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 A TEXTBOOK OF

ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS
 A TEXTBOOK OF

ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS
[B.Tech./B.E., Semester–II]
(Strictly According to the Latest Revised Syllabus of
Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar)
For all Branches

By

N.P. BALI USHA PAUL

Formerly Principal, Formerly Head, Department of Mathematics,
S.B. College, Gurgaon Kanya Maha Vidyalaya, Jalandhar
Haryana Ex-Member Board of Studies
Ex-Member Faculty of Sciences
Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar
Punjab

LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD

(An ISO 9001:2008 Company)

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BOSTON (USA) ∑ ACCRA (GHANA) ∑ NAIROBI (KENYA)
A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

© by Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

All rights reserved including those of translation into other languages. In accordance with the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012,
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 CONTENTS
PART-A
Chapters Pages
1. ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 3–57
1.1 Definitions 3
1.2 Geometrical Meaning of a Differential Equation of the First Order and First Degree 4
1.3 Formation of a Differential Equation 5
1.4 Solution of Differential Equations of the First Order and First Degree 9
1.4 (a) Variables Separable Form 9
dy
1.4 (b) Differential Equations of the Form = f (ax + by + c) 9
dx
1.5 Homogeneous Differential Equation and its Solution 13
1.6 Equations Reducible to Homogeneous Form 17
1.7 Exact Differential Equations 19
1.8 Theorem 20
1.9 Equations Reducible to Exact Equations 24
1.9 (a) I.F. Found by Inspection 24
1.9 (b) I.F. for a Homogeneous Equation 26
1.9 (c) I.F. for an Equation of the Form yf1(xy) dx + xf2 (xy) dy = 0 27
1.9 (d) I.F. for the Equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 29
1.9 (e) I.F. for the Equation of the Form xayb (my dx + nx dy) + xc yd (py dx + qx dy) = 0
(where a, b, c, d, m, n, p, q are all constants) 31
1.10 Differential Equations of the First Order and Higher Degree 33
1.11 Equations Solvable for p 34
1.12 Equations Solvable for y 37
1.13 Equations Solvable for x 38
1.14 Clairaut’s Equation 40
1.15 Definition of Leibnitz’s Linear Differential Equation 42
dy
1.16 Solve the Linear Differential Equation + Py = Q 42
dx
1.17 Equations Reducible to the Linear Form (Bernoulli’s Equation) 45
Review of the Chapter 52
Short Answer Type Questions 54
2. LINEAR ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF SECOND AND HIGHER
ORDER 58–110
2.1 Definitions 58
2.2 The Operator D 58
2.3 Theorems 59
(L)
(LE) CONTENTS
2.4 Auxiliary Equation (A.E.) 59
2.5 Rules for Finding the Complementary Function 60
1
2.6 The Inverse Operator 63
f (D)
2.7 Rules for Finding the Particular Integral 64
2.8 Working Rule to Solve the Equation 69
2.9 Method of Variation of Parameters to Find P.I. 82
2.10 Operator Method 86
2.11 Cauchy’s Homogeneous Linear Equation 90
2.12 Legendre’s Linear Equation 97
2.13 Simultaneous Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients 100
Review of the Chapter 107
Short Answer Type Questions 109
3. APPLICATION OF ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 111–157
3.1 Introduction 111
3.2 Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.) 111
3.3 Application of Differential Equations to Electric Circuits 116
3.4 Basic Relations between Elements of Electric Circuits 117
3.5 Symbols and Units Used for the Elements of Electric Circuits 117
3.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws 117
3.7 Differential Equation of an Electric Circuit in Series Containing Resistance and Self
Inductance (R, L Series Circuit) 117
3.8 (a) Differential Equation of an Electrical Oscillatory Circuit Containing Inductance and
Capacitance with Negligible Resistance (L.C. Circuit) 122
3.8 (b) Differential Equation of an L.C. Circuit with E.M.F. k cos nt 123
3.9 (a) Differential Equation of Electrical Series Circuits Containing Induction, Capacitance
and Resistance (L.C.R. Circuit) with Negligible E.M.F. 125
3.9 (b) Differential Equation of L.C.R. Circuit with E.M.F. k cos nt 126
3.10 Simple Pendulum 138
3.11 Gain or Loss of Beats 139
3.12 Deflection of Beams 142
3.13 Boundary Conditions 143
3.14 Conduction of Heat 146
3.15 Newton’s Law of Cooling 148
3.16 Rate of Growth or Decay 150
3.17 Chemical Reactions and Solutions 151
Review of the Chapter 154
Short Answer Type Questions 156
PART-B
4. LINEAR ALGEBRA 161–247
4.1 What is a Matrix? 161
4.2 Elementary Transformations (or Operations) 162
4.3 Elementary Matrices 163
4.4 The following Theorems on the Effect of E-operations on Matrices Hold Good 163
4.5 Inverse of Matrix by E-operations (Gauss-Jordan Method) 164
CONTENTS (LEE)
4.6 Working Rule to Reduce a Square Matrix to a Unit Matrix I by Elementary Transformations
(For Convenience We can Consider a Matrix A of Order 4 ¥ 4) 164
4.7 Normal Form of a Matrix 168
4.8 For any Matrix A of Order m ¥ n, find Two Square Matrices P and Q of Orders m and n
éI r 0ù
Respectively such that PAQ is in the Normal Form ê ú 168
ë 0 0û
4.9 Rank of a Matrix 169
4.10 Working Rule to Determine the Rank of a Matrix 169
4.11 Properties of the Rank of a Matrix 169
4.12 Consistency and Solution of Linear Algebraic Equations 176
4.13 If A is a Non-Singular Matrix, then the Matrix Equation AX = B has a Unique Solution 178
4.14 Vectors 187
4.15 Linear Dependence and Linear Independence of Vectors 188
4.16 Linear Transformations 190
4.17 Orthogonal Transformation 191
4.18 (a) Orthogonal Matrix 191
4.18 (b) Properties of an Orthogonal Matrix 192
4.19 Complex Matrices 196
4.20 (a) Conjugate of a Matrix 196
4.20 (b) Conjugate Transpose of a Matrix 196
4.21 Hermitian and Skew Hermitian Matrix 196
4.22 (a) Unitary Matrix 197
4.22 (b) Properties of a Unitary Matrix 197
4.23 Characteristic Equation, Characteristic Roots or Eigen Values, Trace of a Matrix 200
4.24 Eigen Vectors 200
4.25 Properties of Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors 201
4.26 Cayley Hamilton Theorem 206
4.27 Diagonalizable Matrices 213
4.28 Similar Matrices 220
4.29 Theorem, Similar Matrices have the Same Characteristic Equation (and Hence the Same
Eigen Values). Also if X is an Eigen Vector of A Corresponding to Eigen Value l Then P–1
X is an Eigen Vector of B Corresponding to the Eigen Value l, where P is Similarity Matrix 220
4.30 The Necessary and Sufficient Condition for an n Rowed Square Matrix A to be Similar
to a Diagonal Matrix is that the Set of Characteristic Vectors of A Includes a Set of n
Linearly Independent Vectors 221
4.31 Mutual Relations between Characteristic Vectors Corresponding to Different
Characteristic Roots of Some Special Matrices 226
4.32 Column Vectors of a Unitary Matrix are Normal and Orthogonal in Pairs 227
4.33 (a) Orthonormal System of Vectors 228
4.33 (b) Every Orthonormal Set of Vectors is Linearly Independent 228
4.34 Any Two Characteristic Vectors Corresponding to Two Distinct Characteristic Roots of a
Hermitian Matrix are Orthogonal 228
4.35 Any Two Characteristic Vectors Corresponding to Two Distinct Characteristic Roots of a
Unitary Matrix are Orthogonal 229
4.36 Quadratic Form 230
(LEEE) CONTENTS
4.37 Linear Transformation of a Quadratic Form 231
4.38 Canonical Form 231
4.39 Index and Signature of the Quadratic Form 232
4.40 Definite, Semi-definite and Indefinite Real Quadratic Forms 232
4.41 Law of Inertia of Quadratic Form 232
4.42 Lagrange’s Method of Reduction of a Quadratic Form to Diagonal Form 232
4.43 Reduction to Canonical Form by Orthogonal Transformation 238
Review of the Chapter 241
Short Answer Type Questions 243
5. INFINITE SERIES 248–337
5.1 Sequence 248
5.2 Real Sequence 248
5.3 Range of a Sequence 248
5.4 Constant Sequence 248
5.5 Bounded and Unbounded Sequences 248
5.6 Convergent, Divergent, Oscillating Sequences 249
5.7 Monotonic Sequences 250
5.8 Limit of a Sequence 250
5.9 Every Convergent Sequence is Bounded 251
5.10 Convergence of Monotonic Sequences 251
5.11 Infinite Series 253
5.12 Series of Positive Terms 254
5.13 Alternating Series 254
5.14 Partial Sums 254
5.15 Convergence, Divergence and Oscillation of an Infinite Series (Behaviour of an
Infinite Series) 254
5.16 Nature of Geometric Series 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ...... to • 255
5.17 Necessary Condition for Convergence of a Positive Term Series 256
5.18 A Positive Term Series Either Converges or Diverges to + • 257
5.19 (a) The Necessary and Sufficient Condition for the Convergence of a Positive Term Series
Sun is that the Sequence {Sn} of its Partial Sums is Bounded Above 257
5.19 (b) Cauchy’s General Principle of Convergence of Series 257
5.19 (c) If m is a Given Positive Integer, then the Two Series u1 + u2 + ...... + um+1 + um+2 +
...... un and um+1 + um+2 + ...... un Converge or Diverge Together 258
5.19 (d) If Sun and Svn Converge to u and v Respectively, then S(un + vn) Converges to (u + v) 260
5.20 Comparison Tests 261

