion
CO2 absorption process are described by the inhibitor. The reason for keeping the solution hot
following equations: is to increase the rate of absorption and keep the
R3N + H2O + CO2 ⇔ R3NH+ + HCO3 bicarbonate dissolved. Another advantage is that
2R2NH + CO2 ⇔ R2NH2 + + R2N-COO the temperature is approximately the same in the
The first reaction describes the reaction for a absorber and in the regenerators, i.e. the boiling
tertiary amine (e.g. MDEA). The second point temperature of the solution at the pressure
reaction describes the reaction for a secondary prevailing in each of the two regenerators. Thus,
amine (activator). it is not necessary to supply heat to the solution
Q-41- What is the reaction criteria of before the regeneration. The process gas from
absorption? the shift reactors is passed to the CO2 absorber,
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which contains stainless steel packing material
distributed in 5 beds. In the absorber, the gas
flows upwards against a descending stream of
potash solution. Approximately 15% of the
solution is introduced above the top bed at 70°C,
where the remainder is introduced at about
106°C below the two top beds. The CO2
absorption occurs according to the following
reaction mechanism:
1. CO2 + H2O = HCO3 - + H+
2. CO3 -- + H2O = HCO3 - + OH-
3. CO3 -- + CO2 + H2 O = 2HCO3
As reaction 4 and 5 takes place continuously, it
means that the glycine acts as a CO2 carrier.
Reaction 5 is the hydrolysis of the glycine
carbamate. This reaction is catalyzed by a small
amount of DEA in the solution. The absorption
In the second stage, a stream of strongly
regenerated solution (lean solution) is utilized.
At the lower temperature, the CO2 vapour
pressure of the solution is further reduced to
Ans. - Cracks with no bulge often results from
an excessive amount of thermal shocks. This
longitudinal crack is typical on reformers. A
micrograph will determine if the crack has been
preexisting for a long while before opening as its
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The reaction rate of 3 is determined by 1 which
is the slower step of 1 and 2. The activators
action resulting in an increased rate is caused by
the quick transfer of gaseous CO2 into the liquid
phase by means of the glycine formation
according to the reaction:
H2NCH COO - + CO = -OOCNHCH2COO - + H+
The activators effect is much higher than the one
relating to carbamate concentration. At high
temperature and in the presence of OH, the
carbamate is hydrolyzed and the activator is
restored according to the reaction:
-OOCNHCH2 COO- + H 2O = H 2NCH 2COO- + HCO3 –
The sum of 4 and 5 gives 1.
takes place in two stages in F 3303. In the first
stage where the bulk of CO2 is absorbed, the
high temperature increases the reaction rate of 5
and 3. This is done by using the normal
regenerated solution (semi lean solution).
meet the low CO2 slippage in the purified gas
(about 0.03 wt % dry CO2).
Q-41-Creep damage of Primary Reformer
tubes. What is the reason of this type of
damaged?
edges shall be oxidized. Hoop stress and
overheating of the tube. Sudden increase in
loading rate may crush the reformer catalyst
leading to increased Delta P and reduced
reaction surface area for endothermic reaction.
It's an exceptionally long crack which developed
from the tube weld joint. Some blistering on
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tube surface is also seen. High temperature could
have lead to creep forces and metal
carburization.
Q-42-What is hoop stress?
Ans.-The hoop stress increases the pipe's
diameter, whereas the longitudinal stress
increases with the pipe's length. The hoop stress
generated when a cylinder is under internal
pressure is twice that of the longitudinal stress.
The standard equation for hoop stress is H =
PDm /2t. In this equation, H is allowable or hoop
stress, the P is the pressure, t is the thickness of
the pipe, and D is the diameter of the pipe.
Q.-43- What material is used for CO shift
converter unit?
Ans.- Usually, low-alloy steel with 1Cr-0.5Mo is
used as the material of construction. In
converted gas pipelines, acid gas (CO2 and H2S)
are dissolved in the steam condensate, and often
contribute to corrosion. This condition can be
avoided by using SS 304 material.
Q.-44- What material is used for CO shift
converter unit?
Ans. Choosing the metallurgy in the CO2-
removal system depends on the solvent used in
the process. SS 304 and SS 316 are the preferred
materials of construction. Carbon steel, fully
stress relieved after metalworking, is also used
for piping and equipment in this section. Iron in
the circulating solution can cause erosion
corrosion in pipeline bends, pump impellers,
pump casings, etc. In plants where amines are
used to absorb CO2, formation of amine
carbamate adducts also contribute to corrosion.
With modern alkanolamines methyl di ethanol
amine (MDEA).the carbamate adducts are less
heat stable and, thus, do not accumulate in
solution. Additives in the solution render the
carbamate harmless by converting them into
carbonates. In potassium carbonate processes,
arsenic and vanadium salts are used to suppress
corrosion. A passive layer of magnetite on steel
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surfaces is maintained by adding small amount
of air.
Q-45- Can there be SCC problem in CO2
absorption system?
Yes.- Yes, SCC can found in the system, In the
CO2-removal system, SCC is caused by the
combined effects of tensile stress and corrosion.
It is a major problem. The caustic environment
for carbon steel and the presence of chlorides for
austenitic stainless steel both aggravate SCC.
This combined action of tensile stress and
corrodant result in either trans granular or inter
granular cracking of the metal or both. The
overall stress corrosion process is initiated by
corrosion damage; these cracks propagate due to
joint electrochemical mechanical action and
ultimately fail. SCC can be prevented by: better
material selection, reduced stress of the metal by
proper heat treatment, eliminate chloride
solutions, remove oxygen from chloride-
containing solutions, apply corrosion inhibitors,
etc. Ferrite and duplex (austenitic/ferrite) type of
stainless steel show marked resistance to stress
corrosion cracking.
Q-46-What is SCC and why occur?
Ans.- Stress corrosion Stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) A particular problem for the
common austenitic grades (e.g. 304 and 316) is
stress corrosion cracking (SCC). Like pitting
corrosion this occurs in chloride environments,
but it is possible for SCC to take place with only
traces of chlorides, so long as the temperature is
over about 60°C, and so long as a tensile stress
is present in the steel, which is very common.
The ferrite grades are virtually immune from this
form of attack, and the duplex grades are highly
resistant. If SCC is likely to be a problem it
would be prudent to specify a grade from these
branches of the stainless family tree. Refers to
cracking caused by the simultaneous presence of
the tensile stress and a specific corrosive
medium. During SCC, the metal or alloy is
virtually unattached over most of its surface,
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while fine cracks progress through it. The
important variables effecting SSC are
temperature, solution composition, metal
composition, stress and metal structure.
Q-47.-What is the catalyst of Methanator and
what precautions have to be taken?
Ans.-Only one bed and Nickel Catalyst and
about 27%. The Methanation reaction starts at a
temperature below 280°C and causes a
temperature increase in the catalyst bed. The
temperature increase depends on the content of
CO and CO2 in the process gas. The inlet
temperature should be controlled to ensure a
sufficiently low content of CO and CO2 in the
effluent gas, an inlet temperature of
approximately 300°C will be typical at start of
run. The Methanation catalyst should not be
exposed to temperatures above 420°C for
extended periods of time. The catalyst is very
sensitive to sulphur and chlorine compounds.
Steam without hydrogen will oxidize the catalyst
and should therefore not be used for heating,
cooling or purging. Furthermore, the catalyst
should not be exposed to condensing steam,
which would cause it to disintegrate.
Deactivation of the catalyst can be caused by:
1. Thermal ageing
2. Gradual poisoning by impurities in the
feed gas such as potassium, sulphur, or
arsenic.
3. Malfunctioning of the CO2 removal
system (MDEA section) resulting in an
abnormally high CO2 concentration
causing high temperature increase across
the catalyst.
Q-48-What is parameter for Ammonia
synthesis favorable reaction?
Ans.- High pressures and low temperatures favor
a high equilibrium concentration of ammonia.
Since the reaction rate is very much enhanced by
a high temperature, the choice of temperature
should be based on a compromise between the
theoretical equilibrium conversion and the
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approach to equilibrium. In Converter about
30% of the nitrogen and hydrogen is converted
into ammonia. The unconverted remainder is
recycled to the converter after separation of the
liquid ammonia product. The ammonia synthesis
loop has been designed for a maximum pressure
of 217 kg/cm2 g. The normal operating pressure
will be 195 kg/cm2 g at the inlet to the ammonia
converter, depending on load and catalyst
activity. At reduced load, the loop pressure will
decrease. Normal operating temperatures will be
in the range of 370-510°C for the first bed, 425-
480°C for the second bed, and 420-460°C for the
third bed in Converter.
Q-49-What is CO2 Breakthrough in the
process?
Ans.- Gas CO2 breakthrough from the top of the
absorber is indicated by the online analyzer
and/or by an increasing temperature in the
Methanator. The reaction in the Methanator is
strongly exothermic; it can lead to temperature
runaway (approximately 60°C per mole% CO2).
The CO2 slip should be monitored closely: if it
increases, it is necessary to take immediate
action: -
1. Check the solution circulation rates and
temperatures and adjust if required, -
2. Reduce the process gas load on the
absorber by venting upstream, -
3. Check the pressures in the regeneration
section and adjust by means of PIC- if
required.
Start injection of antifoam solution (if you
suspect foaming - pressure drop over packing’s
should be checked or, if all else fails, trip the
Methanator. A high CO2 slip may be caused by
insufficient liquid circulation and/or insufficient
flashing/regeneration of the solvent. Check
process conditions, i.e. circulation rates, energy
balance, temperatures and pressures. If process
conditions are within the normal range, then
analyze samples of the process gas taken from
the outlet of the absorber bottom section and the
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outlet at the top of the absorber to locate the circulating synthesis gas. The H2/N2 ratio of the
cause. make-up gas after addition of recovered
Q-50-What is the Hydrogen/Nitrogen ration hydrogen should therefore be close to 3.0. The
in synthesis converter? H2/N2 ratio in the loop should be kept as
Ans.- Haber's process converts atmospheric constant as possible. This ratio is controlled by
nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) by a reaction the H2/N2 ratio in the make-up gas, which will
with hydrogen (H2) using a metal catalyst under have to be adjusted in order to obtain the desired
high temperatures and pressures. The reaction is: ratio in the circulating synthesis gas.
Q-51-How much NG is required for one tone
N2+3H2⟶2NH3 (ΔH°=−91.8kJ) or of Ammonia?
(ΔH°=−45.8kJ⋅mol−1) Ans.-For one tone ammonia NG required -641
So, nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed in Nm3 excluding other requirement, e.g. Reformer
a 1:3 molar ratio to manufacture ammonia. Fuel, start up heater etc.
Hydrogen gas is the limiting reactant and
Nitrogen is excess reactant.. Some hydrogen and
nitrogen are removed from the synthesis loop
with the purge gas, and a minor amount
dissolves in the liquid product. It is, however,
only a marginal amount compared to the amount
of hydrogen and nitrogen removed by the
synthesis reaction. Consequently, according to
the synthesis reaction scheme, minor deviations
in the make-up gas H2/N2 ratio will result in a
much larger change in the H2/N2 ratio of the

