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World Sustainability Series

Paula Castro
Ulisses M. Azeiteiro
Paula Bacelar-Nicolau
Walter Leal Filho
Anabela Marisa Azul Editors

Biodiversity
and Education
for Sustainable
Development

123
World Sustainability Series

Series editor
Walter Leal Filho, Hamburg, Germany
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13384
Paula Castro Ulisses M. Azeiteiro
•

Paula Bacelar-Nicolau Walter Leal Filho

•

Anabela Marisa Azul

Editors

Biodiversity and
Education for Sustainable
Development

123
Editors
Paula Castro Walter Leal Filho
Department of Life Sciences, Centre HAW Hamburg
for Functional Ecology Hamburg
University of Coimbra Germany
Coimbra
Portugal and

Ulisses M. Azeiteiro Manchester Metropolitan University

Department of Science and Technology Manchester
Universidade Aberta and Centre UK
for Functional Ecology
University of Coimbra Anabela Marisa Azul
Coimbra Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology
Portugal University of Coimbra
Coimbra
Paula Bacelar-Nicolau Portugal
Department of Science and Technology
Universidade Aberta and Centre
for Functional Ecology
University of Coimbra
Coimbra
Portugal

ISSN 2199-7373 ISSN 2199-7381 (electronic)

World Sustainability Series
ISBN 978-3-319-32317-6 ISBN 978-3-319-32318-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32318-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016935961

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc., in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
Editorial

This book joins the global debate on education for sustainable development
(ESD) and explores its contribution to biodiversity conservation. This book collects
reflections from various areas of knowledge and links biological and ecological
principles and pedagogical practices. In parallel, it reports on a remarkable wide
range of formal, non-formal and informal learning and participatory research and
awareness actions, as well as educational proposals and resources for critical
thinking and for fostering practices and attitudes, reconciling education with
principles of human behaviour and nature.
Along with the challenge of the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity
(2011–2020), this book aims to bring a scientific and pedagogical contribution
targeting the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020, including the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets and also the Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development that states in its Goal 14. Conserve and sustainably use
the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development and Goal 15.
Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and
halt biodiversity loss, biodiversity conservation related goals.
The contents of this book are divided into five parts:
Part I Education Research on Biodiversity
Part II Teaching About Biological Invasions and Threats to Biodiversity
Part III Engaging Society in Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainability
Part IV Designing Sustainable Futures
Part V Online Education to Biodiversity and Sustainability Awareness
The first part gathers papers concerning education research on biodiversity as
well as conservation of biological resources. The second part focuses on the
biological invasions that threaten native biodiversity. The third part reports on study
cases that engage society in the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable
development. The fourth part focuses on novel approaches leading to more
sustainable futures, and the final part discusses the use of e-learning in the
progresses towards conservation of biodiversity and sustainability awareness. Using