å
1
5.21 An Important Test for Comparison known as p-Series Test for the Series .
np
[Hyper Harmonic Series or p-Series] 265
5.22 D’ Alembert’s Ratio Test 276
5.23 Raabe’s Test 288
5.24 Logarithmic Test 289
5.25 Gauss Test 290
5.26 Cauchy’s Root Test 305
CONTENTS (EN)
5.27 Cauchy’s Integral Test 309
5.28 Leibnitz’s Test on Alternating Series 315
5.29 (a) Absolute Convergence of a Series 320
5.29 (b) Conditional Convergence of a Series 320
¥
5.30 Every Absolutely Convergent Series is Convergent or if åu
n =1
n is Convergent, then

åu
n =1
n is Convergent 321

5.31 Power Series 322

5.32 Uniform Convergence of Series of Functions 326
5.33 Weierstrass’s M-Test 327
5.34 How to Test a Series for Convergence? 329
Review of the Chapter 329
Short Answer Type Questions 332
6. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX
VARIABLE 338–449
6.1 Recapitulation of Complex Numbers 338
6.2 Complex Numbers 338
6.3 De-Moivre’s Theorem 339
6.4 Roots of a Complex Number 1 357
6.4 (a) Show that there are q and only q Distinct Values of (cos q + i sin q) q , q Being a
(a) Positive Integer 357
6.4 (b) Show that (cos q + i sin q)p/q has q and only q Distinct Values, p and q Being
Integers Prime to Each Other 358
6.4 (c) Show that the q Values of (cos q + i sin q)p/q Form a Geometrical Progression whose
(c) Sum is Zero, p and q being Integers Prime to each other of (cos q + i sin q)p/q 360
6.5 (a) Express cosn q in Terms of Cosines of Multiples of q (n Being a Positive Integer) 373
6.5 (b) Express sinn q in a Series of Cosines or Sines of Multiples of q According as n is
an Even or Odd Integer 376
6.6 Expansion of cos nq and sin nq (n Being a +ve Integer) 382
6.7 (a) Expansion of tan nq 384
6.7 (b) Expansion of tan (q1 + q2 + q3 + ...... + qn) 384
6.8 Formation of Equations 390
6.9 Exponential Function of a Complex Variable 394
6.10 Circular Functions of a Complex Variable 395
6.11 Trigonometrical Formulae for Complex Quantities 396
6.12 Logarithms of Complex Numbers 399
6.13 General Exponential Function 403
6.14 (a) Hyperbolic Functions 409
6.14 (b) Relations between Hyperbolic and Circular Functions 410
6.14 (c) Prove that Hyperbolic Functions are Periodic and find their Periods 410
6.15 Formulae of Hyperbolic Functions 411
6.16 Inverse Trigonometrical Functions 424
6.17 Inverse Hyperbolic Function 426
6.18 C + iS Method of Summation 431
Review of the Chapter 443
Short Answer Type Questions 446
 Preface to the Tenth Edition
It is with the grace of God and over whelming response given by learned professors and discerning students
that our book ‘A Textbook of Engineering Mathematics’ is gaining increasing popularity. We thank the
almighty that our hardwork paid off and also place on record our sense of gratitude to the esteemed readers for
their so much appreciation of our work.
Every year we revise the book as per university and our readers’ requirements and bring the necessary
alterations in the subject matter of the book. This edition of the book is strictly according to the revised
syllabus of Engineering Mathematics-II. Authors observed that these days the trend of paper setting of
various universities is to test the general understanding of the subject. So keeping in view this trend, this new
edition is revised with lot of care, dedication and patience.
The following are the salient features of this edition :
(i) Many new solved examples and problems are added in each chapter. Also hints are given alongside
typical unsolved problems.
(ii) Where needed, recapitulation of the topic is given in the beginning of the chapter. Working rules for
lengthy formulae are also given.
(iii) At the end of each chapter ‘Review of the Chapter’ is introduced so that students can revise the chapter
at a glance. Also at the end of each chapter ‘Short Answer Type Questions’ are given which form compulsory
section (containing ten questions each of two marks) of the paper.
The present edition includes all the questions set in last ten years university papers mostly in the form of
solved examples—these will certainly make students familiar with university pattern.
We have tried our best to make the book ‘mistake-free’ but inspite of our best efforts some errors might have
crept in the book. Report of any such error and all suggestions for improving the future edition of the book are
welcome and will be gratefully acknowledged.
It is hoped that book in its new form will attract more readers and will be found to be of much more utility.
We wish our readers the very best of luck for their brilliant success in life.
—AUTHORS

(NE)
 Preface to the First Edition
This book of Mathematics has been specially written to meet the requirements of B.E./B. Tech. first year
students of various institutions, universities and Engineering Courses.
The salient features of the book are :
(i) The book presents the subject matter in a very systematic, simple and lucid style, so that students
themselves will be able to understand the solutions of the problems.
(ii) Each chapter starts with necessary definitions and complete proofs of the standard theorems followed
by solved examples. For convenience of students, working rules for the applications of theorems in questions
are given. Also lists of important results are given at the end of chapters, where needed.
(iii) For convenience of students, lengthy chapters are divided into small units.
(iv) In the beginning of some chapters, some reference topics are discussed in detail inspite of the fact that
these topics are not in the syllabus of certain universities. It is done because without the knowledge of these
topics students cannot understand the main topic of the syllabus.
(v) The most distinguished and outstanding feature of this book is that each topic contains a large number
of solved examples (Simple as well as typical). Many examples have been selected from various university
papers so as to make students familiar with university pattern.
This book serves triple purpose viz. textbook, help book and solved university papers and authors are sure
that the study of this book will instill confidence in students.
The authors of the book possess more than three decades of rich experience of teaching Mathematics to
graduate as well as Postgraduate classes and have first hand experience of the problems and difficulties faced
by students.
Suggestions for improvement of the book will be most gratefully received.
—AUTHORS

(NEE)
 Syllabus
PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, JALANDHAR
BTAM102, Engineering Mathematics-II
Objective/s and Expected outcome:
The learning objectives of core mathematics courses can be put into three categories: Content Objectives:
Students should learn fundamental mathematical concepts and how to apply them. Skill Objectives: Students
should learn critical thinking, modeling/problem solving and effective uses of technology. Communication
Objectives: Students should learn how to read mathematics and use it to communicate knowledge. The stu-
dents are expected to understand the fundamentals of the mathematics to apply while designing technology
and creating innovations.
PART-A
1. Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order
Exact Differential equations, Equations reducible to exact form by integrating factors; Equations of the
first order and higher degree. Clairaut’s equation. Leibniz’s linear and Bernoulli’s equation. (7)
2. Linear Ordinary Differential Equations of Second and Higher Order
Solution of linear Ordinary Differential Equations of second and higher order; methods of finding
complementary functions and particular integrals. Special methods for finding particular integrals: Method
of variation of parameters, Operator method. Cauchy’s homogeneous and Legendre’s linear equation,
Simultaneous linear equations with constant coefficients. (7)
3. Applications of Ordinary Differential Equations
Applications to electric R-L-C circuits, Deflection of beams, Simple harmonic motion, Simple population
model. (7)
PART-B
4. Linear Algebra
Rank of a matrix, Elementary transformations, Linear independence and dependence of vectors,
Gauss-Jordan method to find inverse of a matrix, reduction to normal form, Consistency and solution of
linear algebraic equations, Linear transformations, Orthogonal transformations, Eigen values, Eigen
vectors, Cayley-Hamilton Theorem, Reduction to diagonal form, orthogonal, unitary, Hermitian and
similar matrices. (7)
5. Infinite Series
Convergence and divergence of series, Tests of convergence (without proofs): Comparison test, Inte-
gral test, Ratio test, Raabe’s test, Logarithmic test, Cauchy’s root test and Gauss test. Convergence and
absolute convergence of alternating series. (7)
6. Complex Numbers and Elementary Functions of Complex Variable
De-Moivre’s theorem and its applications. Real and Imaginary parts of exponential, logarithmic, circular,
inverse circular, hyperbolic, inverse hyperbolic functions of complex variables. Summation of trigono-
metric series. (C+iS method). (7)
(NEEE)
 PART-A
1. Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order
2. Linear Ordinary Differential Equations of Second
and Higher Order
3. Application of Ordinary Differential Equations
 1
Ordinary Differential
Equations of First Order