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Q-52- What is catalyst used in ammonia
converter?
Ans.- Usually, iron is widely used as a catalyst
in this process. Iron has been preferred because
it helps to achieve an acceptable yield of a
product in a much faster time. Highly efficient
and very stable iron and/or cobalt-based
catalysts for the ammonia synthesis reaction
were synthesized by one-step pyrolysis of metal
phthalocyanine precursors. The presence of
alkaline earth or alkali metals is found to be
essential for accelerating the reaction rate for the
ammonia synthesis process.
The atomic structure of the ruthenium-calcium-
aluminum metal catalyst used in ammonia
synthesis. Hydrogen atoms on the surface react
with nitrogen atoms to form ammonia. The
novel catalyst uses considerably less heat and
pressure than other catalysts
Q-53-What type of reactor used in Ammonia
Production?
Ans. - Most of the large-scale ammonia plants
use radial-flow reactors because this
arrangement enables to handle large catalyst
volumes and small particle diameters (high
catalyst efficiency) without considerable
pressure drops.
Q-54-What type of Ammonia synthesis
converter?
Ans. The reactor includes three adiabatic radial-
flow catalyst beds in series. An interbed (gas-
gas) heat exchanger is used to preheat the feed
stream. The steady-state results showed good
agreement with plant data. The open-loop and
closed-loop operation is compared from the
standpoint of the reactor stability.
General information the ammonia synthesis
converter is a Radial Flow Converter. It consists
of a pressure shell and a basket. The basket
consists of three catalyst beds and two inter bed
heat exchangers placed in the centre of the first
and second catalyst bed respectively as below
figure. The main part of the synthesis gas is
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introduced into the converter through the inlet at
the bottom of the converter and passes upwards
through the outer annulus between the basket
and the pressure shell, keeping the latter cooled.
It then passes to the bottom tube sheet of the first
inter bed heat exchanger through transfer pipes
in the heat exchanger and passes the tubes in
upward direction thereby cooling the exit gas
from the first bed to the inlet temperature to
second bed. Another part of the synthesis gas is
introduced through the bottom central inlet and
flows upwards through the transfer pipe to the
bottom tube sheet of the second inter bed heat
exchanger. It passes the tubes in upward
direction thereby cooling the exit gas from the
second bed to the inlet temperature of the third
bed. The remaining part of the gas, the cold by-
pass gas, is introduced at the top of the
converter. In the top of the converter pipe it
mixes with the gas leaving the tube side of the
two inter bed heat exchangers. The amount of
cold by-pass gas controls the inlet temperature to
the first bed. After mixing, the gas flows through
the space below the basket cover to the annuli of
the panels around the first catalyst bed. From the
panels it passes the first catalyst bed in inward
direction and then flows to the annulus between
the first catalyst bed and the first inter bed heat
exchanger. Even gas distribution in the catalyst
bed is ensured by means of appropriate
perforation in the panels. The effluent from the
first catalyst bed passes the shell side of the first
inter bed heat exchanger for cooling to the
proper inlet temperature to the second catalyst
bed by heat exchange with gas introduced
through the tube side of the first inter bed heat
exchanger as described above. From the shell
side of the first interbed heat exchanger the gas
is transferred to the second catalyst bed through
the panels around the bed. The effluent from the
second catalyst bed passes the shell side of the
second inter bed heat exchanger. For cooling to
the proper inlet temperature to the third catalyst
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bed by heat exchange with gas introduced to the tube side of the second interbed heat exchanger

