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American
Government
in Black and White:
Diversity and Democracy
Third Edition
Paula D. McClain
Duke University
Steven C. Tauber
University of South Florida
New York Oxford

Oxford University Press
00-McClain-FM.indd 1 12/2/16 10:08 AM

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research,
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and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: McClain, Paula Denice, author. | Tauber, Steven C., author.

Title: American government in Black and White : diversity and democracy /
Paula D. McClain, Duke University, Steven C. Tauber, University of South Florida.
Description: Third edition. | New York : Oxford University Press, [2017]
| Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016042631 (print) | LCCN 2016047624 (ebook) | ISBN
9780190298791 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780190298807
Subjects: LCSH: United States--Politics and government.
| Minorities--Political activity--United States. | United States--Race
relations--Political aspects.
Classification: LCC JK275 .M333 2017 (print) | LCC JK275 (ebook)
| DDC 320.473--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016042631
Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by LSC Communications, Inc.

To my husband, Paul C. Jacobson, daughters
Kristina and Jessica and grandsons, Jackson and
Sterling, whose love and support continued to
sustain me throughout this long and continuing
project.
Paula D. McClain
Dedicated to my wife Meghan and the memory of

her sister Kathleen Hogan (1971–2013)
Steven C. Tauber

Brief Contents
To the Student xiii
1 American Government and Politics in a Racially Divided World 1
2 The Constitution: Rights and Race Intertwined 27
3 Federalism: Balancing Power, Balancing Rights 57
4 Civil Liberties: Freedom and Government Authority in Tension 99
5 Civil Rights: Inequality and Equality 131
6 Congress: Representation and Lawmaking 171
7 The Presidency: Conventional Wisdom Redefined 205
8 The Bureaucracy: Career Government Employees, Accountability,

and Race 243
9 The Judiciary: Blending Law and Politics 269
10 Public Opinion: Divided by Race? 297
11 The Media: Reinforcing Racial Stereotypes? 331
12 Social Movements: Civil Rights as a Movement Model 359
13 Interest Groups: Good Outcomes with Few Resources 405
14 Political Parties: Linking Voters and Governing Institutions 437
15 Voting and Elections: From Obama to Clinton 465
16 The Making of Domestic and Foreign Policy 519

Appendix I: The Declaration of Independence 543
Appendix II: The Constitution 546
Glossary 566
Notes 579
Credits 616
Index 620

Contents
To the Student xiii The Road to Revolution 29
Declaring Independence 31
Chapter 1
First Attempt at National Government: The
American Government Articles of Confederation 35
and Politics in a Racially A Limited National Government 35
Divided World 1 Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation 36
The Nature of Government 4 Our Voices: Prince Hall (1748–1807) 37
The Functions of Government 5 Second Attempt at National Government:

The Constitution 37
The Types of Government 6
The Convention Delegates 38
Principles of Constitutional Forming a New Government 38
Democracies 7
Measuring Equality: Whom Did the Framers
The Rule of Law 8 Represent? 39
Natural Law 8 The Great Compromise 41
Natural Rights 9 Debate over Ratification 43
Foundations of American Government 9 Evaluating Equality: The Effect of the Three-Fifths
Classical Liberalism 9 Compromise on the Political Power of the South 44
Classical Republicanism 12 The Bill of Rights 45
Tradition of Exclusion (Inegalitarianism) 15 National Government Under the
Our Voices: Lemuel Haynes—Republicanism Constitution 47
and Slavery 17 National Supremacy 47
Evaluating Equality: Thomas Jefferson The Legislative Branch 47
and Sally Hemings 19
The Executive Branch 49
Exclusion and the Founding 20 The Judicial Branch 49
Measuring Equality: Who Was Eligible to Be Liberalized Amendment Rules 49
Included in “We The People”? 22
Planning for Potential Pitfalls 50
Conclusion 24 Key Terms 24 Separating Powers 50

Review Questions 24 Additional Readings 25 Varying Terms of Office 50
Selecting National Government Officials 52
Chapter 2 Qualifying for National Office 53
The Constitution: Rights and Race Instituting Checks and Balances 53
Intertwined 27 Conclusion 54 Key Terms 54

A Revolution for Independence 29 Review Questions 54 Additional Readings 55
vi

Contents vii
Chapter 3 Pornography and Offensive Speech 106

Federalism: Balancing Power, Freedom of the Press 108
Balancing Rights 57 Freedom of Religion 110

Establishment of Religion 110
Federalism and State and Local
Governments 60 Free Exercise of Religion 111
State Legislatures 62 Criminal Justice 112

Governors 63 Investigation 112
Measuring Equality: Black and Latino Representation Our Voices: The Right to Practice Nontraditional
in State Legislatures 64 Religions (Employment Division v. Smith) 114
State Courts 66 Trial 116
Local Governments 69 Evaluating Equality: Recognizing Values in Political
Cartoons on Racial Profiling in Fighting Terrorism 117
Federalism and the Constitution 70
Punishment 120
The Constitution and National Government Power 72
Constitutional Amendments and National Power 74
Privacy 122
Measuring Equality: Discrimination, Death Row
The Constitution and State Power 74
Population, and Executions in States with the Death
The Evolution of American Federalism 75 Penalty 122
Federalism in the Early Republic and Industrialization 75 Personal Autonomy 125
Dual Federalism and the Ascendency of State Reproductive Freedom 126
Autonomy 78
Our Voices: John Marshall and the Status of Indian Conclusion 128 Key Terms 129
Tribes 79 Review Questions 129 Additional Readings 130
Cooperative Federalism and the Growth of the National
Government 82
Evaluating Equality: Shelby County (AL) v. Holder and
Section 4 of Voting Rights Act 87 Chapter 5
The Era of Devolution 89 Civil Rights: Inequality
and Equality 131
Conclusion 94 Key Terms 96
Review Questions 96 Additional Readings 96
Civil Rights Terms and Concepts 134
Group Designation 134
Forms of Inequality 136
Segregation 136
Chapter 4 Race, Ethnicity, and Civil Rights 137
Civil Liberties: Freedom Blacks 138
and Government Authority Our Voices: South Carolina’s Black Codes 141
Measuring Equality: Voter Registration and the Voting
in Tension 99 Rights Act of 1965 147
The Bill of Rights 103
Latinos 151
Origins of the Bill of Rights 103
Evaluating Equality: Terminology and Support for
Incorporation of the Bill of Rights 103 Illegal Immigration Reform 156
Freedom of Expression 105 Asian Americans 158
Political Dissent 105 American Indians 159

viii Contents
Nonracial and Ethnic Struggles for Civil Measuring Equality: The Influence of Race and Political
Rights 161 Party on Congressional Voting 198
Women 162 Interest Groups 200
Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and the Transgendered 164 Staff 201
Elderly and Disabled 167

Chapter 7
Chapter 6 The Presidency: Conventional

Congress: Representation Wisdom Redefined 205
and Lawmaking 171 Becoming President 208
Diversity 208
The Nature of Congressional
Representation 174 The Presidential Selection Process 209
The Unrepresented 174 Our Voices: Barack Obama’s First Inaugural Address,
January 20, 2009 210
Our Voices: Nonvoting Delegate Eleanor Holmes
Norton and Representation for Washington, DC 176 Financing Presidential Campaigns 212
Districts 177 Measuring Equality: Scatterplots of Obama Vote
and Clinton Vote with Minority Populations 213
Members of Congress 178
Evaluating Equality: Should the Race or Ethnicity Presidential Power 216
of a Representative Matter? 181 Administrative Powers of the President 218
Congressional Organization Foreign Powers of the President 221
and Leadership 182 Domestic Powers of the President 223
Leadership in the House 184 Executive Branch Organization 225
Leadership in the Senate 185 The Vice President 226
Committees 186 The President’s Spouse 227
Informal Organizations 189 The Cabinet 228
The Lawmaking Process 190 The Executive Office of the President 231
Activity on the House Floor 191 The White House Staff 233
Action on the Senate Floor 192 Presidents and Congress 234
Reconciling Differences Between House and Senate Negotiating with Congress 234
Bills 193 Evaluating Equality: Racial and Ethnic Representation
Nonlawmaking Functions of Congress 193 in the Executive Branch 235
Influences on Congressional Presidents and the Public 237
Decision-Making 195 Congressional Investigations of the Executive Branch 239
Constituents 195
Party Leaders 197
Colleagues 197

Contents ix
Chapter 8 Judicial Powers and Limitations 275

The Bureaucracy: Career The Origins and Development of Judicial Review 275
Government Employees, Judicial Review and Constitutional Interpretation 276
Accountability, and Race 243 Judicial Review and Civil Rights 277
Evaluating Equality: Judicial Review, Legal
Bureaucratic Organization 246
Interpretation, and Civil Rights 278
Cabinet Departments 246 Limitations on the Courts 278
Independent Regulatory Commissions 249
Judicial Selection 280
Independent Executive Agencies 250
Nominating Judges 281
Our Voices: The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
Confirming Judges 282
and the Controversy over Florida and the 2000
Election 252 Race and Ethnicity and Judicial Nominations 286
Government Corporations 253 Measuring Equality: Presidents’ Records of
Minority Judicial Appointments to the Lower Federal
The Bureaucrats 253
Courts 287
Politics versus Merit 253
Decision-Making on the Supreme
Diversity 255
Court 290
Evaluating Equality: Diversity in the Bureaucracy:
Decision-Making Procedures 290
The Case of the Bureau of Indian Affairs 256
The Influence of a Judge’s Background on Judicial
Bureaucratic Policymaking Decision-Making 291
and Power 257 Attorney Influence on Court Decision-Making 292
Implementation 257 Our Voices: Opinions of African American Supreme
Measuring Equality: Minority Representation in the Court Justices 293
Federal Civilian Workforce 259
Sources of Bureaucratic Power 261 Conclusion 294 Key Terms 296
Controlling Bureaucracies 262 Review Questions 296 Additional Readings 296
Executive Control over Bureaucracies 262