1.1. DEFINITIONS
(i) A differential equation is an equation involving differentials or differential coefficients. Thus
2
dy d2 y æ dy ö
= x2 - 1 …(1) + 2ç ÷ + y = 0 …(2)
dx dx 2 è dx ø
dy c
(x + y2 – 3y) dx = (x2 + 3x + y) dy …(3) y=x + …(4)
dx dy
dx
3
d y3 2
d y dy æ dy ö
3 é æ dy ö 2 ù 2 d2y
+2 . + x2 ç ÷ = 0 …(5) ê1 + ç ÷ ú = k . 2 …(6)
dx 3 dx 2 dx è dx ø è dx ø ú dx
ëê û
¶u ¶u ¶2 z ¶2 z
x +y = nu …(7) + = x+ y …(8)
¶x ¶y ¶x 2 ¶y 2
are all differential equations.
(ii) Differential equations which involve only one independent variable and the differential coefficients
with respect to it are called ordinary differential equations.
Thus equations (1) to (6) are all ordinary differential equations.
(iii) Differential equations which involve two or more independent variables and partial derivatives with
respect to them are called partial differential equations.
Thus equations (7) and (8) are partial differential equations.
(iv) The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest order derivative occurring in the
differential equation. (P.T.U., Jan. 2009)
Thus equations (1), (3) and (4) are of first order ; equations (2) and (6) are of the second order while
equation (5) is of the third order.
(v) The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest order derivative which occurs in the
differential equation provided the equation has been made free of the radicals and fractions as far as the
derivatives are concerned. (P.T.U., Jan. 2009)
Thus, equations (1), (2), (3) and (5) are of the first degree.
2
dy æ dy ö
Equation (4) is y = xç ÷ + c
dx è dx ø
It is of the second degree.
3 2
é æ dy ö 2 ù æ d2yö
Equation (6) is ê1 + ç ÷ ú = k 2 ç 2 ÷
êë è dx ø úû è dx ø
It is of the second degree.
3
4 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

(vi) Solution of a Differential Equation. A solution (or integral) of a differential equation is a relation, free
from derivatives, between the variables which satisfies the given equation.
Thus if y = f (x) be the solution, then by replacing y and its derivatives with respect to x, the given
differential equation will reduce to an identity.
For example, y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x
d2y
is the solution of the differential equation +y=0
dx 2
dy
Since = - c1 sin x + c2 cos x
dx
d2 y
= - c1 cos x - c2 sin x = - y
dx 2
d2y
+y =0
dx 2
The general (or complete) solution of a differential equation is that in which the number of independent
arbitrary constants is equal to the order of the differential equation. (P.T.U., Dec. 2005)
Thus, y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x (involving two arbitrary constants c1, c2) is the general solution of the
d2y
differential equation + y = 0 of second order.
dx 2
A particular solution of a differential equation is that which is obtained from its general solution by
giving particular values to the arbitrary constants.
d2y
For example, y = c1 ex + c2 e– x is the general solution of the differential equation - y = 0, whereas
dx 2
y = ex– e– x or y = ex are its particular solutions.
The solution of a differential equation of nth order is its particular solution if it contains less than n
arbitrary constants.
A singular solution of a differential equation is that solution which satisfies the equation but cannot be
derived from its general solution.

1.2. GEOMETRICAL MEANING OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF THE FIRST

ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE

æ dy ö
Let f ç x, y, ÷ = 0 …(1)
è dx ø
be a differential equation of the first order and first degree.
We know that the direction of a curve at a particular point is determined by drawing a tangent line at that
dy
point, i.e., its slope is given by at that particular point.
dx
dy0
Let A0 (x0 , y0) be any point in the plane. Let m0 = be the slope of the curve at A0 derived from (1).
dx0
dy1
Take a neighbouring point A1 (x1 , y1) such that the slope of A0 A1 is m0. Let m1 = be the slope of the
dx1
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 5
curve at A1 derived from (1). Take a neighbouring point A2 (x2 , y2) such Y A4
that the slope of A1 A2 is m1. Continuing like this, we get a succession
of points. If the points are taken sufficiently close to each other, they A3
approximate a smooth curve C : y = f(x) which is a solution of (1)
corresponding to the initial point A0 (x0 , y0). Any point on C and the A2
slope of the tangent at that point satisfy (1). If the moving point starts at A1
any other point, not on C and moves as before, it will describe another A0
curve. The equation of each such curve is a particular solution of the
O X
differential equation (1). The equation of the system of all such curves is
the general solution of (1).

1.3. FORMATION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

Differential equations are formed by elimination of arbitrary constants. To eliminate two arbitrary constants,
we require two more equations besides the given relation, leading us to second order derivatives and hence
a differential equation of the second order. Elimination of n arbitrary constants leads us to nth order derivatives
and hence a differential equation of the nth order.
Let f (x, y, c1, c2, ..., cn) = 0 …(1)
be an equation containing n arbitrary constants c1, c2, ..., cn (sometimes called parameters)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x successively n times, we get
f1 (x, y, c1, c2, L, cn,
dy
)= 0 U|
dx
|
f2 (x, y, c1, c2, L, cn,
dy d 2 y
,
dx dx 2
)= 0 V| …(2)

dy d 2 y dny ||
and fn (x, y, c1, c2, L, cn,, 2 , L, n ) = 0
dx dx dx
Eliminating c1, c2, L, cn from (1) and (2), we get
W
dy d 2 y dn y
f (x, y,
, 2 , L, n ) = 0
dx dx dx
which is required nth order differential equation.
Hence nth order differential equation has exactly n arbitrary constants in its general solution.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1. Eliminate the constants from the following equations:
(i) y = e x (A cos x + B sin x) …(1) (P.T.U., June 2003)
(ii) y = cx + c 2 (P.T.U., Dec. 2003)
(iii) y = Aex + Be–x + C (P.T.U., May 2004)
and obtain the differential equation.
Sol. (i) There are two arbitrary constants A and B in equation (1).
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we have
dy
= e x (A cos x + B sin x) + e x (– A sin x + B cos x) = y + e x (– A sin x + B cos x) …(2)
dx
6 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Differentiating again w.r.t. x, we have

d2y dy dy æ dy ö
= + e x ( - Asin x + Bcos x ) + e x (- A cos x - Bsin x ) = + ç - y÷ - y
dx 2 dx dx è dx ø
[Using (1) and (2)]