through the bottom inlet as described above.
Both second catalyst and third catalyst beds are
passed in inward direction, the gas distribution
being ensured by means of appropriate
perforation at the walls of the bed. The
temperature inlet the third catalyst bed is
controlled by means of the by-pass around the
BFW preheater, adjusting the gas temperature at
converter inlet. The gas

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leaving the third catalyst bed passes the
perforated centre tube and flows to the converter
outlet, from the outlet the gas flows through the
effluent heat exchanger unit where a great part
of the reaction heat is used for steam generation
converter At the inlet of the first bed of , a
minimum temperature of approximately 370°C
is required to ensure a sufficiently high rate of
reaction. If the temperature at the catalyst inlet is
much below this value, i.e. below 360°C then
the reaction rate will become so low that the heat
released by the reaction is too small to maintain
the temperature in the converter. The reaction
will quickly extinguish itself if proper
adjustments (lowering the gas circulation and/or
closing the cold shot) are not made immediately.
On the other hand, it is desirable to keep the
catalyst temperature as low as possible to
prolong catalyst life. Therefore, it is
recommended that the catalyst inlet temperature
be kept slightly above the minimum
temperature. The synthesis gas should normally
enter the first catalyst bed at a temperature of
370°C. As the gas passes through the catalyst
bed, its temperature increases to a maximum
temperature, normally the highest temperature in
the converter, at the outlet of the first bed, called
"the hot spot". The outlet temperature from first
bed is normally about 510°C. The outlet gas
from the first bed is cooled with the main inlet
gas going to the first bed in order to obtain a
temperature of approximately 425°C at the inlet
of the second bed. The outlet gas temperature
from the second bed is about 475°C.
Subsequently, the outlet gas from the second bed
is cooled with the inlet gas for the lower tube
side going to the second bed in order to obtain a
temperature of approximately 420°C at the inlet
of the third bed. The outlet gas temperature from
the third bed is about 455°C.
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During start-up, hot gas from the start-up heater,
is introduced through the cold by-pass pipe at
the top of the converter.
Reaction temperature in the Ammonia.
Q-55- What is the parameters of
optimization of an Ammonia Synthesis
Converter?
Ans.- At a constant circulation rate in the loop,
the temperature difference between inlet and
outlet of the ammonia converter is proportional
to the production per unit volume of gas passing
the converter .The optimal inlet temperatures is
the key factor of the catalyst beds. The fractional
conversion of nitrogen on the three catalyst beds
of the converter subject to variation of the inlet
temperature to each catalyst bed. Temperatures
on Percent Conversion Having obtained the
optimum inlet temperatures for each catalyst
bed, the optimum conversion, temperature
progression and reactant and product
concentrations along each catalyst bed. These
converter performance parameters are shown in
below Figures first figure shows a steady
increase in conversion along each catalyst bed
and Figure-18 shows the entire temperature of
the four catalyst beds of the ammonia
converter—temperature at the inlet, within and
at the outlet of the catalyst beds while Figure 5
shows the concentrations of the reactants
(hydrogen and nitrogen) and product (ammonia)
along each catalyst bed of the converter. The
reactants decreased in concentration while the
concentration of the product increased. A
comparison of the model prediction of converter
performance using values of inlet bed
temperatures from optimization results and
industrial plant values are presented in Table-14
(fractional conversion and inlet and outlet
temperature) and Table 2 (concentration of
reactants (Nitrogen and Hydrogen) and product
(Ammonia)). Table-15 and Table-16 show the
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possible improvements in the converter conditions to 0.2586 using optimized conditions.

performance when operated at the optimum
conditions as predicted from the optimization
performed on the converter. Below Table shows
that operating the converter at optimum
conditions obtained from the optimization
program results in an increase in the fractional
conversion of the reactants to product from
0.1949 as predicted by model using industrial
from 742.87 K to 716.60 K indicating more
efficient heat utilization resulting in a reduction
in temperature.
Table
This corresponds to a 42.38% increase from
predictions using industrial conditions. The inlet
temperatures at the optimum conditions were
higher for the first three beds and lower for the
fourth bed when compared with the industrial
inlet temperatures. Increase in optimum inlet
temperatures. The outlet temperature at the end
of the fourth catalyst bed also decreased