Legislative Control over Bureaucracies 264
Judicial Control over Bureaucracies 266
Chapter 10
Conclusion 266 Key Terms 268 Public Opinion: Divided by
Review Questions 267 Additional Readings 268 Race? 297
Public Opinion Overview 299
Our Voices: Transcript of Conversation between
Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and Governor
Chapter 9 Ross Barnett of Mississippi (Sunday, September 20,
The Judiciary: Blending Law 1962) 301
and Politics 269 Political Culture and Public Opinion 302
Law and Courts 272 Political Socialization 303

Dimensions of Law 272 Expressions of Public Opinion 304
Organization of the Federal Judiciary 273 Measuring Public Opinion 305

x Contents
The Mechanics of Polling 306 Coverage of Government Officials

and Institutions 352
How the Sample Is Drawn 306
Government Regulation 353
How a Question Is Worded 308
Conclusion 355
When a Question Is Asked within the Survey 309
Evaluating Equality: Racial Bias in the Press
When Data Are Gathered 310
Coverage of Hurricane Katrina? 355
How Data Are Gathered 311
Race, Gender, and Public Opinion 312 Review Questions 357 Additional Readings 358
Key Terms 357
Race 313
Evaluating Equality: Differences in Perception of
Discrimination Against Black Americans 314
Gender 316 Chapter 12
Measuring Equality: Donald Trump, Barack Obama Social Movements: Civil Rights
and the “Birthers” 320
Demographic Factors 321
as a Movement Model 359
Partisan Identification 323 A Social Movement Defined 361
The Media 324 Conditions That Give Rise to Social Movements 362
Social Movements and Democracy 364
The Bradley Effect 326
Public Opinion and Politics 327
Successful American Social Movements 367
The Civil Rights Movement 367
Conclusion 329 Key Terms 329 Our Voices: Excerpt from Martin Luther King Jr.’s Letter
Review Questions 329 Additional Readings 330 from Birmingham Jail 372
The Women’s Suffrage and Women’s Rights
Movements 373
Evaluating Equality: What Arguments Did Supporters
Chapter 11 and Opponents of the ERA Put Forth? 378
The Media: Reinforcing Racial The Labor Movement 379
Stereotypes? 331 Measuring Equality: Unions and Wages 382
A History of Media and Politics 334 The Environmental Movement 383
Print Media 334 The Anti–Vietnam War Movement 384
Our Voices: The Liberator and Abolitionism 337 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Movement 387
Broadcast Radio and Television 338 Other Important U.S. Social

Cable and Satellite 340 Movements 393
The Internet and Social Media 342 The Chicano Civil Rights Movement 393
The Media Industry 345

American Indian Movement 394
The Media Business 346 Asian American Movement 394
Media Personnel 346 The Antinuclear Movement 395
Press Coverage of Politics and Government Officials Religious Fundamentalist Movement 395
and Institutions 347 Why Some Social Movements Decline
Measuring Equality: Racial and Ethnic Minority and Some Fail 396
Representation in the Media 348 Factors That Contribute to Social Movement
Reporting of Elections 350 Decline 396

Contents xi
Factors That Contribute to Social Movement Chapter 14

Failure 397
Political Parties: Linking Voters
Social Movement or Political and Governing Institutions 437
Activism? 399
The Development of the Two-Party
Black Lives Matter 399
System 439
Conclusion 402 Key Terms 404 The Early Parties 439
Review Questions 403 Additional Readings 404 Realignment and Republican Party Dominance 442
The New Deal Coalition and Democratic Party
Dominance 444
The End of Party Dominance and the Rise of Party
Chapter 13 Competition 445
Interest Groups: Good Outcomes Minor Parties 447
with Few Resources 405 Party Organization 447
Interest Groups and Their Evaluating Equality: Minor Parties and Racial
Functions 407 and Ethnic Minorities 448
Our Voices: Ida B. Wells-Barnett 408 National Party Conventions 449
A Group-Based View of American National Party Committees 452

Politics 409 Our Voices: Political Party Platforms and Civil
Rights 453
Pluralism 409
State and Local Organization 454
Criticisms of Pluralism 410
Parties and Voters 456
Interest Group Formation 411
Party Identification 456
Types of Interest Groups 412
Parties and Group Attachments 457
Economic Interest groups 414
Measuring Equality: Latinos, Religious Preference,
Evaluating Equality: The AMA Apologizes and Party Support 461
to Black Physicians 418
Noneconomic Interest Groups 419 Conclusion 463 Key Terms 464
Techniques of Interest Groups 423 Review Questions 464 Additional Readings 464
Lobbying 424
Electioneering 425
Education 427
Litigation 428 Chapter 15
Media Campaigns 429 Voting and Elections: From Obama
Factors That Make Interest Groups Effective 431 to Clinton 465
Political and Financial Inequalities 432 The Electoral Process: Nominating a
Measuring Equality: Selected Racial Candidate 468
and Ethnic Interest Groups and Their Caucuses 468
Resources 433 Primary Elections 471
Measuring Equality: Obama’s Attention to Caucus
States in the 2008 Presidential Election 473
Party Conventions 475

xii Contents
General Elections 480 Chapter 16

Electing the President: How the Electoral College The Making of Domestic and
Works 480
Foreign Policy: Summing Up
Campaigning for Elections 483
Developing a Campaign Strategy 484
American Government in Black
Financing a Campaign 487
and White 519
Running a Campaign 490 Agenda-Setting 521
Winning the Election: How Elections Are Social Movements, Interest Groups, and
Agenda-Setting 522
Decided 495
The Media and Agenda-Setting 524
Voting 496
Factors That Affect Voter Participation 496
Policy Enactment 525
Our Voices: President Obama’s 2009 Cairo Speech 526
Why Americans Do Not Vote 498
Policy Formulation 528
Evaluating Equality: Calculating Voting Turnout
Rates 499 Policy Adoption 531
Voter ID Laws 500 Evaluating Equality: Racism and the Public Debate
over the Adoption of Health Care Reform Policies 534
Demographics and Voting 502
Race 502
Postenactment Stages 535
Gender 505 Policy Implementation 535
Age 505 Policy Evaluation 538

Marital Status 505 Measuring Equality: Racial Disparities in the
Punishment of Drug Offenders 539
Socioeconomic Status 506
Region 506
The 2016 Presidential Election 507 Review Questions 542 Additional Readings 542
Our Voices: Excerpts from Hillary Clinton’s Speech
on Donald Trump, the “Alt-Right” Movement, and Appendix I: The Declaration of Independence 543
Mainstreaming Racism 514
Appendix II: The Constitution 546
Conclusion 516 Key Terms 517 Glossary 566
Review Questions 517 Additional Readings 518 Notes 579
Credits 616
Index 620

To the Student
Alexis de Tocqueville, who was an early French visitor to the United States
and wrote Democracy in America (1835), believed that the essence of America
was in the uniquely free and egalitarian ideas that abounded at its founding.
Yet, Tocqueville noted that the treatment and situation of Blacks and Indi-
ans in the United States contradicted the American passion for democracy.
He saw slavery and the denial of constitutional rights and protections to
Blacks as the principal threat to the American democratic system. From his
perspective, Blacks would never be included in America’s democracy; even
the American Revolution’s egalitarian principles would never change
Whites’ negative views of Blacks. Indians, he felt, would resist being civi-
lized, and in so doing would be wiped out. Tocqueville believed that the
institution of slavery should be abolished, but he also felt that the after-
math would be catastrophic because Blacks, Whites, and Indians would not
be able to live together, so White genocidal violence against Blacks and In-
dians would follow.
For much of the history of the United States, the issues of race and the place
of Blacks and American Indians, and later other racial or ethnic minority
groups such as Asians and Latinos have been enduring threads in the American
political fabric. Although they are still threads that can be pulled to generate
angst and divisions, a great deal has changed since Tocqueville made his ob-
servations in 1835.
In 2008, Senator Barack Obama (D-IL) became the Democratic nominee
for President of the United States and the first Black person to represent a
major political party in the presidential race in the history of the United States.
On November 4, 2008, Obama was elected the first African American presi-
dent of the United States, with a wide margin in both the popular and elec-
toral votes. He was reelected to a second term in 2012 by a substantial, albeit
somewhat reduced, margin in the popular and electoral votes.
Many Americans view the historic election of a Black as president as a
signal that issues of racism and inequality have been resolved and that there is
no need for more or new public policies to address racial inequalities. They
assert that any remaining inequalities are the result of a lack of individual ini-
tiative, not societal barriers. On the contrary, we believe that the election of
Barack Obama brought into sharp relief the centrality of issues of race to
American politics. In fact, President Obama’s success might make it more dif-
ficult, not less, to address some of the issues of inequality that continue to
exist in the United States.
xiii

xiv Preface
In this book, we are concerned with the complexities of the American po-
litical system and inequalities that continue to exist within it. If you read and
understand the text, we believe you will benefit in four ways.
First, government is more than just a set of institutions, rules, and pro-
cedures by which those institutions operate. Government exists also in our
perceptions about and our experiences with government. Every American
might perceive government differently, and each of us behaves somewhat
differently based on these perceptions. Describing government in this sense
is not something that is feasible here, but we can report on the perceptions
of different peoples grouped by shared characteristics. The United States is
not “one nation . . . indivisible” but, instead, something different to each of
us based on our citizenship status, socioeconomic class, religion, age, place
of residence, race, ethnicity, gender, and many other factors.
Second, we offer a practical view of American government supported by
empirical analysis. By using hard evidence to support our views, we hope to
avoid a naive “how government should work” approach and give you a firm
base for developing informed opinions. For example, we list the powers of the
president, but in reality these powers are limited and the president is much
less powerful than a simple list of official powers would suggest.
Third, you will have a sense of how race has played out in the American
governmental system and its politics. Although some historical events present
a sad and painful look at the American system, recent events such as the elec-
tion of President Obama show a more hopeful albeit cautious look at the
American political system and its politics.
Finally, reading this book will give you a more holistic and realistic per-
spective on American government. You will have a sense of what government
can do and what American citizens must do to help government achieve its
objectives. Regardless of whether that help comes through social movements,
voting, or participation in other types of political activity, people—individually
and collectively—are central to the American governmental system.
New to the Third Edition

• A sleek and modern four-color design and revamped photo program bring
enhanced visual interest to this award-winning text.
• Updates and analysis place the 2016 election and its results into political
and cultural context for students.
• Expanded coverage of Latinos highlights the importance and complexi-
ties of the political influence wielded by this growing demographic and
voting group.
• Enhanced discussion of political science research in relevant chapters
provides insights into both the scholarly debates and consensus of the
discipline. Many of the tables in the chapters have been updated with the
most recent data available.