v
vi Editorial

e-learning is becoming widely accepted in both formal and non-formal education,

proving to be effective in expanding education for sustainability (EfS).
Readers will find variety of topics, covering from urban biodiversity, island
ecosystems, polar regions biodiversity, endemisms and protected species to
biological invaders/invasive alien species (IAS), from fungal biodiversity and
teaching to insects biodiversity, in the context of endemic biodiversity in the Azores
Islands (North Atlantic) and soil biodiversity. These topics are addressed in a
scientific and investigative perspective, educational context (education for sustain-
able development) and incorporate social awareness/raising awareness into the
broader socio-environmental topic of biodiversity conservation and communication
strategies for public engagement. Biodiversity and rural communities and
biodiversity and indigenous communities are addressed together with the discussion
of biodiversity policies in national contexts.
Teaching biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of resources, ecosystem
services and sustainable development may also make wider use of, and profit from,
the new information and communication technologies, as also addressed in this
book by the study case of online teaching (e-learning and b-learning) for
biodiversity conservation.
A total of 20 double-blind peer-reviewed chapters from Europe (contributors
from Portugal, Germany, United Kingdom, Norway, Spain and Italy), South
America (contributors from Brazil and Mexico) and Africa (contributors from
South Africa) cover the different subjects related to the above-mentioned topics of
this book.
An introductory chapter from the editors Walter Leal Filho, Paula Castro, Paula
Bacelar-Nicolau, Anabela Marisa Azul and Ulisses M. Azeiteiro entitled
“Biodiversity and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD): Tendencies and
Perspectives” draws some theoretical concepts with reference to the links between
biodiversity research, biodiversity loss, biodiversity in education for sustainable
development, education and sustainable development, tendencies and perspectives
in the context of the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity (2011–2020).
Part I of the book includes five chapters relating to education research on
biodiversity and conservation of biological resources:
Paula Castro, Anabela Marisa Azul, and Jorge Paiva in the chapter
“Conservation of Biological Resources: Why Does It Matter?” emphasise on the
relevance of biodiversity in people’s life. The authors address the importance of
forests, the unknown biodiversity and the extinction of species in order to alert the
readers and the general public, students, teachers and other stakeholders on the
importance of all biological resources. This is the viewpoint of one of the lasting
researchers of a generation of naturalists—Jorge Paiva.
As we are increasingly becoming aware, “urban growth and human competition
for land have led to deep structural changes in the composition and dynamics of the
landscape, significantly affecting the fragile rural/urban equilibrium, and migration
from rural to urban areas has forced cities to expand into the surrounding
environments which created substantial environmental impacts on the functioning
of natural ecosystems, affecting land use of the rural-urban interface”. In this
Editorial vii

context, the chapter untitled “Urban Biodiversity and Cities’ Sustainability

Development”, by Lurdes Barrico and Paula Castro, looks at understanding the
human causes and consequences of land use change in urban environments.
Authors state that “with a correct model of urban development we may preserve
native biodiversity, ecosystem services, and diminish natural hazards in urban
environment” and “highlight the importance of greening cities and engaging resi-
dents and other stakeholders in the planning process and decision-making, as well
as the importance of teaching, training or raising awareness as key actions to
achieve these goals”.
“The Polar Regions are famously associated with extreme temperatures, ice,
snow, legendary explorers, indigenous people, polar bears, penguins and other
impressive fauna and flora. The past decades have witnessed a revolution in the
amount of data collected in the Polar Regions, with considerable advances in
the knowledge of numerous areas, including polar biodiversity. Educationally,
the Polar Regions can be perfect vehicles to transfer educational concepts related to
biodiversity, but unfortunately, the evaluation of the impact of educational activities
related to polar biodiversity is scarce”. In this fourth chapter, untitled “Education on
Biodiversity in the Polar Regions”, José C. Xavier, Gerlis Fugmann, Inga Beck,
Louise Huffman and Eric Jensen provide a general review of the importance of the
polar regions, the increasing status of polar education in the last decade, examples
of polar educational activities on biodiversity and a resource to stakeholders
interested in polar science and education.
María P. Martín and Roy Watling in “Teaching Mycology Worldwide” write
about taxonomy and fungi, stating the difficulty “to delimit a species concept which
is common to all fungal groups. In general, taxonomists continue using morpho-
logical characters; however, DNA sequence analysis (barcoding) is now essential to
discover the true identity of new fungal species”. In this chapter, some aspects of
teaching mycology are summarised, including well-documented fungi websites
from different countries, and scientific databases for various groups of fungi and the
application of new technologies. Some teaching experiences, while training tax-
onomists all around the world, are shared with the reader, such as sampling in the
rain forest with Malaysian and Thai students, teaching general and master courses
in Australia, Brazil, Ecuador and India and online tools for the effective training of
students and teachers, particularly when these participate at distance.
“The negative impact of biodiversity loss on ecosystem functioning and services,
and ultimately on human well-being, has been unequivocally established; however,
despite all efforts, biodiversity is still declining worldwide. It is widely accepted
that biodiversity awareness is crucial for its conservation. Nevertheless, after many
initiatives to alert society about the consequences of losing biodiversity, biodiver-
sity loss is still perceived as a minor environmental risk compared to others, such as
climate change. Thus far, most communication strategies have involved conven-
tional venues, targeting people who are already “environmentally-aware”, and have
not incorporated societal idiosyncrasies and cultural backgrounds”. In this context,
Ana Moura Arroz, Rosalina Gabriel, Isabel R. Amorim, Rita São Marcos and
Paulo A.V. Borges in the chapter “Bugs and Society I: Raising Awareness About
viii Editorial