Fig-performance parameters

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Bed Bed Conversion Inlet Temperature 0C Outlet temperature,0C

length,(m) Model Optimization Model Optimization Model Optimization
1 1.3 0.0427 0.057 712 740 727.96 757.22
2 1.8 0.1034 0.1175 721 750 743.50 773.66
3 2.6 0.1493 0.1766 685 720 702.48 739.52
4 3.7 0.1949 0.2586 726 700 742.88 716.60
Table

Fig-Performance parameters
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Below table also shows that operating converter while the concentration of ammonia (the
at optimized conditions result in reduction in product) increased by 56.48% (from 0.1181 to
reactants concentration in each bed (increased 0.1838). These results (increase in fractional
rate
te of reaction) culminating in a 13.18% conversion, reduction in reactants concentration
(0.5317 to 0.4616 for the Hydrogen) and 23.84% and increase in product concentration) show
(0.1946 to for the Nitrogen) concentration improvements in converter efficiency when
respectively at the end of the fourth catalyst bed; operated at optimized conditions.
Sr. Bed Hydrogen Nitrogen Ammonia
No. Model Optimization Model Optimization Model Optimization
1 1 0.6395 0.5789 0.2314 0.1884 0.0445 0.1006
2 2 0.5967 0.5336 0.2157 0.1729 0.0748 0.1381
3 3 0.5621 0.4936 0.2056 0.1596 0.0978 0.1935
4 4 0.5317 0.4616 0.1946 0.1482 0.1181 0.1848
Table
Q.-56-What
What is the relation of Conversion Vs containing larger amounts of materials at this
Pressure of the converter? high pressure, lower pressures of around 200
Ans.- Refer below graph on the right which atm are used industrially.
records the yield of ammonia as a percentage at By using a pressure of around 200 atm and a
different pressures: At 200oC and pressures temperature of about 500oC, the yield of
above 750 atm there is an almost 100% ammonia is 10-20%,20%, while costs and safety
conversion of reactants to the ammonia product. concerns in the building and during operation of
Since there are difficulties associated with the plant are minimized.

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Graph
Q.-57- What isothermal ammonia converter
and what is the difference with adiabatic?
Ans.- Both isothermal and adiabatic installed
technologies share the common advantages of
the well-known Casale layout. The selected
configuration, namely 2 converters in series
(isothermal followed by adiabatic), gives high
per-pass conversion. This helps reduce the
circulation of the loop and therefore the total
pressure drop. Another factor positively
affecting the synthesis loop pressure drop is the
single-bed configuration of both converters, with
the application of Casale Axial-radial
technology, which is shown in Figure-20. As
will be explained in later sections of this paper,
the reduced load on the synthesis gas
compressor recycle wheel helped obtain
considerable energy saving. As mentioned
above, the first of the two converters has an
isothermal design. This converter was designed
with one axial radial bed directly cooled by
plates immersed in the catalyst. This allows a
simple mechanical design, which can be
installed in a shorter time in the existing
converter with respect to multi-bed layouts. The
exchanger plates are arranged radically-in a
vertical fashion and the cold gas inside the plates
flows in parallel with the reacting gas in the
catalyst. The Casale Isothermal Ammonia
Converter (IAC) replaces the commonly used
multiple adiabatic catalyst bed design and offers
higher per pass conversion. The design is based
on the use of cooling plates, directly immersed
into the catalyst to continuously remove the heat
while the reaction proceeds. As indicated in
below figure, the converter is designed to
precisely follow the maximum reaction rate
curve, therefore obtaining the maximum
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achievable conversion per pass. The design of
the internals has been carried out thanks to the
advanced modelling software, internally
developed by Casale, with the aim of obtaining
the optimal reaction path inside the converter.
Converter temperature control the converter
performance is optimized by controlling two
main variables: the inlet temperature of cooling
plates and the inlet temperature of the catalyst
bed. The plate’s inlet temperature is regulated
with 122-C bypass valves. The catalyst inlet
temperature is then regulated by mixing the hot
gas from the plates with a colds hot stream of
fresh gas. The efficient mixing of control
streams is provided by carefully designed
mixing devices, assuring the uniform conditions
of the gas entering the catalyst bed
Reliability of Casale Internals
The internals of the converters are designed in
order to allow free thermal expansion of all
components. The nozzle connections between
cartridge and pressure vessel and the connection
to the exchanger plates inside the cartridge use
expansion joints with internal sleeves, while all
the other joints internal to the cartridge use the
Casale patented elastic ring seal. In particular,
the internal connection between the bottom of
the 122-C and the outlet pipe with elastic ring
seal, allows for easy and fast maintenance since
the 122-C can be removed without cutting welds
inside the converter in an inert atmosphere.
Installation is easy as well and, as per Casale’s
well proven design, no welding on existing
pressure parts is performed. Moreover the single
bed configuration simplifies the design while
increasing the converter reliability and the
catalyst volume.
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Fig-Adiabatic Vs isothermal
Q-58-What
What is catalyst and how it is dangerous
to human health and urea plant?
Ans.-The
The aged catalyst deformed in dust
formation. Catalyst dust is a granular, gray
material comprised of amorphous silica (40 (40-
75%), aluminum oxide (25-60%) 60%) and trace
amountss (<0.1%) of heavy metals metals. It is
dangerous to human health when handling in
shut down. when it goes to urea plant the
ammonia pumps suction strainer get choked
choked. An
individuals’ exposure to catalyst dust depends on
their circumstances. During the release th the
catalyst was dispersed in the air. Persons in the
direct vicinity to the dust may have inhaled these
particles. Some dust released may have
deposited on outdoor surfaces. A person may be
exposed to catalyst dust by ingesting small
amounts of the dust thatt has settled on surfaces.
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This may happen when a person puts their hands
on a surface with dust on it and brings their hand
to their mouth (hand-to mouth contact) while
eating, smoking, etc.
Q-59-What is the MOC?
Ans.- The exchanger plates consist of AISI 321
stainless steel. The selected material of
construction for the plates is based on proven
technology that has been installed in other
converters. It should be noted that the operating
conditions of the exchanger plates are milder
than the rest of the internals
nternals (e.g. collectors)
since the cold gas flowing inside the plates keeps
the metal temperature at lower levels. The rest of
the internals have the same design features of all
Casale ammonia converters . In general all the
internals are constructed from
m AISI 321 stainless
steel, while thin parts like expansion joint
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bellows are made of Inconel alloy 600, Inconel
600 exhibits cold forming characteristics
normally associated with chromium-nickel
stainless steels. Typical corrosion applications
include titanium dioxide production (chloride
route), perchlorethylene syntheses, vinyl
chloride monomer (VCM), and magnesium
chloride. Inconel is much more expensive than
Q-60- What is adiabatic converter?
Ans.- In addition to the revamping of the first
synthesis converter, CFI requested that Casale
assess the feasibility of revamping the existing
additional converter. The second converter had
been idled for several years. As a result, this hot
walled converter, which has no internal
stainless steel alloys. Inconel also has much
better corrosion resistance and strength at high
temperatures.
cartridge, is now retrofitted to a single bed
adiabatic with Casale axial-radial internals
design .It is in series, after the isothermal
converter and it shares with the isothermal
converter the well-proven features of Casale
internals described above