d2 y dy
or - 2 + 2 y = 0, which is the required differential equation.
dx 2 dx
(ii) y = cx + c2 ...(1)
Equation has only one parameter ‘c’
dy
=c ...(2)
dx
Eliminate c from (1) and (2), we get
2
dy æ dy ö
y= x. +ç ÷
dx è dx ø
2
æ dy ö dy
or çè ÷ø + x - y = 0 ; required differential equation.
dx dx
(iii) y = Aex + Be–x + C ...(1)
Equation has three arbitrary constants so differentiate (1) thrice
dy
= Aex – Be–x ...(2)
dx
d2y
= Aex + Be–x
dx 2
d3y dy
= Aex – Be–x = [From (2)]
dx 3
dx
\ Required differential equation is
d3y dy
= .
dx 3
dx Y
Example 2. Find the differential equation of all circles passing through
the origin and having centres on the axis of x.
Sol. The equation of such a circle is (x – h)2 + y2 = h2
or x2 + y2 – 2hx = 0 …(1) h
O
C ( h , 0) X
where h is the only arbitrary constant.
dy
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we have 2x + 2y – 2h = 0
dx
dy
or h=x+y
dx
æ dy ö
Substituting the value of h in (1), we have x2 + y2 – 2x ç x + y ÷ = 0
è dx ø
dy
or 2 xy + x2 - y 2 = 0
dx
which is the required differential equation.
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 7
Example 3. Form the differential equation of all circles of radius a.
Sol. The equation of any circle of radius a is (x – h)2 + ( y – k)2 = a2 …(1)
where (h, k), the coordinates of the centre are arbitrary.
dy
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we have 2 (x – h) + 2 (y – k) =0
dx
dy
or ( x - h) + ( y - k ) =0 …(2)
dx
2
d2y æ dy ö
Differentiating again, we have 1 + (y – k) +ç ÷ = 0 …(3)
dx 2 è dx ø
2
æ dy ö
1+ ç ÷
è dx ø
From (3), y-k = -
d2y
dx 2
dy é æ dy ö ù
2
ê1 + ç ÷ ú
dy dx ëê è dx ø ûú
and from (2), x - h = - ( y - k) =
dx d2y
dx 2
Substituting the values of (x – h) and ( y – k) in (1), we get
2 2
æ dy ö é æ dy ö ù é æ dy ö 2 ù
2 2
+
çè ÷ø ê çè ÷ø ú
1 ê1 + ç ÷ ú
dx êë dx úû êë è dx ø úû
2
+ 2
= a2
æ d2 yö æ d2yö
ç 2÷ ç 2÷
è dx ø è dx ø
2 2 2 3
é æ dy ö 2 ù
éæ dy ö 2 ù æ d2 yö é æ dy ö 2 ù æ d2yö
or êç ÷ + 1ú = a 2 ç 2 ÷ or ê1+ ç ÷ ú = a 2 ç 2 ÷
ê1 + ç ÷ ú
è dx ø ú
è ø êë è dx ø ûú
ëê ëê dx
û ûú è dx ø è dx ø
which is the required differential equation.
Example 4. Find the differential equations of all parabolas whose axes are parallel to y-axis.
(P.T.U., May 2002)
2
Sol. Equations of the parabolas whose axes are parallel to y-axis is (x – h) = 4a (y – k) …(1)
where a, h, k are three parameters.
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x three times, we get
dy
2 (x – h) = 4a
dx
dy
or x – h = 2a
dx
d2y
Differentiate again 1 = 2a
dx 2
8 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Differentiate third time, we get

d3 y d3 y
0 = 2a or =0 (Q a ¹ 0)
dx 3 dx 3
Hence differential equation of given parabolas is
d3 y
= 0 or y3 = 0.
dx 3
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Eliminate the arbitrary constants and obtain the differential equations :
1. y = cx + c2 2. y = A + Bx + Cx2 3. y = A cos 2t + B sin 2t
3x 2x x –x
4. y = Ae + Be 5. y = Ae + Be +C 6. y = ax3 + bx2
x –x
7. xy = Ae + Be +x 2
8. x = A cos (nt + a) 9. y = ae2x + be– 3x + cex
10. Ax2 + By2 = 1 11. y2 – 2ay + x2 = a2 12. e2y + 2ax ey + a2 = 0
Find the differential equations of:
13. All straight lines in a plane. [Hint: Equation of the lines are y = mx + c]
14. All circles of radius r whose centres lie on the x-axis. [Hint: (x – a)2 + y2 = r2 only a is parameter]
15. All parabolas with x-axis as the axis and (a, 0) as focus. [Hint: y2 = 4ax]
16. All conics whose axes coincide with the axes of co-ordinates. [Hint: ax2 + by2 = 1]
17. All circle in a plane.
18. All circles in the first quadrant which touch the co-ordinate axes [Hint: (x – a)2 + (y – a)2 = a2]
19. All circles touching the axis of y at the origin and having centres on the x-axis.
[Hint: Same as solved example 2]
20. All parabolas with latus rectum ‘4a’ and axis parallel to the x-axis.
[Hint: (y – k)2 = 4a (x – 4) two parameters h and k]

ANSWERS
dy æ dy ö
2
d3y d2y
1. x +ç ÷ = y 2. =0 3. + 4y = 0
dx è dx ø dx 3
dt 2
d2y dy d3y dy 2 d2y dy
4. -5 + 6y = 0 5. - =0 6. x - 4x + 6y = 0
dx 2 dx dx 3 dx dx2 dx
d2y dy d 2x d3y dy
7. x +2 + x 2 - xy - 2 = 0 8. + n2x = 0 9. -7 + 6y = 0
dx 2 dx dt 2
dx 3 dx
2 2
d2y
æ dy ö
10. xy 2 + x ç ÷ - y
dx è dx ø
dy
dx
=0 11. x 2
- 2 y2  æ dy ö
çè ÷ø - 4 xy
dx
dy
dx
- x2 = 0

é æ dy ö 2 ù
2
d2 y
1 - x  æ dy ö 2
2 =0 y ê1 + ç ÷ ú = r 2
12. çè ÷ø + 1 = 0 13. 14.
êë è dx ø úû
dx dx2
2
dy d2y æ dy ö dy
15. y = 2a 16. xy + x ç ÷ =y
dx dx2 è dx ø dx
2
é æ dy ö 2 ù d 3 y dy æ d 2 y ö é dy ö
2ù
dy ö
2
17. ê1 + ç ÷ ú 3 - 3 ç ÷ =0 18.  x - y 2 ê1 + çèæ ÷
æ
ú =çx + y ÷
êë è dx ø úû dx dx è dx2 ø êë dx ø úû è dx ø
3
2 2 dy d2y æ dy ö
19. x - y + 2 xy =0 20. 2a + ç ÷ = 0.
dx dx2 è dx ø
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 9
1.4. SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER AND
FIRST DEGREE
All differential equations of the first order and first degree cannot be solved. Only those among them
which belong to (or can be reduced to) one of the following categories can be solved by the standard
methods.
(i) Equations in which variables are separable.
dy
(ii) Differential equation of the form = f (ax + by + c).
dx
(iii) Homogeneous equations. (iv) Linear equations. (v) Exact equations.

1.4(a). VARIABLES SEPARABLE FORM

If a differential equation of the first order and first degree can be put in the form where dx and all terms
containing x are at one place, also dy and all terms containing y are at one place, then the variables are said to
be separable.
Thus the general form of such an equation is f (x) dx + f (y) dy = 0
Integrating, we get ò f (x) dx + ò f (y) dy = c which is the general solution, c being an arbitrary constant.
Note. Any equation of the form f1 (x) f2 (y) dx + f2 (x) f1 (y) dy = 0 can be expressed in the above form by dividing
throughout by f2 (x) f2 ( y).
f1 ( x) f1 ( y)
Thus dx + dy = 0 or f (x) dx + f (y) dy = 0.
f 2 ( x) f 2 ( y)

dy
1.4(b). DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FORM = f(ax + by + c)
dx
It is a differential equation of the form
dy
= f(ax + by + c) …(1)
dx
It can be reduced to a form in which the variables are separable by the substitution ax + by + c = t.
dy dt dy 1 æ dt ö
so that a+b = or = ç - a÷
dx dx dx b è dx ø
1 æ dt ö dt
\ Equation (1) becomes ç - a÷ø = f (t ) or = a + b f (t ) .
b è dx dx
dt
or = 2
a + b f (t )
After integrating both sides, t is to be replaced by its value.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

dy æ dy ö
Example 1. Solve : y - x = a ç y2 + ÷ .
dx è dx ø
dy
Sol. The given equation can be written as y (1 – ay) – (x + a) =0
dx
10 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

dx dy
or =
x+a y (1 - ay)

dx æ1 a ö
Integrating both sides, we have ò x + a = ò çè y + 1 - ay ÷ø dy + c [Partial fractions]

é log (1 - ay) ù
Þ log (x + a) = êlog y + a . ú+c
ë -a û
Þ log (x + a) – log y + log (1 – ay) = log C, where c = log C

( x + a) (1 - ay )
Þ log = log C Þ (x + a) (1 – ay) = Cy
y

which is the general solution of the given equation.