Organization of This Book xv
Revisions to the 2016 Election Update

• Updated coverage on voter purges in Florida (p. 63).
• Updated voter ID discussion (p. 143).
• Updated Equal Rights Amendment discussion (p. 155).
• Updated same-sex marriage discussion (p. 157).
• Updated discussion of the Congressional Black Caucus (p.179).
• Updated discussion of minorities in the cabinet (p. 217).
• Updated discussion of clashes between President Obama and Congress
(p. 221).
• Updated caseload data (pp. 255–266).
• Updated minority state party chairs (p. 424).
• Updated information on policy enactment and affirmative action
(p. 491).
• More citations added to all chapters.
• Updated opening vignette for Chapters 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, and 15.
• Post-election updates made to Chapter 15, Campaigns and Elections.
• Updated coverage in Chapter 12, including: Chicano Movement; Asian
American Movement; Anti-Nuclear Movement; added material to the last
paragraph on page 370 on Tea Party and Black Lives Matter.
• Updates to seventeen tables, three figures, and “Measuring Equality”
features.
Organization of This Book

Chapter 1, “American Government and Politics in a Racially Divided World,”
introduces the concept of government in its general and various forms. It also
shows that the choices the Framers of the Constitution made in structuring
the new governments were neither accidental nor unconnected. The structures
of these governments had theoretical and philosophical foundations in classi-
cal liberalism, republicanism, and a tradition of exclusion.
Chapter 2, “The Constitution: Rights and Race Intertwined,” introduces
the basic government documents—the Declaration of Independence and the
Constitution. It addresses the events and problems under the Articles of Con-
federation that led to the drafting of the 1787 Constitution and focuses on the
overt and tacit role that slavery played throughout the constitutional process.
Chapter 3, “Federalism: Balancing Power, Balancing Rights,” explains the
concept of federalism—the balance of power between the national govern-
ment and the states. It also discusses how that power has ebbed and flowed
since the founding of the republic.
Chapter 4, “Civil Liberties: Freedom and Government Authority in Ten-
sion,” addresses the tension between government authority and the civil liber-
ties afforded citizens under the Bill of Rights. We pay particular attention to
how each amendment also offers protections against state governments.

xvi Preface
Chapter 5, “Civil Rights: Inequality and Equality,” focuses on the in-

creased legal protection afforded various racial and ethnic minorities and
women over time and how the reality of this protection has varied across levels
of government. We also discuss the differences in timing of the extensions of
these protections to the various groups, including the LGBT community, the
elderly, and disabled people.
Chapter 6, “Congress: Representation and Lawmaking,” outlines the gen-
eral functions of and influences on Congress, as well as the nature of represen-
tation in our democratic system.
Chapter 7, “The Presidency: Conventional Wisdom Redefined,” looks at
the Office of the President. We outline the roles, powers, and limitations of the
president of the United States and the Office of the President, with the purpose
of presenting a realistic view of what can and cannot reasonably be expected of
presidents. We pay particular attention to the presidential selection process.
Chapter 8, “The Bureaucracy: Career Government Employees, Account-
ability, and Race,” addresses the important topic of government agencies. We
examine and assess the relative size and range of functions of the national
bureaucracy, and the racial, ethnic, and gender composition of these
bureaucracies.
Chapter 9, “The Judiciary: Blending Law and Politics,” describes the struc-
ture, selection processes, and decision-making dynamics of the national
courts. The influence of these factors on the operation of these important in-
stitutions highlights the differences among various levels of courts.
Chapter 10, “Public Opinion: Divided By Race?” listens to the voice of the
people. We explore the complexities of public opinion by examining the views
of the many publics that exist in the American political system, including
their racial, gender, and regional differences. A second focus is the role public
opinion plays in the American political process.
Chapter 11, “The Media: Reinforcing Racial Stereotypes?” focuses on the
role of the media in the American political process. We examine the media’s
influence on the formation of public opinion, policy agenda setting, and cam-
paigns. We also consider the importance of symbols and symbolism and the
“parallel press.”
Chapter 12, “Social Movements: Civil Rights as a Movement Model,”
looks at how opinions are mobilized into efforts to address grievances. Pre-
conditions and timing are of key interest. Drawing from illustrations of sev-
eral populations, we examine why groups coalesce into social movements at
certain points in time and not at others when conditions are perhaps even
worse.
Chapter 13, “Interest Groups: Good Outcomes with Few Resources,”
flows from the discussion of social movements. This chapter distinguishes be-
tween social movements and interest groups and examines the ways in which
interest groups affect the policy process and influence political outcomes. We
note that interest groups are not only those organizations or racial and ethnic
minorities and women who have been excluded from the political process, but

Note about Terminology xvii
also are far more likely to include strong majority-dominated organizations

whose influence and access are generally much greater than those of the
so-called special interests of disadvantaged groups.
Chapter 14, “Political Parties: Linking Voters and Governing Institu-
tions,” provides a history of the development of the national two-party system
in the United States. We discuss the pros and cons of a two-party system as
well as the strengths and weaknesses of the current Democratic and Republi-
can parties. The history of the experiences of Blacks, Latinos, American Indi-
ans, and Asian Americans is discussed to provide a context for the current
placement of these groups within the two political parties.
Chapter 15, “Voting and Elections: From Obama to Clinton,” discusses
the voting behaviors of the American public. Voting at the national level for
the president commands the most attention. We also consider the factors of
race and gender in the examination of voting patterns.
Chapter 16, “The Making of Domestic and Foreign Policy,” outlines the
public policymaking process, summarizing how all institutions and processes
converge to help explain what government does and does not do. It focuses on
the differences and the relationship between both domestic and foreign policy.
Note about Terminology

Before proceeding, it is important to define the terms used throughout the
book.1 First, the terms Black and African American are used interchangeably.
Recent research suggests that among Americans of African descent, slightly
more than 1 percent difference exists in those who prefer to be called Black
(48.1 percent) and those who prefer to be called African American (49.2 per-
cent).2 Our own preference is for the term Black because it concisely describes
an identity and a status in American society that are based on color. The Black
experience in the United States differs markedly from that of White ethnics,
and the use of African American might convey the impression that Blacks are
just another ethnic group similar to Italian Americans, Irish Americans, or
Polish Americans.
Similarly, we use Latino and Hispanic interchangeably as umbrella terms
when we cannot distinguish among subgroups of the nation’s Spanish-origin
population. Many academics reject the term Hispanic because it was devised by
the U.S. Census Bureau to classify individuals and is devoid of any connection
to the people to which it refers in the United States. The term comes from the
Latin word for Spain and is associated with people from the Iberian Peninsula
in Europe. It refers to people of Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar, and Andorra, and
clearly does not technically include individuals of Mexican, Puerto Rican,
Cuban, and Central and South American descent. We most often use Latino in
recognition of this distinction because this term refers more exclusively to
persons of Mexican and Latin American origin.
Third, we use the term Indian peoples or American Indians rather than the
population term Native American. Scholars of American Indian politics dislike

xviii Preface
the term Native American because it can be applied literally to any person born
in the Americas. Although the terms Indian peoples and American Indians ignore
geographical differences and cultural diversity among Indian groupings, they
are the preferred terms of scholars working in the area.3
Fourth, the term Asian American is an umbrella term for a number of
ethnic origin groups—Japanese, Koreans, Chinese, Filipinos, Southeast
Asians, and East Indians. We use the term when we or the data we use do not
allow us to differentiate among these various ethnic origin groups.
At times, we use the term ethnicity in a specific sense of the term—gener-
ally meaning the groupings of people on the basis of learned characteristics,
often associated with national origin. Issues of ethnicity are particularly per-
tinent in the Latino, Asian, and Indian groups and are becoming more impor-
tant in the Black population as the number of Black immigrants from Africa
and the Caribbean increases.
We also use the terms racial minority or racial and ethnic minorities as a
shorthand method of identifying Blacks, Latinos, Asian Americans, and
American Indians collectively based on their proportion of the population
vis-à-vis the majority White population.
We also use the generic term women at times, but most often we specify
which group of women to which we are referring. Women as a category have
been excluded from participation in many segments of American society, but
we do not consider the generic category of women as a numerical minority of
the population.
Significantly, we use the capitalized form for all of the various racial and
ethnic groups—White, Black, Asian American, American Indian, and Latino—
as well as for the various ethnic origin groups, such as Mexican American.
Finally, a word about the concept of equality that we examine and apply
throughout this book. There are many ongoing debates about the kinds of
equality and which should be embraced and pursued by governmental pol-
icies. Political philosophers pitch “equality of opportunity” against “equal-
ity of outcome” and weigh in on their relative benefits. Measures of fairness
or justice are overlaid on top of these categories in an attempt to moderate
their disparate results. In this book, we look at all these values through the
lens of racial and ethnic disparity. Thus, some of the measures and evalua-
tions of equality we suggest apply only to those who have suffered or ben-
efited from racial and ethnic inequality. Other lessons we draw about
equality can be applied across the spectrum of public policy—to the poor
White woman in Appalachia, the auto worker who just lost his job, the gay
person being taunted at work, or the disabled person who cannot go where
she wants because there is no wheelchair access. We do not take on these
inequalities in as great a depth as we do racial and ethnic inequality, but
many of the measures and evaluations of equality we make can be ex-
tended to them as well—and we encourage students to read the text with
that in mind.