Fig-Isothermal

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Fig-Adiabatic
Q-61- What is the difference of Horizontal has a significant impact on the overall energy
and Vertical Ammonia synthesis Converter? consumption. In order to achieve this without
Ans.- Ammonia synthesis converter is highly any impact on the safety and reliability of the
important as they must typical run for between plant, several aspects have a complicated
catalyst changes, without the need for repairs & mechanical design with multiple catalyst beds
inspection. In synthesis converter many licenser and are subject to different metallurgical
are involved in this field like Halder Topsoe, deterioration phenomena.
KBR & Casale. The performance converter also
Sr. Descripti Vertical Horizontal
No. on
1 Licenser Halder Topsoe M.W.KELLOG(KBR)
2 Abstract A vertical, cold wall, three bed A horizontal, cold wall, catalytic converter
ammonia converter having upper and useful in ammonia synthesis having an
lower shell and tube heat exchangers internal feed/effluent heat exchanger and
wherein the lower heat exchanger is plurality of catalyst beds arranged for
disposed axially within the upper, preheating reactant gases by indirect heat
annular catalyst bed and preheated exchange with effluent from the first
synthesis gas from the heat catalyst bed and subsequent gas flow to a
exchangers is initially converted in second catalyst bed the gas flows being
the middle catalyst bed which is directed by gas transfer means disposed
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penetrated by first, second, and third
coaxial pipes. Partially converted gas
from the middle catalyst bed flows
upwardly through the annulus formed
by the second and third axial pipes
through the hot side of the lower
exchanger and is then divided for
parallel flow through the upper
catalyst bed and, by way of the
annulus formed by the first and
second axial pipes, the lower catalyst
bed. Converted gas from the upper
and lower catalyst beds is then
combined and introduced to the hot
side of the upper feed/effluent
exchanger
3 Different Topsoe has 20 different products
ial available to combat reactor bed
Pressure fouling and control pressure drop
build-up, which may be applied in
combination, thus ensuring the
flexibility to address all potential
fouling problems in the hydro
treating reactor, as one graded bed
system does not work for all hydro
treating applications. Topsoe's graded
bed solutions are the most
widespread throughout the refining
industry and have been used in well
over 1,500 applications
4 Energy Topsoe's low energy ammonia
process scheme can be optimised for
a wide range of operating conditions
by selecting proper process
technology and by adjusting the
process parameters. Topsoe's
ammonia plant designs are
characterised by being highly energy
efficient. Compared to the S-200
converters, the presence of three
catalyst beds offers higher conversion
into ammonia and hence increased
production efficiency. Alternatively,
the catalyst volume can be reduced,
which lowers investment costs
compared to the previous generation
of converter design. When the S-300
basket is installed in an existing
ammonia converter pressure shell as
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between the first catalyst bed and the heat
exchanger. The low synthesis pressure
allows use of a single-barrel syngas
compressor and reduced pipe-wall
thicknesses, which reduces plant capital
cost. However, ruthenium metal costs have
varied significantly over the past ten years,
and the cost of the initial charge of KAAP
catalyst must be considered in evaluating
the overall economics and advantages of
the KAAP plus process
The present invention relates to a horizontal
converter adapted for use in the synthesis of
ammonia. More particularly, the present
invention involves a converter which has at
least two horizontal catalyst beds with a
low pressure drop design and where all the
synthesis gas passes through each of the
catalyst beds. Unique to the converter is an
inner cylindrical shell or basket with a gas
transfer section which passes the preheated
synthesis gas to the top of the first catalyst
bed and passes the gas from the bottom of
the first catalyst bed to heat exchange tubes
before passing through a tube to the second
catalyst bed.
A clean, dry make-up gas reduces the load
on the synloop compressor and refrigeration
systems, providing operational cost savings.
Mild reforming temperatures are used as
methane slip is unimportant, which reduces
fuel consumption and increases tube life.
Higher loop conversion is achieved with
low inerts. Purifier plants operate at some
of the lowest proven energy consumption; a
recent plant achieved an energy
consumption of 6.5 G.cal /MT(ISBL, LHV
basis)
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part of a revamp project, significant