Endemic Biodiversity” review the role of communication in risk governance, and

the principles and strategic options of the Azorean intervention.
The second part of the book discusses biological invasions and their threats to
native biodiversity and includes chapters “Science and Education at the Centre for
Invasion Biology” and “Engaging Society to Fight invasive Alien Plants in Portugal
—One of the Main Threats to Biodiversity”:
“South Africa has severe problems caused by biological invasions in terrestrial,
freshwater and marine ecosystems, and a long history of managing biological
invasions. However, appreciation and systematic study of the problems associated
with invasive species are relatively recent. In 2004, the Centre for Invasion Biology
(CIB) was established as one of the first six national Centres of Excellence funded
by the South African government”. Sarah J. Davies, G. John Measey, Dorette du
Plessis and David M. Richardson in “Science and Education at the Centre for
Invasion Biology” present the readers the aims, structure and activities of Centres of
Excellence. Researchers at these centres are involved in citizen science programmes
on invasive species, in collaborative work with partner organisations which
implement invasive species management programmes and provide employment
opportunities for graduates at the centre.
In the chapter “Engaging Society to Fight invasive Alien Plants in Portugal—
One of the Main Threats to Biodiversity”, Elizabete Marchante and Hélia March-
ante write about invasive alien species (IAS) in Portugal. A list of 32 animal and
plant species has been recognised as invasive species by the Portuguese legislation
since 1999. Nevertheless, a large portion of the population is still unaware of the
problem. This paper reviews the various strategies developed by the researchers in
engaging and raising public awareness with the topic of IAS, namely plant species,
since 2003, including the website invasoras.pt. Overall, awareness about IAS is
increasing amongst the Portuguese population and citizens are contributing more to
the prevention and control of IAS. Still, the challenge to reach public other than the
peers or professionals related to the topic is still daunting.
In Part III of this book, readers can find three study cases that engage society in
biodiversity conservation and sustainable development, Chaps. “Bugs and Society
II: Testing Two Communication Strategies for Public Engagement in the Azores” to
“Education for Sustainability in the Context of Community Forestry”:
Following from chapter 6 above, Isabel R. Amorim, Ana Moura Arroz, Rita São
Marcos, Paulo A.V. Borges and Rosalina Gabriel, in “Bugs and Society II: Testing
Two Communication Strategies for Public Engagement in the Azores”, introduce
the communicational programme “Bugs and society” and test two initiatives to raise
biodiversity awareness relating to Azorean endemic species—an outdoor exhibition
Açorianos há milhões de anos (Azoreans for millions of years) and a web contest to
name insects Chama-lhe Nomes! (Pick a name!). Both communicational strategies
targeted non-traditional audiences and relied on the Portuguese and Azorean cul-
tural identity and on anthropic verisimilitude of situations involving insects. The
assessment of impacts produced in the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of
viewers and users are discussed. Communication devices like the ones herein
Editorial ix