Ensuring Student Success xix
Chapter Features
Each chapter has a set of features that highlight the main themes of the chap-
ter and provide information important to understanding many of the points
raised in the chapter. Each feature plays a specific role in the text in support of
our approach to American government:
• Chapter opening vignettes, drawn from actual events, that highlight the
theme of complex inequalities. These vignettes are intended to help make
concrete concepts that might appear abstract.
• Glossary definitions in the text when the term is first encountered, making
it easier to find the definitions and understand their meaning in context.
• Measuring Equality boxes provide empirical, quantitative data that sup-
port a conclusion or underscore an argument we make to provide you
with information on a topic that might be unfamiliar.
• Our Voices boxes contain excerpts from the writings of important people
or organizations to allow you to “hear” their voices and excerpts from
original documents important to the development and workings of the
American political system.
• Evaluating Equality boxes contain a scenarios that ask you to use the
central points of the chapter as a basis for thinking critically about aspects
of our political system. These are framed in terms of questions for debate
or discussion.
• Chapter conclusions tie the chapter content into the opening vignette
and draw the themes together.
• Review questions at the end of each chapter that are also tied to the
theme. By focusing on the review questions, you will be able to distill the
main issues from each chapter.
• Additional readings with short annotations for each reference.
In all, we hope these features add to your interest in the story of American
government that we tell through the lens of race and ethnicity.
Ensuring Student Success

Oxford University Press offers instructors and students a comprehensive ancil-
lary package for qualified adopters of American Government in Black and White:
Diversity and Democracy:
• Ancillary Resource Center (ARC): This convenient, instructor-focused
website provides access to all of the up-to-date teaching resources for this
text while guaranteeing the security of grade-significant resources.
In addition, it allows Oxford University Press to keep instructors informed
when new content becomes available. Register for access and create your indi-
vidual user account by visiting www.oup.com/us/mcclain.

xx Preface
The following items are available on the ARC:

• Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank: includes chapter objectives, detailed
chapter outlines, lecture suggestions and activities, discussion questions,
and video and web resources. The test bank includes multiple-choice,
short answer, and essay questions.
• Computerized Test Bank: utilizes Diploma, a test authoring and man-
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and enables instructors to create and edit questions, compose random-
ized quizzes and test with an intuitive drag-and-drop tool, post quizzes
and tests to online courses, and print quizzes and tests for paper-based
assessments.
• Downloadable and customizable PowerPoint slides: including one set
for in-class presentations and the other for text images
• Access to thirty CNN videos correlated to the chapter topics of the text.
Each clip is approximately five to ten minutes long, offering a great way to
launch your lecture
• Companion website at www.oup.com/us/McClain: This open access
companion website includes a number of learning tools to help students
study and review key concepts presented in the text including learning
objectives, key-concept summaries, quizzes, essay questions, web activi-
ties, and web links.
Interactive Media Activities - Available on the free open access Companion
Website (www.oup.com/us/mcclain) are designed to reinforce key concepts
with real world situations. Each activity:
• Takes 15 to 20 minutes to complete, and produce unique results for each
student
• Enables students to experience how politics works, seeing the trade-offs
required to produce meaningful policies and outcomes
• Is optimized to work on any mobile device or computer
• Ends with Assessments to connect the activity to classroom discussions
Interactive Media Activities include:
• NEW – Individualism vs. Solidarity
• Passing Immigration Reform
• Electing Cheryl Martin
• Building the USS Relief
• Intervening in Bhutan
• The Fight Against Warrantless Wiretapping
• Balancing the Budget
• NEW – Redistricting in “Texachusetts”
• NEW – Saving the Electric Car
• Election Reform

Ensuring Student Success xxi
• NEW – Fact-checking the Media

• NEW – Passing the Thirteenth Amendment
• NEW – Negotiating with China
NEW A Closer Look Media Tutorials – Available on the American Government:

Diversity and Democracy free, open access Companion Website (www.oup.
com/us/McClain) these activities are designed to teach key concepts and help
students master important class material. Each tutorial runs 3–5 minutes and
ends with assessment opportunities for student to test what they know. Topics
include:
• The Constitution: A Brief Tour

• Civil Rights: How does the 14th Amendment ensure equal right for all
Citizens?
• Federalism: What does it mean to Incorporate the Bill of Rights?
• Political Participation: What affects voter turnout?
• Media: How the news is shaped by agenda setting, framing, and profit
bias?
• Interest Groups: What is a Political Action Committee, and what makes
some PACs Super PACs?
• Congress: Why do we hate Congress but keep electing the same
representatives?
• The Judiciary: How do judges interpret the Constitution?
• Polling: How do we know what people know?
• Campaigns and Elections: How does Gerrymandering work?
Course Cartridges containing student and instructor resources are available
through Angel, Blackboard, Canvas, D2L, Moodle, Respondus, or whatever
course management system you prefer.
• Now Playing: Learning American Government Through Film

Through documentaries, feature films, and YouTube videos, Now Playing:
Learning American Government Through Film provides a variety of suggested
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xxii Preface
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Acknowledgments
This text has been long in the making even though it was published at an aus-
picious time in U.S. political history. Many reviewers, editors, colleagues, and
friends have given advice and offered help while we developed the text. It is
impossible to thank everyone individually who contributed to our efforts, but
it is important to acknowledge the vast collective effort that resulted in such a
mold-breaking text. We accept responsibility for any errors and shortcomings
reflected in the text but share full credit for its strengths with the people who
joined us in making this book possible.
The reviewers for the first edition deserve special credit for combining
content expertise with pedagogical concern and an eye on late-breaking 2008
election developments:
Russell G. Brooker, Alverno College Bilal Dabir Sekou, University of

Michael S. Rodriguez, Richard Hartford
Stockton College of New Jersey Sherri L. Wallace, University of Louisville
We would also like to thank the reviewers of the second edition:

Damien Arthuer, West Virginia State Megan Ostbur, Xavier University of
University Louisiana
Robert Ballinger, South Texas College Mordu Serry-Kamal, Winston-Salem
Geoff Bowden, Savannah State State University
University James Daniel Steele, North Carolina
Meigan M. Fields, Fort Valley State Agricultural and Technical State
University University
Nicole Krassas, Eastern Connecticut Richard W. Waterman, University of
State University Kentucky
Anthony A. Maalouf, Delaware County S. Ife Williams, Delaware County
Community College Community College
Linda McKinstry, Delaware County Zaphon Wilson, Saint Augustine’s
Community College University
Nathan K. Mitchell, Prairie View Ahmed Y. Zohny, Coppin State
A&M University University
Billy Monroe, Prairie View A&M
University

Acknowledgments xxiii
We would also like to thank the reviewers of the third edition:

Rosalind Blanco Cook, Tulane University
Jeffrey Bloodworth, Gannon University
Joseph Romance, Fort Hays State University
Alec Ewald, University of Vermont
Edward Larsen, Delaware County Community College
Lenore VanderZee, State University of New York at Canton
Raymond Sandoval, Dallas County Community College
Ervin Kallfa, Hostos Community College
On the third edition we are deeply indebted to the excellent staff at Oxford Uni-
versity Press. In particular, we would like to thank Marissa Dadiw for expert
photo research, marketing, and editorial assistance. We would also like to thank
Lori Bradshaw, Elizabeth Bortka, and Susan Brown for their outstanding edito-
rial notes, which have undoubtedly improved this text. We are also grateful to
Jennifer Carpenter for her guidance and leadership in our revisions. Finally, we
would like to thank the thousands of students we have taught over the years.
—Paula D. McClain and Steven C. Tauber
The third edition has also been a collective effort. Duke University graduate stu-
dents, Gloria Ayee, Nura Sediqe, and Taneisha Means spent countless hours gath-
ering new data and updating older material. Jessica Johnson Carew completed
the Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank and I am appreciative that she agreed to
take on that arduous task. I also want to thank Steve Tauber for signing on as a
coauthor on a project that had many fits and starts, and lots of twists and turns.
It has been a pleasure working with Steve on the first, second and third editions
of this book, and I anticipate that this will be a long-term co-authorship.
On a personal note, I could not have achieved much of what I have accom-
plished professionally without the love and support of my husband, Paul C.
Jacobson. We have developed into quite a team over the decades, pursuing
both our careers (Paul is a lawyer) while raising two daughters—Kristina and
Jessica. We are now the proud grandparents of two grandsons, Jackson B.
Ragland and Sterling A. Ragland (Kristina’s sons), and find that we enjoy being
grandparents almost as much as we enjoy being parents. Paul has been in-
volved in this project in more ways than he had anticipated, or appreciated.
I thank him for his unconditional support and continuing love. This book is
dedicated to them with much love and appreciation.
—Paula D. McClain
Numerous conversations with my colleagues in the School of Interdisciplinary

Global Studies (formerly the Department of Government & International Affairs)
at the University of South Florida, especially Mark Amen, Cheryl Hall, Rachel
May, Susan MacManus, Bernd Reiter, Cheryl Rodriguez, and Scott Solomon, have

xxiv Preface
been invaluable. I would also like to thank Paula McClain, one of my mentors
from graduate school, for inviting me to be a coauthor. I have enjoyed working
with her on both editions of this book and look forward to future collaborations.
On a personal level, I would like to thank my friends in the Tampa Bay area,
as well as those scattered throughout the nation, for their support and friend-
ship. I am thankful for the love and support of my in-laws Red and Ellen Hogan.
I am especially grateful to my parents, Richard and Barbara Tauber, for their
love, support, and encouragement throughout my life. Finally and most im-
portant, I am indebted to my wife, Meghan Tauber. I would not have been able
to complete this book without her love, support, humor, and friendship
through all the ups and downs that come with a project of this magnitude.
—Steven C. Tauber

About the Authors
Paula D. McClain is professor of political science and public

policy and Dean of the Graduate School and Vice Provost for
Graduate Education at Duke University. She directs the Ameri-
can Political Science Association’s Ralph Bunche Summer In-
stitute, hosted by Duke University and funded by the National
Science Foundation and Duke University. She was formerly the
cofounding director of the Center for the Study of Race, Ethnicity and Gender in
the Social Sciences at Duke University. A Howard University PhD, her primary
research interests are in racial minority group politics, particularly minority po-
litical and social competition, and urban politics. Her articles have appeared in
numerous journals, and she is author of many books, including the popular,
award-winning classroom supplement, “Can We All Get along?”: Racial and Ethnic
Minorities in American Politics, co authored with Joseph Stewart, Jr., and the sev-
enth edition will be published in early 2017. Jessica Johnson Carew will be joining
her as a new co-author. Professor McClain has won many awards for scholarship
and teaching and has served the discipline in many capacities. She was elected to
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2014. She is particularly valued for
her commitment to mentoring students from every background.
Steven C. Tauber entered the University of California–