energy savings can be achieved.
These advantages can be obtained in
connection with the revamp of both
Topsoe and non-Topsoe designed
converter types.
5 Catalyst Having a well functioning
KAAP Catalyst is the first major advance in
purification of the feedstock to the
catalyst technology since the original BASF
ammonia plant will have a great ammonia plant started up in 1913. The
impact on the performance of KAAP catalyst has an intrinsic activity ten
downstream processes and their to twenty times higher than conventional
catalysts and it will contribute to a
magnetite catalyst. This allows operation at
high on stream factor of the facility.
90 bar synthesis loop pressure, which is
We provide tailor made solutions one-half to two-thirds the operating
from our portfolio of purification
pressure of a conventional magnetite
catalysts and process layouts to meet
ammonia synthesis loop. At this low
the demand of each client.Topsoe is a
pressure, only a single-casing synthesis gas
leading catalyst supplier offering a
compressor is needed and pipe wall
diverse and full range of catalysts to
thicknesses are reduced. This results in
the ammonia industry. With superior
savings in plant capital equipment and
products combining features such as
operating costs .KAAP Catalyst is
activity, stability, selectivity and
manufactured and its operating
strength, Topsoe assists the ammonia
performance is guaranteed by BASF
industry with custom-made solutions
Catalysts LLC under exclusive license to
which optimise clients' production
KBR.KAAP synthesis catalyst uses
while reducing energy consumption.
ruthenium as the active ingredient on a
highly-stabilized graphitic base material.
KAAP™ catalyst is 10-20 times more
active than traditional magnetite catalyst,
which allows lower synthesis loop pressure
than is practical with magnetite catalyst.
6 Capital The Purge gas recovery system is No separate purge gas recovery unit is
Cost installed separately. needed because purge gas rejected from the
syn loop is passed through the Purifier™
unit. Very clean make-up gas provided by
KBR's Purifier™ process lowers synthesis
pressure, catalyst volume and purge rate,
which means that smaller synloop
equipment can be used

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7 Figure

8 Flexibility Two versions of the S S-300 converter Achieves greater stability and flexibility of
are available: One version has an operation, since the reforming section does
integral feed-effluent
effluent heat exchanger not need to be tightly controlled to produce
at the exit of the third cata
catalyst bed, a precise H2/N2 ratio. Maintains production
allowing the heat of reaction to be even in the event of catalyst deactivation
used for preheating boiler feed water upstream of the Purifier
downstream of the ammonia con -
verter. The second version is
designed without a feed
feed-effluent heat
exchanger, meaning that the outlet
gas from the third bed can go directl
directly
to a boiler for the production of high
high-
pressure steam.
9 Reliability Topsoe designs new line capacities Low reforming temperatures translate to
according to client wishes, and we lower stresses in and longer life of reformer
have developed designs for plants tubes. Numerous Purifier plants have run 3
with capacities up to 5,000 MTPD for - 4 years without a maintenance shutdown
new line capacities. Revamp projects
may focus on op optimising the plant's
energy efficiency or increasing
capacity.
Table- Differences

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Q-62-What is advantages of S-50 in series of
S-200?
Ans.- Installation of S-50 ammonia synthesis
converter along with waste heat boiler in
downstream of existing S-200 ammonia
synthesis converter is one of the major schemes
of Energy Saving Project of Ammonia plant.
The energy saving reported 0.18 G.Cal/T of
Ammonia. Several ammonia plants have
installed an additional ammonia synthesis
converter in combination with a HP steam waste
Fig-S-50 along with S-200
S-50 Loop a philosophy
1. Higher conversion 35.5 % as compared
to 28.3% in S-200
2. Ammonia concentration at the outlet of
S-50 = 24.35% as compare to 20.02% in
S-200
3. Lower circulation rate as compared to
S200 for same load
4. Higher steam generation 82 T/hr as
compared to 70 T/hr in S-200
5. In order to arrive at the most attractive
revamp scheme it is of paramount
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heat boiler, downstream of the existing ammonia
converter. The result is increased conversion per
pass, reduced compression requirements due to
the smaller recycle gas stream, and improved
waste heat recovery. Among the methodologies
aimed at finding energy saving opportunities,
pinch analysis linked to power and steam
modeling has proved to be a powerful way for
determining projects to improve the overall
energy efficiency of industrial sites.
importance that the scheme is optimized
based on the objective and the specific
conditions prevailing. The novel revamp
feature, the Haldor Topsøe ammonia
synthesis convertor S-50 is an attractive
alternative for increasing the capacity of
the reforming section in an ammonia
plant.
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Fig-S-50 & S-200

Q-63-What is the advantages of purge gas The ammonia recovery unit removes and
recovery unit? recovers the major part of the remaining
Ans.- In order to achieve optimum conversion in ammonia contained in the purge gas, let down
synthesis convertor, it is necessary to purge a gas and inerts vent gas from loop and the
certain quantity of gas from synthesis loop so as refrigeration circuit, respectively.
to as to reduce inerts concentration in the loop. Following benefits
Purge gas stream from ammonia process 1. Efficient and economical hydrogen
contains ammonia, hydrogen, nitrogen and other recovery: typically 80% to 98%
inert gases. Among them, ammonia itself is the recovery of feed H2 with a purity of 90
valuable product lost with the purge stream. volume % to 99 volume %
Moreover it has a serious adverse effect on the 2. Handles high feed pressures up to 170-
environment. This purge gas containing about 175 bars.
60% Hydrogen was fully utilized as primary 3. Reduce flaring and correct refinery fuel
reformer fuel. The recovered hydrogen is sent balance
back to the synthesis loop to increase production 4. Proven performance, long membrane
or save energy, as the quantity of hydrogen life, many references
produced by steam reforming can be reduced.

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Fig-Purge gas recovery

Q-64- How many process are used for purge methane and 4% ammonia in varying
gas recovery? concentrations, depending on the process in
Ans.- Following process are used for recovery of place at the ammonia plant. Instead of burning
Hydrogen from purge gases. purge gases, it makes good financial sense to
1. Membrane, recover valuable gases such as ammonia,
2. Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) hydrogen, nitrogen and argon.
processes and, Q-66-Which process is best for purge gas
3. Cryogenics Process recovery?
Q-65- What is the percentage of purge gas? Ans.- A hybrid membrane cryogenic process
Ans. - Typical purge gas contains about 60% improves energy efficiency. it cheap in energy
hydrogen, 20% nitrogen, 5% argon, 10% efficient.