presented are expected to raise biodiversity awareness and empower people

regarding its preservation in the Azores.
“Dialogue and mutual learning between civil society and researchers involved in
natural resource management have been increasingly advocated as a means of
improving public understanding of science, biodiversity conservation, and local
well-being. In rural areas in developing countries, however, science communication
and environmental education strategies for disseminating biodiversity conservation
research have traditionally used methods based on top–down, one-way approaches
that have limited local engagement in research and undermined feedback generation
between local people and researchers”. In the Chap. “Communicating Biodiversity
Conservation Research Through Dialogue and Mutual Learning in Rural and
Indigenous Communities” Isabel Ruiz Mallen examines a participatory process of
developing a communication strategy for an environmental conservation project in
Southeastern Mexico. Such participatory approach increases the social relevance
of the research and improves both research results and dissemination products.
“Community forestry in Portugal is emerging as a promising form of
multifunctional forestry that combines scientific and technical knowledge with
the participation of the local residents in decision-making. These forests are
governed by collective property arrangements (baldios) based on millenarian
traditional usufruct rights of a local community of commoners (compartes).
Participation is open to all the new residents regardless of their gender, activity or
status. This connection between the commoners and the commons lands was
severely disrupted during the twentieth century, by the national Forest Services, by
compulsory afforesting the lands with tree species unknown to local populations
and causing the decline of collective agro-pastoral practices”. In “Education for
Sustainability in the Context of Community Forestry” Rita Serra, Patrícia Ferreira,
Iryna Skulska, Mayrén Alavez-Vargas, Anailton Salgado, João Arriscado Nunes
and Raúl García-Barrios describe the study case of a community of compartes that
recently gained back control of its common lands and initiated a project to
regenerate a degraded mountain forest. This includes the challenges and the edu-
cational activities jointly developed to activate meaningful engagement in collective
practices, intergenerational responsibility and active citizenship.
Part IV focuses on novel approaches leading to more sustainable futures in the
scope of education for biodiversity conservation and sustainability, with Chaps.
“Urban Forest Governance: FUTURE—The 100,000 Trees Project in Porto
Metropolitan Area” to “Interdisciplinary and Participatory Research at Early
Childhood to Biodiversity Education and Sustainable Development”:
Marta Pinto, Conceição Almeida, Ana Maria Pereira and Margarida Silva in
“Urban Forest Governance: FUTURE—The 100,000 Trees Project in the Porto
Metropolitan Area” present the reader the case study FUTURE, describing its
context, scale, institutional framework, actors and partnerships, resources and
processes and governance model. The Porto Metropolitan Area is a region in
northern Portugal with approximately 2,000 km2 and 16 % of the Portuguese
population. The region is a jigsaw puzzle of urban, agricultural and forest areas.
A broad participatory regional planning process, conducted from 2003 to 2008,
x Editorial

concluded that major challenges ahead included the improvement of the green
infrastructure (forest, riverside areas and natural corridors), the need for education
and training for sustainability, as well as improved interinstitutional coordination.
The FUTURE – the 100,000 trees project in the Porto Metropolitan Area is the
outcome of this process.
“Sustainable development (SD) is a controversial concept informed by
conflictive narratives which reshape the way we envision the earth, the sea and
the stars. Its integration in international policies and national strategy plans for
development influences the ways we now know the past, our understanding of the
present, and our paths to the future. It influences our lives through policies that
regulate daily practices, such as the European Common Fisheries Policy which
focuses its strategies for SD in trade and education”. Chapter “Reflexive Research
and Education for Sustainable Development with Coastal Fishing Communities in
the Azores Islands: A theatre for Questions”, by Alison Laurie Neilson and Irina
Castro, raises the questions of environmental justice that challenges one to look
critically at research and education norms for SD, and also questions how the
deficit-model of the research is built on the assumption that failures of SD are due to
lack of knowledge. The authors bring together the research experience on education
and research practices, with the Azores archipelago in Portugal, as a background to
their reflexive and educational practices. The participation of Augusto Boal’s
Theatre of the Oppressed helps exploring the potential of multi-directional learning
via aesthetic practices and action-based research to engage people in research, and
in SD policy development which are environmentally just and sustainable.
Chapter “Public Policies and Education for Biodiversity: Brazilian Challenges
in a New Global Context”, by Klautau de Araújo, analyses Brazilian educa-
tion and public policies for environment and biodiversity, through the (i) legal,
(ii) organisational and administrative and (iii) participatory points of view. This
review allows us to understand the potential of environmental education (formal
and informal), in the Brazilian context, and the challenges of reforming the present
paradigm. The study case of the Escola Bosque (Forest School) illustrates a good
example of an integrated environmental education system, which has been inter-
nationally awarded for its positive impact on education for biodiversity and the
environment.
“Economic progress has been noteworthy in almost all fields in the last 70 years.
However, the unsustainable use of non-renewable resources, the destruction of
biological diversity and greenhouse gas emissions accelerated the environmental
crisis and highlighted social inequalities. The accountability over this civilizational
crisis is diffuse, but environmental education in Brazil is mostly focused on those
who cause the least environmental damage”. In the Chap. “Education for
Sustainable Development in Brazil: Challenges for Inclusive, Differentiated and
Multicultural Education”, Andreia Setti and Ulisses Miranda Azeiteiro analyse the
interactions between the determinants of the current environmental crisis and
the contribution of education to sustainable development, critically considering the
sustainability of the current means of production and consumption, and as a strategy
for the promotion of autonomy and equity in the Brazilian reality. Authors approach
Editorial xi