Note. Here c is replaced by log C to get a neat form of the solution.

p
Example 2. Solve : 3 ex tan y dx + (1 + ex) sec2 y dy = 0, given y = when x = 0.
4

3e x sec 2 y
Sol. The given equation can be written as dx + dy = 0
1+ e x tan y
Integrating, we have 3 log (1 + ex) + log tan y = log c
Þ log (1 + ex)3 tan y = log c
Þ (1 + ex)3 tan y = c …(1)
which is the general solution of the given equation.
p
Since y = when x = 0, we have from (1)
4
(1 + 1)3 ´ 1 = c Þ c=8
\ The required particular solution is (1 + ex)3 tan y = 8.
dy
Example 3. Solve x cos x cos y + sin y = 0. (P.T.U., Dec. 2002)
dx
dy
Sol. x cos x cos y + sin y =0
dx
dy
or x cos x cos y = – sin y
dx
or x cos x dx = – tan y dy

z z
Integrating both sides,
x cos x dx = – tan y dy + c

or
z
x sin x – 1 . sin x dx = log cos y + c
x sin x + cos x = log cos y + c.
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 11
dy
Example 4. Solve xy = 1 + x + y + xy. (P.T.U., Dec. 2003)
dx
dy
Sol. xy = (1 + x) + y (1 + x)
dx
= (1 + x) (1 + y)
y dy 1+ x
= dx
1+ y x

z z
Integrating both sides,
y 1+ x
dy = dx + c
1+ y x

or
z FGH 1-
1
1+ y
dy =
IJ
K
1
x z FH
+ 1 dx + c

y – log (1 + y) = log x + x + c
I
K
or x – y + log x (1 + y) = – c = c¢.
dy
Example 5. Solve (x + y + 1)2 = 1.
dx
dy dt dy dt
Sol. Putting x + y + 1 = t, we get 1+ = or = -1
dx dx dx dx
æ dt ö dt 1+ t2
\ The given equation becomes t 2 ç - 1÷ = 1 or =
è dx ø dx t2
t2
Þ dt = dx
1+ t2
æ 1 ö
Integrating, we have ò ç 1 - 1 + 2 ÷ dt =
è t ø ò dx + c = dx or t – tan– 1 t = x + c

or (x + y + 1) – tan– 1 (x + y + 1) = x + c
or y = tan– 1 (x + y + 1) + C, where C = c – 1.
dy
Example 6. Solve = sin (x + y). (P.T.U., May 2006)
dx
Sol. Put x + y = t
dy dt
\ 1+ =
dx dx
dy dt
\ = –1
dx dx
\ Given equation changes to
dt
- 1 = sin t
dx
dt
= 1 + sin t
dx
dt
or = dx
1 + sin t
12 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Integrate both sides,

dt
ò 1 + sin t = ò dx + c
1 - sin t
or ò cos 2 t
dt = x + c

ò (sec )
2
or t - tan t sec t dt = x + c
or tan t – sec t = x + c
or sin t – 1 = (x + c) cos t
Substitute back the value of t
sin (x + y) – 1 = (x + c) cos (x + y).

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Solve the following differential equations :
dy dy y
1. = e2x + 3y 2. = (P.T.U., Dec. 2005)
dx dx x
dy x  2 log x + 1
3. (a) (x + y) (dx – dy) = dx + dy (b) =
dx sin y + y cos y

dy p dy 1 - y2
4. x + cot y = 0 if y = when x = 2 5. + =0
dx 4 dx 1 - x2

y dy
6. y 1 - x 2 dy + x 1 - y 2 dx = 0 7. . = 1 + x2 + y 2 + x2 y 2
x dx

y

8. e 1 + x
2
 dydx - 2 x 1 + e  = 0
y
9. sec2 x tan y dx + sec2 y tan x dy = 0 (P.T.U., Dec. 2002)

sec 2 x sec 2 y
[Hint: dx = – dy Integrate, log tan x = – log tan y + log c \ tan x tan y = c]
tan x tan y

10.  x - yx  dydx + y
2 2 2
+ xy 2 = 0 11. 1 + x  dy - x y dx = 0 , if y = 2 when x = 1
3 2

dy dy
= e x - y + x 2 e- y = 4 x + y + 1
2
12. a (x dy + y dx) = xy dy 13. 14.
dx dx

dy dy
15.  x + y 2 = a2 16. sin (x + y) dy = dx 17. = cos ( x + y )
dx dx
[Hint: Consult S.E. 6] (P.T.U., June 2003]
dy dy
18. = sin ( x + y ) + cos ( x + y ) 19. tan y = sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x - y )
dx dx

dy
[Hint: tan y = 2 sin x cos y ; Integrate ò tan y sec y dy = ò 2sin x dx + c, sec y = - 2cos x + c ]
dx

dy
20. - x tan ( y - x) = 1 . [Hint: Put y – x = t]
dx
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER 13
ANSWERS
1. 3 e2x + 2e– 3y = c 2. y = cx
3. (a) x + y = c ex – y, (b) y sin y = x2 log x + c 4. x sec y = 2
3
5. y 1 - x 2 + x 1 - y 2 = c 6. 1 - x2 + 1 - y 2 = c 7. 1 + y2 =
2
3

1 + x2  2 +c

y

8. 1 + e = c 1 + x
2
 9. tan x tan y = c
æ xö 1 1
10. log ç ÷ - - = c
è yø x y

y x x3
11. y3 = 4 (x3 + 1) 12. y = a log (xy) + c 13. e = e + +c
3

æ y - cö
14. 4x + y + 1 = 2 tan (2x + c) 15. x + y = a tan ç 16. tan (x + y) – sec (x + y) = y + c
è a ÷ø

æ x + yö é æ x + yö ù
17. x + c = tan ç 18. log ê1 + tan ç =x+c 19. 2 cos x + sec y = c
è 2 ÷ø ë è 2 ÷ø úû

x2
20. log sin ( y – x) = +c.
2

1.5. HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND ITS SOLUTION

dy f1 ( x, y )
A differential equation of the form dx = f ( x , y ) …(1)
2
is called a homogeneous differential equation if f1 (x, y) and f2 (x, y) are homogeneous functions of the same
degree in x and y.
If f1 (x, y) and f2 (x, y) are homogeneous functions of degree r in x and y, then
æ yö
f1 (x, y) = xr f1 æ y ö and f2 (x, y) = xr f2 ç ÷
çè x ÷ø è xø

æ yö
f1 ç ÷
dy è xø æ yö
\ Equation (1) reduces to = = Fç ÷ …(2)
dx æ yö è xø
f2 ç ÷
è xø
y dy dv
Putting = v i.e., y = vx so that = v+ x
x dx dx
dv
Equation (2) becomes v+x = F (v)
dx
dv dx
Separating the variables, =
F(v ) - v x
y
Integrating, we get the solution in terms of v and x. Replacing v by , we get the required solution.
x
Another random document with
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“Nor soul helps body more
Than body soul.”
Page 184
 It may be thought that educational work is specially suitable for
Chinese women, and perhaps something of it is already known in
England, while other forms of activity are less known and less
approved, but from the time of the opening of China’s doors to
Western influence they have been eager to seize the new
opportunities, and have become an important factor in the national
life. “While not yet numerous, modern Chinese women,” says Dr.
Rawlinson, “are beginning to exert a tremendous influence” (China in
Contemporaneous Literature). The first woman’s newspaper in the
world was written and edited by Chinese women, and in Peking the
ladies of the gentry some nine or ten years ago organized a club
under the leadership of Princess Kalachin, called the “Women’s
Mutual Improvement Club,” and this is entirely unconnected with
foreigners. The special object of this club is discussion, and Chinese
women have proved themselves already to be excellent speakers,
having very pleasant voices and a good self-possessed manner,
which inspires respectful attention. They have appeared on platforms
where such a thing would have been scouted with horror not twenty
years ago.
As doctors, Chinese women have already proved their efficiency,
and the names of Dr. Ida Kahn and Dr. Mary Stone are everywhere
held in high respect.[26] In the new Rockefeller Medical School at
Peking women students are admitted, and girls as soon as it was
announced entered their names. In various parts of China women
are training for the medical profession, as well as in Great Britain
and America. I was greatly impressed by the nurses also in various
hospitals, especially those in the Women’s Hospital at Swatow.
There had been over a hundred and thirty midwifery cases in the
previous six months, and Dr. Heyworth told me she had been able to
leave nearly all of them to her Chinese assistants and nurses. They
are often sent for to visit outlying villages and they are doing
splendid work. What is everywhere the one essential is to have
thoroughly competent foreigners to train Chinese girls till such time
as native training schools in Western methods have been
established.
 Chapter IX
The Youth of China

“Crabbèd Age and Youth

Cannot live together:
Youth is full of pleasance,
Age is full of care;
Youth like summer morn,
Age like winter weather;
Youth like summer brave,
Age like winter bare.
Youth is full of sport,
Age’s breath is short;
Youth is nimble, Age is lame;
Youth is hot and bold,
Age is weak and cold;
Youth is wild, and Age is tame.
Age, I do abhor thee;
Youth, I do adore thee.”