San Diego with the goal of becoming a doctor and then a
lawyer. By his junior year, however, he found his political sci-
ence courses so intellectually stimulating that he decided to
pursue a career as a political science professor. He entered the
PhD program in government at the University of Virginia, re-
ceiving his PhD in 1995, and started teaching at the University of South Florida
in Tampa, where he is now an associate professor with tenure. He is also cur-
rently serving a stint as department chair. Professor Tauber enjoys teaching
classes in introduction to American government, constitutional law, judicial pol-
itics, research methods and statistics, and American political thought. He has
published refereed journal articles and book chapters on interest group use of
the federal judiciary, minority group politics, and the effect of animal advocacy
groups. In 2016 he published Navigating the Jungle: Law, Politics, and the Animal
Advocacy Movement (Routledge). His current research focuses primarily on
animal rights in a global context. Just as some of his undergraduate political sci-
ence classes sparked his interest in political science, he hopes that this book will
have the same effect on the current generation of undergraduate students.
xxv

American Government
ch ap ter
1
and Politics in a Racially
Divided World
In 2016, Gov. Jack Markell signed a long-awaited resolution officially apologizing for the state’s role
in slavery. The apology for slavery illustrates the long and sometimes painful history of the United
States’ struggle with race, from the time of Thomas Jefferson, a slave owner, to President Barack
Obama, the first Black president of the United States.
01-McClain-Chap01.indd 1 11/24/16 8:34 PM

2 CHAPTER 1: American Government and Politics in a Racially Divided World
D
ecember 6, 2015, marked the 150th anniversary of the abolish-
ment of slavery, when the U.S. Congress ratified the Thirteenth
Amendment to the Constitution. There were numerous events
recognizing the end of slavery, including an official White House event
presided over by President Obama. On February 11, 2016, Delaware
joined eight other states to formally apologize for slavery when Gover-
nor Jack Markell (D) signed the state’s joint resolution. Delaware’s reso-
lution acknowledged its participation in 226 years of
chapter outline slavery first of both Native Americans and Africans in
The Nature of Government 4
the mid-1600s; by the close of the 1700s its entire
The Functions of Government 5
slave population was of African descent. The resolu-
The Types of Government 6
Principles of Constitutional Democracies 7 tion also included acknowledgments that Delaware
Foundations of American Government 9 criminalized humanitarian attempts to assist slaves
Exclusion and the Founding 20 and that in later times Delaware passed and enforced
features Jim Crow laws to deny the rights of African American
Our Voices: Lemuel Haynes—Republicanism citizens for much of the twentieth century.1
and Slavery 17
On July 29, 2008, the U.S. House of Representa-
Evaluating Equality: Thomas Jefferson and Sally
Hemings 19 tives passed a nonbinding resolution, introduced and
Measuring Equality: Who Was Eligible to Be championed by Representative Steven Cohen (D-TN),
Included in “We the People”? 22
which offered a formal apology for the government’s
participation in African American slavery and the
establishment of Jim Crow laws. The resolution said, in part, “African
Americans continue to suffer from the consequences of slavery and Jim
Crow—long after both systems were formally abolished—through
enormous damage and loss, both tangible and intangible, including the
loss of human dignity and liberty, the frustration of careers and profes-
Reparations A concept or
sional lives, and the long-term loss of income and opportunity.”2
tool for providing monetary On June 18, 2009, the U.S. Senate unanimously passed a similar reso-
payments to members of lution apologizing to African Americans for slavery and Jim Crow. The
aggrieved groups based on past
wrongful actions against them
Senate resolution said explicitly that the apology could not be used in
or their ancestors. support of reparations (or compensation for past wrongs).3
intro The story of apologies for slavery is a complex one that highlights some of the
underlying dilemmas that face the U.S. political system—how to reconcile its stated
principles of how individuals should be treated with how the government actually
treats and has treated individuals. The apologies are intended to acknowledge the
nation’s complicity in a destructive and immoral institution, at the same time avoid-
ing any discussion of reparations for the descendants of those enslaved.
01-McClain-Chap01.indd 2 11/24/16 8:34 PM