Fig-PGR

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Fig-Ammonia synthesis
Q.-67-How to Calculate purges gas?
Ans.-Reaction takes place as
N2 + 3H2 ↔ 2NH3
Conversion per pass = 25%
Ammonia concentrate at exit of converter = 18 %
N2 reacted in the converter = 0.2 * K moles / hr
NH3 produced in the converter = 2 * 0.25x = 0.5x K moles / hr
Total gas leaving the converter = M- 0.25x = 0.75x + 0.5x
Total NH3 in the outlet gas = 0.5x + 0.9M – 4x K moles / hr
Assuming 56 % of NH3separated in the separator.
NH3 separated in the separator = (0.9M – 3.5x) * 0.56 K moles /hr
= 0.504M - 1.96x K moles / hr
NH3 uncondensed = (0.9M – 3.5x) * 0.44
= 0.96M – 1.54x K moles / hr
Composition of gas mixture leaving separator is
N2 = 0.75x
H2 = 2.25x
NH3 = 0.396M -1.54x
Inerts = 0.1M
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_______________________________________
Total = 0.496M + 1.46x
Let the purge be p Kg moles / hr
0.1M ∗ p
Inerts in purge =
0.496 + 1.46x
Inerts in the fresh feed = 513.9132 * 0.0106
= 5.471 Kmoles / hr
Now to maintain the inert level in the fresh feed
Inerts in the purge = inerts in the fresh feed
.
0.571 = ……………(2)
. .
Now R = (0.496M + 1.46x –p) Kmoles /hr
Substituting in (1)
M=0.496M + 1.46x –p +513.9132------------------------------(3)
Taking Nitrogen balance :
0.75 ∗ p
Nitrogen Loss in Purge =
0.496M + 1.46x
. . ∗
Nitrogen in recycle stream=
. .
Nitrogen in fresh feed = 136.686 K moles / hr
N2 in mixed feed = N2 in fresh feed + N2 in recycle
. . . ∗
𝑥=
. .
We get the equations as follows
M = R+ 513.9132 ---------------------(1)
0.1M ∗ p
5.471 =
0.496M + 1.46

M= 0.496M + 1.46x – p +513.9132 ------------(3)

136.686 + 0.75x − 0.75x ∗ P

𝑥=
0.496M + 1.46x

= 5.471 ----------(4)

Solving (2), (3) and (4) we get the values as

M = 2422.3275 K moles /hr
X= 513.47254 K moles/hr
P = 42.73 K moles / hr
No the composition of purge stream
0.75x ∗ p
𝑁2 =
0.496M + 1.46x
. ∗ . ∗ .
𝑁2 =
. ∗ . . ∗ .

= 8.4377 K moles / hr
. ∗ ∗
𝐻2 =
. .

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. ∗ . ∗ .
𝐻2 =
. ∗ . . ∗ .

= 25.3013 K mole / hr
( . . )
𝑁𝐻3 =
. .

(0.396 ∗ 2422.375 − 1.54 ∗ 513.4725)p

𝑁𝐻3 =
0.496 ∗ 2422.375 + 1.46 ∗ 513.4725
= 3.6897 K moles / hr
0.1M ∗ p
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑠 =
0.496M + 1.46x
. ∗ . ∗ .
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑠 =
. ∗ . ∗ .
= 5.2428 K moles / hr
Rate of Ammonia = Ammonia separated in separator +
Ammonia recovered in purge
Ammonia separated in separator = (0.9M – 3.5x) * 0.56
= 0.50M – 1.96x
= 0.504 * 2422.3275 – 1.96 * 513.4275
= 214.4469 K moles / hr
Total NH3 produce rate = 214.4469 + 3.6897
= 218.1366 K moles / hr
= 3708.3232 Kg / hr
= 88999.757 Kg / day
= 88.999 Tones / day
= 89 Tones / day
Recycled stream R = M – F
= 2422.3275 – 513.9132
= 1908.4143 K moles / hr
1908.4143
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
513.9132
= 3.7135 K moles / K moles of fresh feed
100 K moles / hr feed gives 218.1366 K moles / hr NH3 i.e. 89 tons / day of NH3
Q-68-What is the purpose of seal gas in process gas. Labyrinth seals are employed for
compressor? the external shaft sealing at both ends of shaft.
Ans,-Compressor process seals are designed to Besides, each bearing is incorporated in the head
seal the rotating assembly in the stationary so that the bearing can normally operate
compressor case to prevent the process gas in the concentrically with both internal and external
compressor from getting to the atmosphere and shaft sealing devices. As a result, bearings are
to prevent the atmosphere from getting into the very stable.
Q-69-What is turbine End sealing glands of main stream stop and control valves.
Ans.- The turbine gland sealing system This system also prevents air leakage into the
(TGSS) prevents the escape of steam from the low pressure turbine glands.
turbine shaft and casing penetrations and the

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Fig- CO2 Compressor seal diagram

Fig-Turbine sealing

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Fig- Compressor Sealing

Fig- Turbine & Compressor

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Fig-Turbine gland sealing

Fig-Steam turbine gland sealing

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Fig- Turbine sealing

Fig -Steam Network

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Fig-Compressor Start up curve