—The Passionate Pilgrim.

Chapter IX
The Youth of China

The Spirit of Youth is one of the most marvellous possessions of

humanity. It is not possessed by young people in all countries, nor
indeed by all the young in any country, or at any given time. We
heard a good deal about Young Turkey and Young Egypt, but neither
of those countries have the Spirit of Youth, nor had China until quite
 GRASS RAINCOAT.

recently. Of all the poets Shakespeare speaks most of this Spirit of

Youth, for he lived in a time when it shone forth resplendent, spelling
high endeavour, the joy of life, ardour, courage, chivalry, beauty,
faith. It has its drawbacks, of course—conceit, wilfulness, turbulence,
impatience of control, of law, of order. But it is a splendid thing, and
the salvation of a weary world.

“There are four seasons in the mind of man:

He has his lusty Spring, when fancy clear
Takes in all beauty with an easy span:
He has his Summer, when luxuriously
Spring’s honey’d cud of youthful thought he loves
To ruminate, and by such dreaming high
Is nearest unto heaven.”

This spirit of youth has taken possession of the student world of

China to-day, and is mainly responsible for the rapidly changing
mettle of the whole race. It is frequently in sharp antagonism to the
traditions of the past, as for instance with regard to age itself. The
reverence due to age is a great quality and has been of untold value
to the Chinese, but carried to the extreme of veneration it has
arrested progress and has won a false value.
In the old days all positions of importance were given to middle-
aged or elderly men—men of weight. Such a fact as Pitt becoming
prime minister at the age of twenty-four would have seemed to them
grotesque and foolish in the extreme. That a young man should be a
man of weight was unthinkable. But now you find young Chinamen in
most responsible posts, as their nation’s representatives at the court
of St. James, or in Paris or Washington. It is a young Chinaman who
by his eloquence and personality wins the admission of China to the
Council of the League of Nations. They are men who have all had
Western training, but that alone does not account for their influence.
From one end of China to the other I found that the temper of the
youth was wholly unlike what it was ten years ago (on the occasion
of my last visit), although the change had already begun then. Not
only is the veneration for the aged changing, but also the veneration
for antiquity, which has been one of the greatest hindrances to
progress in the past. Everywhere the young people are taking upon
themselves an active share in local affairs and also in affairs of the
State. Sometimes this shows itself in rather an amusing way and
sometimes with regard to matters of vast importance. Of the latter it
will suffice to mention the decision of the Republican Government to
make Confucianism the state religion. No sooner was the
announcement made than from every quarter the Government was
bombarded with telegrams from bodies of students, protesting “we
will not have Confucianism as a state religion”; and they won the
day.
As an instance of the authority of students in local matters, I came
across a college, a member of which had gone to study in Japan. He
was engaged to be married to a Chinese girl, but fell a victim to the
charms of a Japanese girl and married her. On his return he decided,
after some difficulties with the family of his fiancée, to marry her as
his secondary wife. Then the students were all up in arms. He had
committed the crime against patriotism of marrying a Japanese, and
now, forsooth, he would add another by taking a Chinese girl as
secondary to the Japanese! They not only forbade him to do this, but
also fined him a heavy sum of money and made him pay it.
The Japanese question has roused every student community in
this empire, and they have allied themselves with merchants on the
subject—an entirely new combination. They have not merely shown
their feelings by extensive looting and destruction of Japanese
goods, and boycotting of them in the markets, but after the Treaty of
Versailles they rose as one man to execrate the officials who were
concerned with the betrayal of Chinese interests to Japan, and
demanded that they should be dismissed from office. All the schools
and colleges went on strike and hundreds of students were
imprisoned. In vain the Government tried to put down the movement,
but it was so universal, and had so won the support of the
shopkeepers (these put up their shutters with notices that this was
done in support of the students’ demands), that the Government was
again forced to give way and punish the offenders.
While much is known here of the divided political condition of
China, but little is heard of this important solidarity. The importance
of such occurrences lies mainly in the fact that these are the outward
signs of a “Tide of New Thought,” as it has been called in Chinese.
This new vitality is pulsating more or less through the people of the
whole empire, but especially and with intense vigour in the student
world. It has driven them to violent and undisciplined action, so that
many people see in it the germs of revolution. But one must not
forget that the political Revolution has already become an
accomplished fact, and that the new movement is mainly one of
educational and social reform, and that the political faith of students
is Republicanism. The anti-Japanese feeling is due to the
determined infiltration of the Japanese into the country, and more
especially their action with regard to Shantung. Japan lost a
priceless opportunity of making alliance with China and vindicating
herself before the world, when she broke faith with regard to giving
back Tsingtau to China at the end of the war. This has had important
results on the student movement by leading the students to rapid
concerted action and showing them their power to control the action
of Government. However, this is but a temporary matter, while the
recent literary and social renaissance is likely to have a permanent
influence on the national life.
The effect of the new movement on literature of all kinds is
particularly interesting. The daily press and the reviews and
magazines are full of new thoughts and reflect all the currents of
opinion of the Western world. The critical spirit leaves no problem
unstudied; the political agitation in India, the Sinn Fein outrages in
Ireland, the labour troubles in England are accurately reported in the
Chinese daily press. Judgment is being passed on the results of our
civilization, and the future shaping of China’s destiny depends
largely on that judgment.
One of the most momentous days in all the history of the race was
when the Dowager Empress decided to sweep away the old system
of education after her great defeat by the Western Powers in 1900. It
was an amazing volte-face on the part of one of the most bigoted
autocrats that the world has seen. She saw that the root of all her
difficulties in finding the right kind of officials was lack of well-
educated persons in the social class from which such officials are
chosen, so she issued an edict in 1904 which bore the stamp of
Yüan Shih-k’ai and Chang Chih-tung, destroying at one blow the old
educational system. The document is curious and even a little
pathetic. She ordained that graduation in the new colleges should be
the only way to official position, pointing out that colleges had been
in existence more than two thousand five hundred years ago, and
that the classical essay system was quite modern—only having
existed about five hundred years.
She also gave orders that more students should be sent to Europe
and America—some were already going there—instead of to Japan,
whose revolutionary influence she mistrusted.
The greatest difficulty in effecting so great a change was to find
teachers fitted for the task. The seed had happily been planted
during the last half-century in mission schools, and from them a
certain small supply of teachers was obtainable. Chang Chih-tung
considered that three months’ study of textbooks would make a
competent teacher! Another immense difficulty was to find funds for
so vast an enterprise. The gentry were urged to found and support
schools, and an official button was granted to those who did so.
Chang Chih-tung worked out the whole scheme: colleges, schools of
various grades, curricula, regulations as to discipline, etc. etc. All
these things are set forth in five official volumes, and thus the
national system of education was inaugurated. Obviously so great a
change could not be wrought without many difficulties cropping up.
The main difficulty was lack of discipline, and that is the case to-day;
the student considers that he, or she (for the same spirit pervades
girls’ schools), ought to dictate to the master, instead of master to
pupil. In the early days of the system it was the easier for the pupils
to succeed, in that so many of the teachers were wholly
inexperienced and were afraid of losing their posts unless they gave
way. Although the above edict professes to train men in China itself
for official positions it was supplemented by provision for sending
students abroad, in order that they might be the better able to bring
their country into line with Western civilization.
With the coming of a Republican Government further progress
was made in the educational system in connexion with change in the
language, of which I have given details in Chapter II. The most
important fact with regard to the educational change is that it found a
prepared soil in which to grow, and there is reason to believe that the
roots are striking deep. The rapidity with which Japan adopted
Western ideas is known to every one, for it has enabled her to
become a world power by developing her army, navy and commerce
in an incredibly short space of time. She has used Western science
as the tool to secure military glory and territorial expansion. These
are not the things which appeal to the Chinese. Their renaissance is
on wholly different lines. Their gaze is turned inward rather than
outward, and the things of the foreign world interest them mainly as
shedding light on their own problems. This is the one characteristic
of the old Chinese temper which remains unchanged. The fierce ray
of criticism is turned on their own past; history, art, philosophy and
literature are now being sifted to see what is their actual value. But
the chief object of study in China to-day is man himself, his progress
and welfare, both in this world and in the next.[27]
The decay of the old religions must have a great influence on
student life, and the fact that a large proportion of the temples are
now used as school buildings is proof—if proof be needed—that the
use for them as temples has gone. Many people have thought it a
great step in advance that the old superstitions are being swept
away; but what is to take their place? The Chinese are feeling after a
more philosophical form of religion. Men like Yen Hsi Shan spend
time daily in meditation and worship of the one true God. The tide of
rationalism and positivism in Europe has swept even as far as the
shores of China, and has influenced many thoughtful men. In an
important journal called La Jeunesse, a well-known Chinese writer,
Peng-I-Hu, says, “I am not a member of any church, I am not
interested in protecting any organization or advocating the
excellency of any particular religious faith. But I have often felt that
religion contains within it the highest ethics, and so I think that if we
want imperfect mankind to make progress towards perfection, we
cannot lightly set religion aside.”
Large numbers of students have come into contact with
Christianity, and at this moment more than ever before they are
critically examining what it is worth. By means of the literature
dealing with the higher criticism (which is to be found in all the cities
of China), they are familiar with the problems confronting students in
the West: and these problems interest them immensely. But in the
long run it is not so much theory as practice that will influence young
China in its religious beliefs.
In the past, Chinese students have mainly got their Western
education in Western schools and colleges, where Christian doctrine
is an important part of the curriculum. They have had the opportunity