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CONGESTION OF THE LIVER IN THE
HORSE.
Causes. Beside the general causes above mentioned, may be
specially named, musty, decomposed, and irritant fodders: those
which like green legumes, are easily fermented; and those which
contain stimulating volatile oils or carminative principles. They are
also especially exposed to such causes as severe and prolonged work
under a hot sun, the nervous atony which causes vaso-dilatation in a
hot climate, and such traumatisms as come from falls, kicks, goring,
and blows by shafts, poles and clubs. These especially induce active
congestion. The passive forms come mainly from obstruction in the
lungs, or heart (dilatation, right valvular insufficiency, pericarditis,
hydropericardium, myocarditis, fatty degeneration, endocarditis), or
in the posterior vena cava.
Lesions. The congested liver is enlarged and deeply colored with
blood. The weight of twenty to thirty pounds is often attained. While
the color is of a deep red throughout, there are spots of a still darker
hue indicating the seat of subcapsular or deeper seated hemorrhages.
The color varies according as the congestion is passive or active. In
the former the coloration is deeper in the centre of the acinus
(nutmeg liver) indicating congestion of the hepatic veins, while in the
latter the periphery of the acinus may be most deeply stained
implying congestion of the portal vein. The consistency of the organ
is diminished, and the more acute the attack the greater the friability.
In such cases there is a parboiled appearance indicating granular and
commencing fatty degeneration. Under the microscope the relative
distension of the intralobular, and interlobular veins and the hepatic
capillaries becomes more distinctly marked and the presence of
pigment and fatty granules and the lack of protoplasm and nuclei in
the hepatic cells indicate their progressive changes. When the
peripheral cells are pale from fatty granules the contrast between the
light margin and dark centre of the acinus, makes the mottled or
nutmeg aspect of the liver much more pronounced.
In old standing cases of passive congestion the liver may be the
seat of fibroid degeneration, extending from the capsule inward in
bands or trabeculæ, and giving to the organ a firm resistant character
(sclerosis, cirrhosis).
Symptoms. The symptoms are general and suggestive rather than
pathognomonic. There are dullness, prostration, unsteady walk,
pendent head, with occasional jerking, semi-closed eyes, redness of
the conjunctiva, slight colicy pains, arching of the loins, muscular
tremblings and decubitus on the left side rather than the right. The
more definite symptoms are tenderness on percussion with the
closed fist over the last ribs (the liver) especially on the right side,
increase of the area of hepatic percussion dullness (which may be
rendered valueless by a loaded colon), the presence of a slight icterus
in the conjunctiva and urine, and an increase of the urine secreted
and an excess of the contained urea.
In passive cases however the obstruction to the escape of blood
from the liver prevents the development of icteric symptoms, of
uræmia and of polyuria. In all such cases however there follows a
general congestion of the portal system and if it persists for any
length of time gastro-intestinal congestion and catarrh and even
ascites may develop.
In all cases alike the history of the attack will help towards a
satisfactory diagnosis.
Prevention. A rational hygiene embracing daily work or exercise,
moderate laxative diet, green food in its season, pure cool air are
important precautions.
Treatment. A moderate supply of green or laxative food, the
withholding for the time of grain, and especially of maize, wheat or
buckwheat, saline laxatives daily, and a stimulating embrocation or
blister to the tender hypochondrium are the most important
measures. Exercise in a box stall, or still better in a yard or paddock
in the intervals between more systematic work forms an important
adjunct to medicine. As a laxative sulphate of soda is to be preferred
at first in a full cathartic dose and later in a daily amount sufficient to
relax the bowels. Given in a bucket of water every morning before the
first meal a very small dose will be effective.
CONGESTION OF THE LIVER IN THE DOG.
Active congestion is very rare excepting in over-fed and indolent
family pets. Passive congestion induced by diseases of the lungs and
heart is however far from uncommon.
Lesions. True to their origin these usually appear as the spotted
nutmeg liver with the deep congestion in the centre of the acini. For
the same reason the fibroid degenerations shown in chronic cases,
show the firm fibroid neoplasm chiefly around the hepatic veins.
Granular, fatty and pigmentary degeneration of the cells are found as
in the solipeds.
Symptoms. These are as obscure as in the horse. There is always a
history of a sluggish, gourmandizing life, and in the early stages, a
manifestation of embonpoint which suggests a torpid liver. Further
suggestions may also be obtained from coexisting diseases of the
lungs, or heart, from gastro-intestinal catarrh, from piles, or ascites.
Then there is at times a slight icterus of the conjunctiva and urine.
Finally tenderness on percussion on the right hypochondrium,
decubitus on the left side, and an increased area of dullness on
percussion may afford useful hints for diagnosis.
Treatment. In the rare cases due to infection from the intestine, an
active saline purgative followed by antiseptics (salol, naphthalin,
naphthol, etc.,) daily will be of value. It is also desirable to keep up
the action of the bowels by morning doses of salines. In cases
consequent on chest disease attention must be given to such primary
trouble. In all cases a restricted laxative diet, and graduated but
increasing exercise in the open air are demanded.
HEPATIC HÆMORRHAGE OR RUPTURE.
Causes: Mechanical injuries, falls, blows, kicks, degenerations, amyloid, fatty,
granular, congestion, neoplasms, glanders, tuberculous, myomatous, microbian
infection. In the horse, disease of liver, heart, lungs, hepatic artery, portal vein,
degenerations following overfeeding, idleness, foreign bodies, arsenic, phosphorus,
parasites, violent movements in colic, running, draught, leaping. In the dog,
pampering and traumatism. In cattle forced feeding, emaciation, microbian
infection. In birds, tubercle, tæniasis, microbian infection. Lesions: extravasation,
intracapsular, or through capsule into the peritoneal cavity. The extravasation
bulges of a deep black, covering a dark softened, pulpy, hepatic tissue, with light
colored fatty tissue around. Clots may be stratified from successive bleedings. Liver
usually enlarged. Symptoms: onset sudden, or preceded by stiffness, soreness and
other signs of hepatic trouble. Extensive rupture, entails weakness, unsteady gait,
perspiration, pallor of mucosæ, small weak rapid pulse, palpitations, dilated
pupils, rolling eyes, amaurosis, tremors, convulsion in case of survival, coldness,
œdemas. Death in five hours to five days. Risk of relapse in recovering cases.
Treatment: rather hopeless, rest, laxative, ergot, ferric chloride, tannic acid, witch
hazel, cold water, snow or ice to right side. In meat producing animals fatten.
Causes. Hemorrhage and rupture of the liver are closely correlated
to each other, the accumulation of extravasated blood in the
parenchyma in the one case leading to over distension of the capsule,
and the laceration of this capsule and of the adjacent substance of
the liver occurring in the other as a mere extension of the first. They
usually occur as the direct result of mechanical injury (falls, blows,
kicks) acting on a liver already softened and friable through disease.
These predisposing degenerations may be amyloid (Caparini, Johne,
Rabe), fatty (Julien, Gowing, Adam, Siedamgrotzky), granular
softening, hepatitis or congestion (Zundel), glander neoplasms
(Mathis), tubercles, angiomata (Trasbot), microbian infection
(Stubbe), tumors (Brückmüller).
In the horse predisposing conditions may be found in diseases of
the liver, heart or lungs, in embolism of the hepatic artery (Wright),
in obstruction of the portal vein (Pierre), in infarction of the liver, in
degeneration with softening, in sarcomatous, melanotic, glanderous
or cancerous deposits in its substance, in degenerations consequent
on over feeding, idleness, congestions, on the penetration of husks of
grains into the liver substance, on arsenical or phosphorus
poisoning. The presence of flukes, echinococci and other parasites
may also cause congestion and softening. To the immediate or
traumatic causes above named may be added the violent movements
attendant on a severe attack of colic, and violent exertions in
running, draught, leaping, etc. (Friend).
In the dog we must recognize all the pampering conditions which
predispose to congestion and degeneration, together with more
direct operation of kicks, blows, falls, fights, over exertion, etc.
In cattle a forcing regimen is especially predisposing, and yet the
loss of vigor resulting from a diametrically opposite treatment, must
be accepted as an occasional cause. Stubbe found in emaciated cows
miliary hemorrhagic infarcts of a dark red color which gradually
extended to an inch or more in diameter. These he traced to
microbian infection coming by way of the chronic intestinal lesions
which are common in old cows. The final result of such infarctions
was loss of hepatic substance and the formation of cicatricial tissue
with a marked depression on the surface of the organ.
In birds fatal hepatic hemorrhages occur in connection with local
tubercle (Cadiot), tæniasis of the liver, or microbian infection.
Lesions. The hemorrhage may take place into the substance of the
liver only, or the capsule may be lacerated so that the blood escapes
into the peritoneal cavity in considerable quantity.
In the horse it usually occurs in the right or middle lobe, rarely in
the left. There may be one or more hemorrhagic effusions varying in
size from a cherry to a duck’s egg, or even an infants’ head (Lorge).
This projects from the surface of the organ and its deep black
contrasts strongly with the white of the adjacent capsule. When laid
open the hepatic tissue is seen to be softened and pulpy, and its dark
color forms a striking contrast with any surrounding fatty liver. Any
form of degeneration may be revealed on microscopic or chemical
examination. Not unfrequently small clots of blood form under the
capsule raising it in the form of little sacs. Such clots are usually
stratified indicating a succession of small hemorrhages.
When the capsule is torn, the lesion may extend from one surface
of the organ to the other, and the edges, smooth, uneven or fringed,
are united together by a blood clot.
In case of hemorrhagic infarcts the lesion usually has a distinctly
conical outline corresponding to the vascular distribution. These are
especially characteristic of cases supervening on heart disease.
The volume of the liver is usually increased and the weight may
reach 30 lbs. (Schmeltz), 34 lbs. (Lorge), or even 66 lbs. (Trasbot).
In other domestic animals analogous lesions are found modified
largely according to the size of the subject.
Symptoms. These may develop instantaneously without any
marked premonitory indication. In other cases tenderness on
percussion over the liver, stiffness or groaning under sudden
movements or turning, arching of the back, hanging of the head,
slowness in rising, costiveness, slight transient colics, and even
icterus may have been detected on close observation. The symptoms
of actual rupture are essentially those of internal hemorrhage. The
animal becomes weak, or unsteady upon its limbs, perspires, arches
the back, and shows a marked pallor of the visible mucosæ. The
pulse is small, thready, weak and accelerated, and the heart beats
violent or palpitating. The percussion dullness over the liver is
extended (Weber), the loins become insensible to pinching, and
there may be some distension of the abdomen. Dilatation of the
pupils, retraction or rolling of the eyes, amaurosis, tremors of the
muscles of the neck, lying down, or falling, and general convulsions
may precede death. This may occur in a few hours or it may be
delayed if the lesions are restricted. In case of survival, coldness and
œdema of the extremities and sheath have been observed. The lesser
hemorrhages may terminate in recovery if there is no attendant
incurable disease. In anthrax, glanders, cancer, tuberculosis,
septicæmia, etc., a favorable issue is not to be looked for.
Duration. Termination. In severe cases a fatal issue may be
expected in from five hours to five days. In the milder cases which
make a temporary recovery there is great danger of a second
hemorrhage from the new vessels in the tissue undergoing
organization or from the adjacent degenerate liver tissue. The course
of the affection may be altered by such complications as arthritis
(Dieckerhoff), pneumonia, pulmonary thrombosis (Leblanc),
enteritis or peritonitis (Cadeac).
Treatment is usually of no avail. Rest, and the administration of
laxatives and hæmostatics, have been especially recommended. Of
the latter, ergot by the mouth or ergotin subcutem, tends to
contraction of the blood-vessels and to check the flow. Ferric
chloride is also used, though apt to interfere with hepatic function.
Tannic acid, hamamelis, and other astringents may be used instead.
Cold water, snow or ice applied to the right hypochondrium may act
as a check to the hemorrhage. Unless in purely traumatic cases in an
otherwise healthy liver, a recovery is at best temporary, and the
already degenerate liver is liable to relapse at any moment. In horses
and dogs, therefore, recovery is by no means an unmixed good. Meat
producing animals that recover should be prepared for the butcher.
HEPATITIS.
Forms of hepatitis: Parenchymatous hepatitis. Definition: Degeneration of
hepatic cells. Relation to enteritis and nephritis. In horse—causes:—as in
congestion, pampering, spoiled fodder, malt, inundated meadows, chill,
overfeeding, hot moist climate, hæmoglobinæmia, infection. In cattle—causes:—
forcing ration, hot weather, overwork, infection. In dog—causes:—infection from
alimentary canal. Lesions: Enlarged, softened liver, round edges, a week later
yellow atrophy, granular on section, bloodless. Acini with indefinite margins, cells
granular, nuclei lost. In dog centres of softening. Symptoms:—in horse: Attack
sudden, rigor, fever, dullness, prostration, yellowish red mucosæ, unsteady gait,
slight colic, anorexia, urine decreased, glairy, brownish red, groaning in defecation,
excited circulation and breathing, increased icterus by third day, fœtid, colorless
diarrhœa. Diagnosis: Coincidence of fever, prostration, icterus, painful defecation,
fœtid diarrhœa, light color of stools, tenderness and flatness on percussing hepatic
area. From influenza by absence of watering eyes and contagion. Prognosis in
horse: Very grave unless urine is free. Treatment in horse: Portal depletion,
calomel, ipecacuan, salines, diuretics, fomentation of loins, antiseptics, derivatives,
mineral acids, bitters. Careful laxative diet in convalescence. Symptoms in cattle:
Slower onset, anorexia, dullness, depression, drivelling saliva, grinding teeth,
icterus, constipation, later fœtid diarrhœa, pale colored stools, recumbency, groans
on rising, arching back, tender right hypochondrium, fever. Prognosis grave. Death
in five to six days. Treatment as in horse: Only saline laxatives. Symptoms in dog:
Muscular tremors, staring coat, hyperthermia, icterus, fœtid breath, ventral
decubitus, extreme prostration, anorexia, tender right hypochondrium, diminished
urine, death in two or three days. Treatment in dog: Calomel and jalap, diuretics,
laxatives, derivatives, germicides, in convalescence, mineral acids, bitters, careful
diet.
The different forms of inflammation of the liver are distinguished
according as they affect, especially the hepatic cells and tissue of the
acini (parenchymatous), as they result in suppuration (suppurative,
catarrhal, abscess), as they cause necrobiosis in nodular masses
(infectious or necrotic), as they lead to fibroid thickening under the
peritoneum and proper capsule (perihepatitis); or as they cause
general fibroid induration of the organ by increase of its connective
tissue (cirrhosis).
PARENCHYMATOUS HEPATITIS, ACUTE
YELLOW ATROPHY OE THE LIVER.
The characteristic morbid lesion in this disease is the degeneration
of the liver cells, loss of their protoplasm and nuclei and of their
normal functions. It may be circumscribed to limited areas, or may
affect the liver, generally. As the hepatic functions, are so intimately
related to those of the bowels and kidney, the affection is usually
accompanied by inflammations of these organs as well.
Causes in horses. The same general causes which produce
congestion, may also determine the further morbid stage of
inflammation. Cadeac mentions a case which developed in a horse
kept alone and idle in the stable. He makes no mention of condition,
food, cleanliness nor ventilation. Haubner and Franzen have traced it
to a diet of malt or of hay harvested from inundated meadows.
Zundel records a case following exposure to extreme cold. More
commonly the disease is secondary to the overtaxing of the liver, by
heavy feeding in warm moist climates, or in hæmoglobinæmia, or to
the arrest of the micro-organisms of the food, or of infectious
diseases.
Causes in Cattle. These suffer rarely, but from essentially the same
conditions. It has followed aphthous fever (Eletti), and arisen under
a forcing ration, in hot weather (Callot, Cruzel), or under overwork
(Cruzel).
Causes in Dogs. Most cases result from infection by way of the
stomach and intestines, or by the transfer to the liver of the
ptomaines and toxins of such infections. It is thus related in its origin
to catarrhal jaundice and hyperæmia.
Lesions. In the earliest stage with albuminoid exudation into its
substance the liver may be greatly enlarged, its sharp edges rounded,
and its consistency softened. After a week’s illness atrophy may have
set in and the organ appears shrunken and of ocherous yellow. In the
early stages there may be sanguineous engorgement, the cut surface
may bleed freely, and small extravasations may show throughout the
liver substance, later the clay yellow hue, the granular aspect and the
absence of blood on the cut surface are characteristic. The margins of
the adjacent acini are indefinite or lost, and under the microscope
the hepatic cells are charged with granules (albuminoid, fatty and
pigmentary), while the nuclei are no longer demonstrable.
In cattle the liver may be double the normal size and at first of a
deep purple red, which may change later to the earthy yellow.
In dogs the liver is tumid and yellow, and marked by small pea-
like centres of softening. There is marked softening and the
microscope reveals the characteristic degeneration of the hepatic
cells.
Symptoms in the Horse. These resemble those of congestion
rendered more intense and therefore somewhat less obscure. The
attack is usually sudden, there may be rigor followed by