Fig- Oil flow diagram in Compressor & turbine

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Q-70- Why Steam gland sealing required?
Ans.-Gland sealing in steam turbines is labyrinth
type seal, the objective is to seal the clearance
between static and rotary part of turbine, in high
pressure zone of turbine there is a tendency of
high pressure steam leakage to the atmosphere
and at low pressure zone of turbine there is
tendency of air ingression due to vacuum
pressure. The steam turbine gland steam seal
system is designed to keep steam from leaking
out of the turbine and to prevent air from leaking
into the turbine. A gland seal system can be as
simple as a spray chamber under certain
conditions the gland is sealed by an auxiliary
steam supply, and under other conditions
the gland is self-sealed by turbine inlet steam.
At the start up condition of turbine the external
source of auxiliary steam is given to both end
Front and rear gland and when after start up the
steam leakage from pressure side is given to
vacuum side for sealing when the leakage is so
minimum the external import valve open for
achieving the required pressure (0.2-0.8
kg/cm2). The excess pressure more than set
value goes to condenser through Dump Valve.
Q-71-What is critical speed of compressor?
Ans. -The speed of the shaft at which
frequencies of stationary parts (casing) and
rotating parts (shaft and impeller) become equal,
a sudden heavy vibration is experienced which
can cause damage to both. The speed at which
this phenomenon occurs is called Critical Speed.
Q-72-What is surging?
Ans-When the head in the system increases
beyond the maximum head developed by the
compressor it will no longer be able to deliver
gases to the system. At this stage, gases will try
to flow back into the impeller where as the
2. Chemical reaction between chemicals in
the steam and the material in the turbine
blades. The first type is the most
3. Water, and is washed off with
Comparative ease, whereas the other
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impeller tries to blow the gases out. This will
results in unsteady state of the system and cause
heavy vibration. Sometimes resulting in damage
to Compressor.
Head equation H = (ZRTs/MW) (n/n-1)
{(Pd/Ps)(n-1/n) –1}
Lower Ts means Pd/Ps Should increase
I.e. Pd Increase &/OR Ps Decrease,
Lower MW Means Pd/Ps should decrease
I.e. Pd decrease &/OR Ps increase,
Lower Pd means Pd/Ps should decrease
I.e. Ps increase, similarly higher Pd means Pd/Ps
should increase i.e. Ps increase
Q-73 what is Choking or Stonewall?
Ans.- The Choke point is the maximum rate of
flow that a compressor can give at a given speed.
At this point the machine can no longer assure a
discharge head. This is not a dangerous
phenomenon. The Centrifugal compressor’s
operating range between Surge & Choke is
reduced as the pressure ratio per stage is
increased or the number of stages is added. This
is caused by the gas exceeding the speed of
sound. When the maximum velocity reaches the
speed of sound shocks are produced that limits
the flow and in order to increase flow, it is
necessary to increase the speed.
Q.-74- How is deposition on the turbine
blade?
Ans.- There are several types of Wang scaling
which form on the turbine blading and cause this
fouling/scaling. According to the analysis of the
process parameters, the impact on the process
was following are the causes of deposition.
1. Deposition of solids carried in the steam
from the boiler water
common, and is readily distinguished
from the other in that it is largely soluble
in
type of deposit adheres to the blades
very tenaciously.
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Poor quality of steam and high content of Na+
and SiO2 in steam caused scaling of the blades
and nozzles of the steam turbine, because we
used the steam from Fertilizers companies for
the purpose of process optimization and added
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) and Sodium
Phosphate (Na3PO4) & Silica (SiO2) for
regulating the pH value of boiler feed water and
for removing the scale.
Q-75- How to deposit these scale on the steam
turbine blade?
Ans.- Insufficient pre-treatment, depending on
quality of the Boiler feed water, sooner or later
usually leads to inorganic salt deposits, and thus
to a loss of efficiency of the turbine. At high
temperature and elevated pH of BFW the
deposition takes place on turbine blades, the
BFW contain some quantity of Phosphate, silica,
ammonia in ppm. Besides the possibility of an
elaborate mechanical cleaning it is sometimes
attempted to clean the turbine with saturated
steam or ammoniac alkaline rinses to remove
scaling on the closed machine. These procedures
Q-77- What is the cleaning procedure of
Turbine?
Ans.-Following are the cleaning procedure
1. Blasting with suitable medium(sand)
2. Water washing.
3. Hand cleaning with suitable solvent
4. Wet Steam Cleaning.
Q-78- What is wet cleaning turbine?
Ans.- After Compressor Stopped Condensate
export Pump (P-27) taken in line, make up valve
open, KS(live steam) valve closed and vent
valve to be opened. Oil circulation and barring
to be taken in line. When the line temperature
5. Reset the compressor.
6. Keep 1st I/valve full open and 2nd I/V
slightly open on the line connecting 15
ata motive steam and adjust the
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are far less effective than the mechanical
revision themselves.
Results of Poor Water Treatment In the ideal
situation, water would be feed to a boiler free of
any impurities. Unfortunately, this is not the
case. Water cleanup is always required. The
following items are the most problematic to
steam turbines: 1. Calcium (Ca) scale– Calcium
forms 2. With sulphates (SO4) and other
compounds to form calcium sulphate, calcium
bicarbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium
chloride, and calcium nitrate. 3. During
evaporation, these chemicals adhere to boiler
tube walls forming scale. Its formation increases
with the rate of evaporation so these deposits
will be heaviest where the gas temperatures are
highest. Scale is a non-conductor of heat which
leads to a decreased heat transfer of the boiler
tubes, and can result in tube failure due to higher
tube metal temperatures. Build-up of scale also
clogs piping systems and can cause control
valves and safety valves to stick.
came down to 2500 C then washing started as
per following steps. The washing arrangement as
per figure No. 4.and reading is tabulate as per
table no.1.
1. KS(very high pressure steam) steam
(live steam) all isolation valves closed
and bypass valve closed,
2. Lube oil pump running.
3. Condensate pumps running, it may be
stopped after 4-5 hrs. Make up valve
closed. And open drain valve.
4. CO2 suction line I / V open interlock to
be bypassed from Inst/maint.
condensate so as to maintain the line
temperature at 165°C to 175°C and
pressure about 10-11 ata.
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7. Follow the normal Compressor start up procedure may be shortened according

procedure. to the cleaning time or the purging may
8. After opening of HP/LP valves adjust not be conducted, but the condensate
the rpm of turbine to 800 to 1000 by must be drained.
adjusting the inlet steam. 12. The steam washing line with proper
9. Analyze the condensate for Phosphate, connections and support of the steam
silica, PH and conductivity after every lines to the turbine are important as well
two hours. as the steam drains with PG & TG
10. Washing to be carried out till the two arrangement and at least two drains line
consecutive readings are same. provided, If the steam supply lines are
11. The mixed steam is refilled to carry out putting a load on the turbine, it is likely
purging for 10～30 min. During the to cause the turbine to vibrate and will
purging via steam, the condensate and cause mechanical distress to the
impurities are drained through open attachment locations. Similarly, when
drain line when the filled condensate steam turbines are started, there is a
reaches 80% , and the condensate is warm-up time to heat the turbine to the
refilled and the vacuum zing is proper temperature level before
conducted after the drainage; the admitting full starting steam. The
cylinder drain and the inlet nipple are heating rate must be slowly up to 100
connected after the condensate is 0C and then rate should be 3-4 0 per
drained from the cylinder, meanwhile, minutes.
the main steam pipe is heated. The

Fig-steam Turbine wet cleaning arrangement.

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Table –Wet cleaning of Turbine

Conclusion
How did you like this volume of question answer, please write to me, my e mail address is –
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suggestion. Sorry if I made a mistake. If you have any type of questions then e mail me list of questions I
will try to answer in the next issue.

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