of studying the lives of their teachers and judging the practical value
of Christian ideals. Where use has been made of such institutions for
political or commercial propaganda, the result is obvious; but this
has been the rare exception in the past, though there seems to be a
growing tendency to it in certain recent institutions. Governments
which complain of the difficulties which missions have brought into
international relations, have often in the past made use of these
same difficulties to promote their own interest. No more cynical
statement could be made than that of the German Government with
regard to Shantung about the murder of two German missionaries:
“La Providence a voulu que la nécessité de venger le massacre de
nos missionaires nous amenât a acquérir une place commerciale de
première importance.” The Chinese have long memories, and they
will not forget such things. It is foolish to expect people to
discriminate accurately between the actions of a foreign power and
the missions of the same race.
The worst indictment that can be made against the missionaries
and their institutions, in my opinion, is that their teaching has been in
some cases narrow and in many cases superficial for want of
sufficient teachers and educational requisites, due to lack of funds.
The strain on missionary societies to supply these funds has been
far heavier than the general public is aware of, and the need has
been only met by a small section of the Christian community. Had
the community as a whole realized their responsibility, China would
have had better and more thorough teaching: even now it is not too
late to help her in the great educational enterprise on which she has
embarked. America is alive to the fact, but England is not. One great
step in advance is, however, in course of achievement, and that is
the union of the greater number of the different societies in the work
of central colleges and universities, which is a great gain, both from
the educational and the religious point of view.
At the present time the one vital requisite for China is to have a
thoroughly efficient training in all branches of education, especially,
of those men who are to be her leaders. Statesmen, lawyers,
doctors, engineers, bankers, men of science, literature and art are
needed, and all must, above all things, be men of high purpose and
spotless integrity. It is the corruption of men in authority which has
brought China to so low a condition, and which hinders her taking
her place among the ruling nations. Obviously she is not in a position
to-day to do this without help. The students in training to-day number
roughly eight millions, not to mention the vast number of boys
employed in agriculture and industry, who also have a claim to
teaching. One interesting feature of the student movement is the
sense of obligation now growing up amongst the students to share
their knowledge with their poorer neighbours. Night schools are
being established by them (in which they teach) not only for poor
children, but also for farmers, labourers, etc., in all parts of the
country. They also give popular lectures on such subjects as
hygiene, patriotism and politics.
During the terrible famine raging last winter, numbers of students
did relief work, and not only helped the sufferers, but had valuable
practical training in organized social service. Another feature of the
movement is this social service; here again trained leaders are
urgently needed. The experience which we have so painfully gained
during the last century we ought surely to share with them.
There are very few purely Chinese educational institutes of the
highest grade. The most important of any is without doubt the
National University of Peking, founded twenty-three years ago.
Under the influence of the present Chancellor, Tsai Yuanpei, it has
become an efficient school and centre of the new educational
movement. He has collected a staff of men trained in Western
thought to replace the former inefficient elderly staff. The present
Minister of Education, Fan Yuen Zien, made a trip to Europe and
America in 1918, and as a result of it has initiated a scheme for
having special scholars from the West to become annual lecturers at
the university. The first appointment was John Dewey, from
Columbia, U.S.A., then Bertrand Russell, from Cambridge, England,
and now it seems likely that Bergson will be invited from France and
Einstein from Germany. This suggests the spirit of the new learning.
Such a Minister of Education has much influence, and is promoting a
liberal educational policy. The university has departments of Law,
Literature and Science. Its influence is felt not only in Peking, but
throughout the country.
The Hong Kong University is of considerable importance, but as
the teaching is entirely in English, that is still a bar to many students.
It was started by Sir Frederick Lugard, and with the generous help of
many Chinese and a wealthy Parsee merchant, not to mention the
grant of a magnificent site by the Government of Hong Kong, the
university was launched in 1912. It was established mainly for the
use of the Chinese, but open to “students of all races, nationalities
and creeds,” and was to promote the “maintenance of good
understanding with the neighbouring Republic of China”—so runs
the Hong Kong Government ordinance of 1911. The first three chairs
established were Medicine, Applied Science, and Arts. In order to
meet the needs of men adopting an official career in China, the
requisite Chinese subjects are included.
A new university has been already planned by a Chinese
merchant at Amoy, Mr. Dan, and I visited the site on which it is to be
built. The donor is a man of humble birth. He has already founded
boys’ and girls’ schools near Amoy on most generous and modern
lines, of which further details are given in the following chapter.
Although not a member of any Christian body, he is most generous
in lending the buildings for Christian conferences and allowing
absolute liberty to Christian teachers in his schools to give religious
teaching to the scholars out of school hours.
Having referred to one of the most important non-religious
educational institutions for the Chinese, I will mention the most
important missionary ones. Of these St. John’s College, Shanghai, is
one of the oldest and most efficient, and is responsible for the
training of some of the leading men in China to-day. Recently the
college has added Medicine to the subjects taught in what has now
become the St. John’s University. It grants degrees, and is in close
touch with American universities. There are two other American
denominational universities, and five union and interdenominational
universities, also many important colleges, such as the Anglo-
Chinese College at Tientsin, the Trinity College at Foochow, the
Canton Christian College, the Hangchow College, the Shanghai
Baptist College, etc. etc.; but what are these in comparison with the
millions of China?
One very grave drawback to the present state of educational
affairs is that our British universities have made no attempt to
recognize the degrees and diplomas granted by these colleges and
universities with the exception of the Hong Kong University, which
has a special charter to that effect. Whereas in America every
university of importance welcomes Chinese students for post-
graduate study and grants them diplomas, not one of our universities
does this. All the students study the English language, and every
year sees them more prepared to make use of training in our
universities; but those educationists who know China best are
convinced that it is far better for her sons and daughters to study in
their own land till they have got a good sound general education, and
then come to England, say at the age of about twenty; they will then
be able to gain much more from what they see and learn than they
could do at an earlier age. With a mature judgment they will not be
so apt to get false impressions, as they are otherwise likely to do,
and will know how to select from the wealth of knowledge to which
they have access.
Nowadays the question of child labour is being considered, and
this is the more important because factories are springing up
everywhere. Field labour is hard on child life, but not nearly so
injurious as factory life. A large part of this industrial expansion is
American and European; therefore it is a grave responsibility for
such firms to ensure that the Chinese shall see Western
industrialism at its best, especially as regards the welfare of children
and women.
It would be neglecting a matter of great potential importance to the
future of young China if the history of the Scout Movement were
omitted. Curiously enough it seems to have been started at New
York, by the Chinese Students’ Club, in 1910, and from there to have
been carried to China itself about a couple of years later. In 1915
there was a special rally of scout troops from Canton and Shanghai,
in which three hundred boys took part, and Chinese boys figured at
the great scout Jamboree in England in 1920, when twenty thousand
boys of all races met in one great Brotherhood. The movement has
been so far mainly promoted by missionary institutions, who have
wisely recognized its attractiveness and importance to Chinese boys.
The great difficulty has been to find suitable scoutmasters, but time
should mend this. The Scout Rule is the same here as elsewhere,
and membership is open to every class of the community. Its
international value is a matter of no small importance.
 A natural question arises in every one’s mind with regard to the
possibility of maintaining the same high spirit in a troop of Oriental
boys as in an English troop, where tradition already helps this so
tremendously. I make no apology for quoting a striking illustration
from a recent magazine article of the fact that the Scout spirit of
honour, of preparedness, of active goodwill and of physical fitness is
found in Chinese scouts. “The young captain of the ‘soccer’ team
was visibly nettled. The game was a stiff one. His team were all, like
himself, Chinese boys at the Griffith John College, in Central China.
But a forward had ‘muffed’ an open shot at goal and a half-back had
‘funked’ tackling a big fast forward of the opposing team, while one
or two of the opponents had run perilously near to fouling.
“So his nerve had got ‘rattled.’ One of the English masters was
watching the game. He was also Scoutmaster of the troop in which
the Chinese boy was a scout of some standing. He saw the boy fast
losing his temper. Suddenly, in a momentary lull in the game, the
master from touch whistled the refrain of the Scout Call.
“In a flash the Chinese boy-captain realized the childishness of his
action and recovered himself. His face broke into its old customary
smile. With a laugh he rallied his side and swung forward with them.
They won the match.” (Outward Bound.)
To sum up the main points of the student situation: their actual
demands at the present time are for self-determination, self-
government and the abolition of the Tuchun system, namely the
military government of the provinces. If these are their demands, it is
well to consider what they have already accomplished: they have
created a student organization, with unions in every part of the
country; they have broken down sex prejudice in an extraordinary
way; they have aroused the interest of the masses of the common
people; and they have proved strong enough to alter Government
action. These are things which certainly justify their title to serious
consideration of their demands.
There is a wonderful spirit of hope and courage growing up, and it
is worth noting that this new nationalism has been singularly free
from the outrages to be found in popular movements in the West.
The natural ebullience—to use an ugly but expressive word—of
youth has on the whole shown itself wiser and more keen-sighted
than could have been expected under the circumstances, and gives
great hope for the future. The special stress laid on social service
and voluntary work is of great promise, and missions may justly
claim that it is the outcome of their work for the sick, the insane, the
blind, the deaf and dumb, the orphans and the poor. They have put
an ideal before the race, and the young are accepting it.