hyperthermia, dullness, pendent head, drooping eyelids, injected
conjunctiva with a yellowish tinge, unsteady gait and slight
indications of colic. There is anorexia, partial suppression of urine,
and what is passed is thick, glairy and brownish red, fæces are passed
with pain, and groaning, probably from compression of the liver, the
heart beats violently, while the pulse is small, breathing accelerated
and perspiration abundant. The temperature rises (101° to 106°) and
remains high throughout unless lowered through biliary intoxication.
Percussion over the liver and especially on the right side shows
increased area of dullness and marked tenderness. On the second or
third day the icterus usually increases, and a slight fœtid diarrhœa
may set in with marked fœtor of the pale or colorless discharges. The
jaundice is not, however, a criterion of the danger, as it may become
less marked or entirely disappear because of the extensive
degeneration of the hepatic cells and the arrest of the formation of
bile.
Diagnosis in the horse. The disease is recognized by the
coincidence of fever, with great depression, icterus, painful
defecation, constipation followed by a fœtid diarrhœa with lack of
color in the stools and by increased area of dullness and tenderness
in the region of the liver and especially on the right side. From
influenza which it resembles in many respects, it is distinguished by
the absence of watery discharge from the eyes, and by the entire
absence of all indication of contagion. The cases occur one at a time.
Prognosis in the horse. The disease is exceedingly fatal. When the
kidneys remain active, the poisons are eliminated and there may be
hope of recovery, but when urine is suppressed an early death by
poisoning is to be expected.
Treatment in the horse. A most important indication is to secure
depletion from the portal system. Calomel 1 dr., aloes 4 drs.,
ipecacuan 1 dr. may be given in bolus, and followed by small daily
doses of sulphate and nitrate of soda with bitters, with or without the
ipecacuan. Action on the kidneys is essential to secure elimination of
the poisons which threaten a fatal poisoning if retained. To favor the
same action fomentations may be applied to the loins. The frequent
presence of pathogenic microörganisms either in the bowels or liver
suggests the use of germicides (salol, salicylic acid, salicylate of soda,
naphthalin, naphthol, beta-naphthol, etc.) as in catarrhal jaundice.
Sinapisms or blisters applied to the right side of the chest and over
the short ribs may be useful, and after the subsidence of the more
violent symptoms, dilute mineral acids and especially nitro-muriatic
acid may be resorted to in combination with diuretics and bitters.
When appetite returns succulent, laxative, non-stimulating food in
small quantity should be given. Wheat bran mashes, carrots, turnips,
potatoes, apples, fresh grass, ensilage may be adduced as examples.
Throughout the disease the ingestion of an abundance of pure water
should be encouraged.
Symptoms in the ox. These may appear more tardily than in the
horse, loss of appetite, staring coat, dullness, pendent head and ears,
unsteady movements, rigors, drivelling of saliva from the mouth and
grinding the teeth are usually noted. To these are added the more
diagnostic symptoms of slight (or severe) jaundice, constipation
followed by a fœtid light colored diarrhœa, a strong disposition to
remain recumbent, marked suffering attendant on rising, arching of
the back when up, and tenderness on percussion over the right
hypochondrium. The temperature gradually rises, though more
slowly than in the horse, and may again descend under a profound
poisoning.
Course. The disease reaches its acme in four to six days, and
generally has a fatal issue.
Treatment, is on the same lines as for the horse only as a
purgative, sulphate of soda may advantageously replace the aloes.
Symptoms in the dog. The symptoms are those of congestion in an
exaggerated form. There are muscular tremors, erection of the hair,
followed by rising temperature up to 105° or 106°, an icteric hue of
the mucosæ, the pulse is accelerated, strong, irregular, respiration
rapid, panting, fœtid breath, ventral decubitus, and prostration
extreme. Appetite is completely lost, the bowels become relaxed, the
stools fœtid, the right hypochondrium painful on pressure or
percussion, and the urine greatly reduced and icteric or suppressed.
This feature of urinary suppression, determines a rapid poisoning
and death in two or three days.
Treatment must follow the same lines as in other animals, a
purgative of calomel and jalap, followed by diuretics, laxatives,
derivatives, and above all germicides. In case of survival mineral
acids, aqua regia, bitters, and a carefully regulated diet will be in
order.
SUPPURATIVE HEPATITIS. HEPATIC
ABSCESS.
Causes in horse: pyæmia, omphalitis, thrombosis, infection, biliary calculi,
concretions or parasites, foreign bodies, hot, damp climates, strangles,
brustseuche, glanders, endocarditis. Lesions in horse: from parasites and
mechanical irritants, pea-like or hazelnut; embolic abscess, pin head to hen’s egg;
infection from strangles, foreign bodies, etc., may be of large size, and burst into
adjacent organs, the peritoneum or externally. Symptoms in horse: of pre-existent
malady, remitting fever, successive chills, intermittent icterus, hypochondriac
tenderness. Spontaneous recovery, aspiration, opening, antiseptics locally and
generally. Lesions in ruminants; secondary multiple abscesses, bean-like or (with
foreign body) very large, may extend into adjacent parts. Symptoms in cattle: fever,
chills, jaundice, tympany, diarrhœa, dysentery, wasting, tender right
hypochondrium. Treatment: as in horse. Causes in dog: foreign bodies, tumors,
infections, blows, traumas. Lesions: traumatic abscesses, single, large, infectious
abscesses multiple, small. Former fœtid. Symptoms in dog: hepatic congestion or
colic, then chills, prostration, irritability, tenderness of right hypochondrium,
nausea, vomiting. Treatment in dog: antiseptic aspiration, laparotomy.
Causes in the Horse. Hepatic abscess arises from a great many
primary morbid conditions. As a secondary abscess it is seen in the
different forms of pyæmia and especially in suppurative omphalitis
in young animals. It may start in thrombosis determined by clots or
septic matters carried from a distance through the portal vein or
hepatic artery, in biliary calculi or concretions, in parasites
introduced from the duodenum, in barbs or husks of the cereals that
have penetrated through the biliary ducts, or in bacteria or their
toxins which have been carried from the bowels, spleen or pancreas.
The government veterinarians have found it a comparatively
common lesion in the hot damp climate of Hindoostan, and a similar
frequency has been noticed in west Africa. Among general affections
it is liable to occur in strangles, contagious pneumonia, glanders,
endocarditis of the left heart and phlebitis with the formation of
thrombi in the lungs. In the two last named disorders, the affection
takes place by the simple transference of detached clots to the liver to
block its arteries or capillaries. Or it may be that micro-organisms
are transferred in the same way. With modern views of suppuration
the presence of the pyogenic organisms must be conceded.
Lesions in the horse. Cadeac distinguishes the different types of
hepatic abscess as: 1st biliary abscess in which suppuration
commences in the interior of the biliary ducts and usually from
parasites or mechanical irritants introduced or from calculi or
concretions formed within them: these rare abscesses contain biliary
salts, pigments, and epithelium and acquire the size of a pea or
hazelnut: 2d Metastatic abscesses which start in the arterial, portal,
or capillary vessels, by the arrest of infecting clots, which determine
a further clotting, the obstruction of the vessel, the accumulation of
leucocytes and the formation of abscess of the size of a pin head or
larger up to a hen’s egg, surrounded by a hæmorrhagic infarct
softening in the centre: these are numerously disseminated through
the liver: 3d Mechanical Abscess due to the penetration of foreign
bodies or parasites: 4th Infection as in strangles. These may attain a
large size, cause adhesion to adjacent organs, and rupture into the
chest, the colon, stomach or peritoneum. The pus may even escape
externally through the right hypochondrium.
Symptoms in the horse. These are always obscure and vary much
with the source of the malady. If there has been a pre-existing
hepatic malady the symptoms of that will be in evidence; if an
omphalitis its existence may still be recognizable; if pulmonary or
cardiac disease, that may be detected; if parasites, evidence of their
existence may perchance be found; if gall stone, a previous violent
hepatic colic with icterus may have occurred; and if intestinal septic
disorder, there may be the testimony of intestinal troubles. The more
diagnostic symptoms are a fever of a remittent type, one or several
violent shivering fits, a marked jaundice which like the fever shows
exacerbations, and a similar irregularity of the condition of the urine
which may be successively of a dark brown, a deep yellow, and a
transparent amber color. Tenderness and grunting on percussion of
the right hypochondrium would be an additional aid in diagnosis.
Treatment. Death has been hitherto considered as the inevitable
result, yet recoveries may ensue after rupture into the colon or
through the abdominal walls. If the seat of the abscess can be
ascertained its evacuation through an aspirator and the subsequent
injection of an antiseptic would be appropriate. The concurrent use
of antisuppurants like hyposulphite of soda, or sulphide of calcium
would also be in order.
Causes in Cattle. Hepatic abscess is much more frequent in cattle,
and is commonly a result of perforation by sharp pointed bodies
(needles, pins, nails, wires, etc.) from the reticulum and rumen, or of
parasites, or biliary calculi. Other cases are occasioned by the
presence of tubercles, actinomycosis, or omphalitis.
Lesions in Cattle and Sheep. Secondary abscesses are usually
multiple and disseminated through the organ, though Cadeac says
they are more common in the left half. They vary in size from a bean
to a pigeon’s egg, project often from the surface, and contain a viscid,
creamy, yellowish or greenish pus. Abscesses dependent on foreign
bodies often attain a great size, so as to contain a pint or quart of pus
(Landel). They may make their way through the diaphragm, rumen,
or abdominal wall leaving a thick cicatrix in the liver, or they may
become slowly absorbed and dry up into a putty-like or cretaceous
mass. Brusaferro found hepatic abscesses in lambs twenty to thirty
days old—probably of omphalic origin.
Symptoms in Cattle are usually very obscure. Fever, shivering fits,
jaundice, indigestion, diarrhœa or dysentery, emaciation, colics,
tender right hypochondrium, and peritonitis may all be in evidence
but the diagnosis is little better than a guess.
Treatment when possible at all would be on the same lines as for
the horse.
Causes in the dog. According to Cadeac these are mostly foreign
bodies (needles, pins, etc.) which have been swallowed, tumors of the
liver or adjacent organs, phlebitis and thrombosis of the portal vein,
pyæmia, septicæmia, and external injuries (kicks, blows, contusions,
falls, etc.)
Lesions in the dog. As in the other animals traumatic abscess is
usually solitary and large, secondary abscess multiple and small. The
pus developed around a foreign body is reddish, greenish and fœtid,
that of the metastatic abscess is usually whitish or yellowish and with
a sweet odor.
Symptoms in the dog are those of hepatic congestion, or violent
gall stone colic, followed by severe rigor, great depression, or
irritability, and tenderness over the right hypochondrium. Nausea
and vomiting is a marked symptom though not a diagnostic one.
Treatment. If the flaccid abdominal walls will allow of the locating
of the abscess it should be treated by aspiration and antiseptic
injections. It would even be admissible to perform laparotomy, stitch
the wall of the abscess to the external wound, and empty it under due
antiseptic precautions.
INFECTED HEPATITIS. NODULAR
NECROBIOSIS OF THE LIVER.
In ox, sheep, pig, dog, horse. Necrotic areas projecting on surface of liver.
Causes: bacteria, toxins, from bowels, womb, navel. Lesions: In cattle dirty gray
nodules in brownish red liver, nodules firm, granular, necrotic, elements do not
stain, later leucocytes and fibro-plastic growth in periphery. In lambs the nodules
are white, common to the lungs and pleura, pathogenic to rabbit. In pigs nutmeg
liver, cells without nuclei, fatty, granular, pathogenic to rabbits, guinea pigs, rats
and young pigs. In dog, nutmeg liver, with violet areas, and white spots, 1–2 lines,
having granular, fatty cells without nuclei. Symptoms: fever, constant lying, tarry
fæces, icterus, tender right hypochondrium, and those of the primary disease.
Treatment: antisepsis of primary seat, and bowels, elimination by kidneys, general
antisepsis, stimulants, etc. Case usually hopeless. Prevention.
This has been observed particularly in cattle, but also in sheep, pig,
dog and horse. It is characterized by the formation of circumscribed
areas of gangrene, becoming hard, dry, yellowish and usually slightly
projecting beyond the adjacent surface. Its infected character is
shown by the presence in the lesion and adjacent parts of the hepatic
tissue of an abundance of bacteria, which, from the varied
description, appear to differ in different cases. The cause may
however be safely stated as one of the bacteria of gangrene. It is
alleged with some show of reason, that the lesion may be determined
by the action of toxins and ptomaines produced by bacteria in the
alimentary canal and carried to the liver with the portal blood
(Cadeac). The bacteria themselves commonly come from the same
source, (Stubbe), but also from the uterus (Berndt), the mammæ
(LeBlanc), and above all from the suppurating or septic umbilicus.
McFadyean in five cases found a long slender bacillus, Hamilton in a
single case in the horse found cocci, Rivolta in an infectious hepatitis
in sheep found bacterium subtilis agnorum, and Semmer found the
same condition in young pigs from micrococci introduced through
the diseased umbilicus.
Lesions. In cattle the liver has a general brownish red, or greenish
white color, and shows projecting, hard nodules of a dirty gray color
more or less tinged with yellowish brown. The margins of these hard
nodules are very sharply defined, and on section show a
homogeneous granular surface, devoid of areas of softening or of
connective tissue, and formed of the hepatic parenchyma in a state of
necrobiosis. The granules and nuclear elements do not stain like
those of healthy liver. As the disease advances the periphery of the
nodule may be invaded by leucocytes and become the seat of a fibro-
plastic hypertrophy (McFadyean) with the ultimate formation of
cicatricial tissue (Stubbe).
In lambs Rivolta found the necrosed nodules standing out as white
patches under the capsule of the liver, but similar lesions were met
with in the lungs and pleuræ, an observation which has been
confirmed by Hanbold. The affection was conveyed by inoculation to
the rabbit.
In pigs Semmer found nutmeg liver, deep red or grayish yellow,
hypertrophied, the hepatic cells swollen and divested of nuclei but
containing fatty and pigmentary granules. It was inoculable on
rabbits, guinea pigs, white rats and on young pigs.
In the dog, Courmont and Doyon found congested liver (portal
congestion) with projecting patches of a deep violet color and sharply
defined borders, and one to two lines in diameter, also salient white
spots with distinct outlines. In the white spots the hepatic cells had
lost their nuclei and were charged with fatty granules.
Symptoms. These are indications of hepatic disease. In parturient
cows, Berndt noted fever (102° to 104°), anorexia, stiffness, cough,
labored breathing, intense thirst, constant decubitus, and
constipation followed by lowering temperature, tarry fæces and
icterus. The region of the liver was very sensitive to pressure or
percussion. In the other animals the symptoms appear to be largely
over-shadowed by those of the primary disease, but the same general
indications of jaundice, hepatic tenderness and digestive disorder are
superadded.
Treatment when it can be intelligently adopted, consists largely in
evacuation and antisepsis of the seat of primary infection, and of the
prima viœ, and in maintaining elimination by the kidneys. In this
way, as in congestion and hepatitis, the concentration of the poison
is as far as possible counteracted, and an opportunity may
sometimes be furnished for the recuperation of the liver cells. As a
rule, however, the case is hopeless, and thus preventive measures, by
cleanliness, disinfection and antisepsis of the ascertained sources of
the infection are indicated.
PERIHEPATITIS.
Inflammation of capsule of liver (external and Glisson’s). Causes: Traumas,
infective diseases, phlebitis of the portal vein, chill, distomatosis. Lesions:
Peritonitis and inflammation of the capsule in patches, yellowish gray exudate,
fibroid thickening or pus. Adhesions to adjacent objects. Thickening of trabeculæ.
Symptoms, tardy respiration and circulation, tender hypochondrium, colics,
diarrhœa, painful defecation, moan with expiration. Slight cases recover. Sequelæ:
compression of portal vein or bile duct, gastric catarrh, piles, etc. Treatment:
Salines, alkaline diuretics, mineral tonics, bitters.
This is inflammation of the external capsule of the liver and
Glisson’s capsule. It may arise from direct mechanical injury, or by
extension of inflammation from adjacent structures, such as the
peritoneum. It may also complicate contagious pneumonia in the
horse, tuberculosis in the ox, pneumoenteritis in pigs, and also
phlebitis of the vena portæ (Cadeac, Morot). It may follow a chill, or
distomatosis.
Lesions. These are essentially peritonitis circumscribed by the
liver, and extending to the proper capsule, and its vaginal
investments of the hepatic vessels. It is usually limited to certain
spots which become the seats of a yellowish gray exudation, with a
tendency to fibroid development and thickening, but sometimes
degenerating into pus. The deposits on the outer side of the hepatic
peritoneum may develop false membranes and fibrous adhesions to
surrounding objects, the diaphragm, omentum, stomach or intestine.
The deposits under the peritoneum lead to similar fibrous
development with hypertrophy or thickening of the capsule, the
trabeculæ extending thence into the liver and the vaginal sheaths of
the vessels. Such areas of thickening are revealed as depressed spots
or patches of a white color, and showing a firm fibrous, pearly
appearance when incised. Such lesions are not uncommon in the
livers of horses, cattle and swine. In the pig they may have a violet, or
brownish red color, but with spots of other colors—grayish or
brownish (Kitt).
Symptoms. Dopheïde, who has studied the disease in cows and to
a less extent in horses, found a reduction in pulsations (26 per