three main aspects: (i) the original, foundational and practical constitution of
environmental education, (ii) understanding the challenges of institutionalising
environmental education (the Brazilian context) and (iii) the paths of political action
needed to attain the sustainable development goals (SDGs).
“Soil is fundamental for human life as we know it. The top layer of Earth’s crust,
essentially composed of minerals, water and air, also harbours an immense variety
of organisms, from plants to microorganisms, which qualifies it as an actual living
system. On account of soil biodiversity and its functioning, soil can deliver services
essential for regulating, providing and supporting human life”. Sara Mendes,
Anabela Marisa Azul, Paula Castro, Jöerg Röembke and José Paulo Sousa in the
Chap. “Protecting Soil Biodiversity and Soil functions: Current Status and Future
Challenges” review the main advances in soil research, knowledge and monitoring
and discuss the status of current strategies towards soil protection and sustainability.
They also present a three vector plan for effectively contributing for soil protection
based on monitoring, experimenting and raising awareness towards soil issues,
which hopefully can change the way people use soil.
The Chap. “Interdisciplinary and Participatory Research at Early Childhood
to Biodiversity Education and Sustainable Development” by João Miranda, Raquel
Maricato, Joana Vila Nova, Joana Margarida Baptista, João Lourenço Monteiro,
Nuno Freitas, Odete Gonçalves, Vera Vale and Anabela Marisa Azul explored how
biological understanding of the biodiversity and ecological processes at early
childhood may contribute to biodiversity education and sustainable development
(BESD) awareness. The participatory research undertook a constructive pro-
gramme, with the active collaboration of researchers from life sciences, humanities,
science education, kindergarten teachers, children and artists. The perceptions,
evaluation and validation of the approach are emphasised in the ateliers progres-
sively designed in the drawings by the children, the documentation by the
kindergarten teachers and the interviews to the children and findings focused
attention on the understanding of biological. Focus was given to the ecological
interactions, the adaptations to climate, the food and the products of the Mediter-
ranean forests and the biodiversity legacy in the Mediterranean region, where
children were actors/authors of knowledge that resulted from the mutual learning
and the active collaboration.
The fifth and the last part of the book focuses on information and communication
technologies (ICT) that lead to e-learning’s (and b-learning) significant role within
learning and educational processes, namely in Biodiversity Conservation and
Education for Sustainable Development (Chaps. “Engaging ODL Students with
Biodiversity Issues: A South African Case Study on the Role of ESD” to
“Knowledge Dissemination and Best Practice Transfer on Biosafety, Biosecurity
and Biorisk Management Through a Sustainable and Effective Education and
Awareness System”):
“Biodiversity is regarded as a key asset in safeguarding the well-being of future
generations. The threat to biodiversity through indiscretionary human activities is
increasingly gaining attention, from local to global scales. Biodiversity forms part
of the agenda for Education for Sustainable Development through addressing
xii Editorial