A medical student.
 Chapter X
Some Chinese Seaports and Commerce

“The problems of the Pacific are to my mind the world

problems of the next fifty years or more. In these problems we
are, as an Empire, very vitally interested. Three of the
dominions border on the Pacific; India is next door; there, too,
are the United States and Japan. There, also, in China the
fate of the greatest human population on earth will have to be
decided. There Europe, Asia and America are meeting, and
there, I believe, the next great chapter in human history will
be enacted. I ask myself, what will be the character of that
history? Will it be along the old lines? Will it be the old spirit of
national and imperial domination which has been the undoing
of Europe? Or shall we have learned our lesson? Shall we
have purged our souls in the fires through which we have
passed? Will it be a future of peaceful co-operation, of friendly
co-ordination of all the vast interests at stake? Shall we act in
continuous friendly consultation in the true spirit of a society
of nations?”—General Smuts.

Chapter X
Some Chinese Seaports and Commerce

Last year I went down the China coast twice from Shanghai to
Hong Kong, and it is a most interesting trip, especially if you stop at
the ports and see their multitudinous activities. Their variety is most
striking: no two are alike, and even the sails are different in every
port down the coast.
I have already spoken of Hangchow, capital of Chekiang, so the
 RAIN AT AMOY.

next on my list is Wênchowfu, in the same province. The approach to

it is up a lovely creek and river, as fair a scene as can be imagined.
When I looked at it in the evening light from the top of a hill, the
wealth of vegetation and the network of river and canals for irrigation
show how rich the land is; the waterways are also the roads by
which the district is most easily visited. Besides lofty trees, there
were clumps of bamboo, which seem to be used for every
imaginable purpose. They grow an inch in a night, and it is usual for
bamboos to grow thirty inches in a month: this is their average
height, but some varieties grow to 120 feet. Then they put out
numerous shoots and the main stems harden. The delicate shoots
are eaten like asparagus, and the seeds are also used as food: there
is a Chinese proverb that they are specially numerous when the rice
crop fails. The stem is high and hard and jointed: one joint is big
enough to make an excellent bucket, another will be used for a bottle
or a cooking vessel, and the outer shell is so siliceous that it acts as
a whetstone.
 On reaching Wênchowfu I took a ricksha and went in search of the
missionaries. Though an unexpected guest, I received a friendly
welcome from Mr. and Mrs. Slichter, of the China Inland Mission, and
they took me to see the city and surroundings. It is a treaty port,
facing the Eastern Sea, and its streets are bright and clean, full of
attractive shops. Inlaid soapstone is one charming industry: the silks
manufactured here are fine and costly, two or three dollars per foot.
The people are brusque and independent in their manners, but very
responsive to missionary work, and they become staunch and loyal
adherents to Christianity. We visited an interesting temple put up
recently by the local trade guilds to two officers who refused to
acknowledge the Republic. These guilds are thoroughly democratic
and date from time immemorial: they are still all-powerful in China
and regulate trade throughout the empire, despite the changing
times. Every self-respecting merchant belongs to one. The guilds are
now showing signs of dealing with the price of labour, which is a
highly significant fact. They do not brook Government interference
with their members, of whom they take a sort of paternal care.[28]
These guilds are not only of great value to the Chinese, but also to
foreigners, who can apply to their members either directly or by
agents, called compradores, belonging to the same guild, whom
foreigners can employ to transact business for them. In Canton there
are no less then seventy-two guilds.
We went to visit an English United Methodist community, but as it
was Saturday afternoon we found no one at home. They have a
large work in a hundred and fifty stations, but only one European
worker! They also have a big hospital, but their one and only English
doctor had been absent two years on furlough, leaving it in charge of
two Chinese doctors: they have no English nurse. It is really
deplorable to see such a condition of things and a slur on England’s
good name. As a contrast we found excellent work both as to
numbers and quality by the Chinese, of whom the C.I.M. have three
hundred voluntary workers in their hundred and sixty-eight stations.
Their evangelists give one week per month of service without
payment, and the local institutions pay their salaries. The Christian
Endeavour is a particularly strong branch of the work, and has
produced a body of capable workers, one main object of the society
being to train men, women and children to take part in Christian
service of some kind. Bible schools are another strong point of the
work here, and the interest shown in Bible study augurs well for the
future of the mission.
It may be thought that I have said a great deal—too much in fact—
about mission work in this book, but that is inevitable, because the
reforms initiated in Chinese life are practically all due to missionary
activity. The education of the poor and of women, the care of the
sick, the blind, the insane, were all started by missions, and they are
the main agencies in undertaking relief work in famine and plague
measures, even at the present day. While the people of England
sent out thirty thousand pounds for famine last year, large additional
sums were sent out by the missionary societies, of which there is of
course no official recognition. Happily England still retains some
modesty with regard to her generosity.
My next halting-place was Foochow; this visit was one of the most
delightful events of the trip. The coasting steamers cannot go up the
river, so it is necessary to tranship on to a launch at Pagoda
Anchorage. We had spent more than six hours waiting to cross the
bar, and it was a lovely sight at dawn to see all the myriads of
fishing-boats; as we came slowly up the river they looked like flocks
of birds with widespread wings. It was nine miles up to the city, and
as we reached a stopping-place I inquired from a fellow-passenger if
it were the place for me to get off, but was told the main landing-
stage was further up. Before reaching it a pleasant young Chinaman
asked in excellent English if he could be of service; having heard me
mention the C.M.S., said he belonged to it. He was most helpful,
took charge of my luggage, escorted me to the office where he was
employed, telephoned to Trinity College to say I had arrived, got tea,
and finally set me on the road with a guide. Mr. L. K. Wang certainly
was a credit to his school. I met my kind hostess, Mrs. Norton, on the
road to meet me with her servant, having already sent him down
three times that morning to look for me. The arrival of steamers is a
most uncertain business.
 Foochow is a treaty port and of no great antiquity: it was founded
in the fourteenth century and was opened to foreign trade in 1861.
The population is reckoned from six to eight hundred thousand, and
it is the headquarters of an ever-increasing number of foreign firms
in consequence of its growing trade. The tea trade is the most
important. The city lies on both banks of the river, and there are two
long bridges called the Bridge of the Ten Thousand Ages connected
by a little island, leading from one part of the city to the other. We
took about an hour in swift-running rickshas to go from the college to
the centre of the city on the further side of the river to visit Miss
Faithfull-Davies’ school. It was just breaking up for the summer
holidays, as also Miss Waring’s girls’ school, which we visited
another day; but we saw in full swing schools for the blind,[29] which
seem to be admirably conducted, and an orphanage, where there
was an elaborate plant design in the garden made by the boys. I
asked if it was the name of the school, but was told it was the date of
“the day of shame,” namely of the Japanese triumph; it is striking to
see how deeply this is felt everywhere and that it should show itself
in such a manner.