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American Government in Black and

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Canadian Politics Today: Democracy, Diversity and Good

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Democracy in Black How Race Still Enslaves the American

Gateways to Democracy: An Introduction to American

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1 American Government and Politics in a Racially Divided World 1

2 The Constitution: Rights and Race Intertwined 27

3 Federalism: Balancing Power, Balancing Rights 57

4 Civil Liberties: Freedom and Government Authority in Tension 99

5 Civil Rights: Inequality and Equality 131

6 Congress: Representation and Lawmaking 171

7 The Presidency: Conventional Wisdom Redefined 205

8 The Bureaucracy: Career Government Employees, Accountability,

10 Public Opinion: Divided by Race? 297

11 The Media: Reinforcing Racial Stereotypes? 331

12 Social Movements: Civil Rights as a Movement Model 359

13 Interest Groups: Good Outcomes with Few Resources 405

14 Political Parties: Linking Voters and Governing Institutions 437

15 Voting and Elections: From Obama to Clinton 465

16 The Making of Domestic and Foreign Policy 519

Appendix II: The Constitution 546

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The Nature of Government 4 Our Voices: Prince Hall (1748–1807) 37

The Functions of Government 5 Second Attempt at National Government:

Conclusion 24 Key Terms 24 Separating Powers 50

The Constitution: Rights and Race Instituting Checks and Balances 53

Intertwined 27 Conclusion 54 Key Terms 54

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Chapter 3 Pornography and Offensive Speech 106

Balancing Rights 57 Freedom of Religion 110

State Legislatures 62 Criminal Justice 112

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Women 162 Interest Groups 200

Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and the Transgendered 164 Staff 201

Elderly and Disabled 167

Chapter 6 The Presidency: Conventional

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Chapter 8 Judicial Powers and Limitations 275

Executive Control over Bureaucracies 262

Law and Courts 272 Political Socialization 303

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The Mechanics of Polling 306 Coverage of Government Officials

A History of Media and Politics 334 The Environmental Movement 383

Print Media 334 The Anti–Vietnam War Movement 384

Broadcast Radio and Television 338 Other Important U.S. Social

The Media Industry 345