inter-linkages between the various components and systems comprising the

environment. This has been illustrated throughout the Decade of Education for
Sustainable Development, which ended in 2014. As a result, significant progress
has been made at various levels on the understanding of the impact of human
consumption on biodiversity, together with the sensitization of students in terms
of their potential roles to curb habitat and species loss as well as environmental
degradation”. Rudi W. Pretorius, Mathilda E. Brand and Leslie R. Brown in the
paper “Engaging ODL Students with Biodiversity Issues: A South African Case
Study on the Role of ESD” reflect on the way biodiversity is dealt with through the
b-learning approach to ESD in the Diploma in Nature Conservation offered by the
University of South Africa (UNISA). A review of the flexibility of a b-learning
approach to open distance learning (ODL), the challenges that were experienced,
the means through which these were addressed and a future perspective concludes
this chapter.
Ulisses Miranda Azeiteiro and Paula Bacelar-Nicolau in the Chaps. “Online
Teaching for Biodiversity Conservation” reviews the e-learning experience of
biodiversity conservation courses at Diploma and Master’s level, offered by the
Universidade Aberta, the Portuguese distance learning university. This review
includes the e-learning methodologies, their learning effectiveness, challenges
(throughout nine course editions’) and discusses future course’s improvements.
“Education is the first step to create a society that respects the others and the
environment and that works to design and build a peaceful future. An effective and
sustainable education system could rely on a tailored methodology that synergizes
self-evaluation, gap-analysis, and train-the-trainers methods. This combination
allows gathering information about real needs and expectations of training targets,
elaborating a made-to-measure educational programme and training future educa-
tors on topics of interest, making education and awareness system sustainable”.
In the last paper of the book the Chaps. “Knowledge Dissemination and Best
Practice Transfer on Biosafety, Biosecurity and Biorisk Management Through a
Sustainable and Effective Education and Awareness System”, Carola Argiolas,
Veronica Baldo and Maurizio Martellini review the methodologies applied to
develop a sustainable education and awareness system and the training contents
related to biosafety/biosecurity/biorisk management, and describe how the authors
set up a knowledge development and transfer of best practice system on
biosafety/biosecurity/biorisk management, in order to spread awareness and
know-how on these topics. Twenty-two countries, in four different regions
(South-east Europe, South-east Asia, North and West Africa) were involved in the
project titled “Knowledge development and transfer of best practice in biosafety,
biosecurity and biorisk management”.
This book offers science research on biodiversity and educational approaches for
biodiversity valuation and conservation within a geographical coverage. In
addition, the chapters address important challenges and future developments, also
giving insights into how education for sustainability may be pursued in a
conservation biology context.
Editorial xiii

We would like to take this opportunity to thank all authors who submitted their
manuscripts for consideration of inclusion in this book. And since the peer review
was a double-blind process, we also thank the reviewers who have taken time to
provide timely feedback to the authors, thereby helping the authors to improve their
manuscripts, and ultimately the quality of this book.

Paula Castro
Ulisses M. Azeiteiro
Paula Bacelar-Nicolau
Walter Leal Filho
Anabela Marisa Azul
Contents

Biodiversity and Education for Sustainable Development

(ESD): Tendencies and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Walter Leal Filho, Paula Castro, Paula Bacelar-Nicolau,
Anabela Marisa Azul and Ulisses Miranda Azeiteiro

Part I Education Research on Biodiversity

Conservation of Biological Resources: Why Does It Matter? . . . . . . . . 13
Paula Castro, Anabela Marisa Azul and Jorge Paiva
Urban Biodiversity and Cities’ Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Lurdes Barrico and Paula Castro
Education on Biodiversity in the Polar Regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
José C. Xavier, Gerlis Fugmann, Inga Beck,
Louise Huffman and Eric Jensen
Teaching Mycology Worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
María P. Martín and Roy Watling
Bugs and Society I: Raising Awareness About Endemic
Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Ana Moura Arroz, Rosalina Gabriel, Isabel R. Amorim,
Rita São Marcos and Paulo A.V. Borges

Part II Teaching About Biological Invasions and Threats

to Biodiversity
Science and Education at the Centre for Invasion Biology . . . . . . . . . . 93
Sarah J. Davies, G. John Measey, Dorette du Plessis
and David M. Richardson
Engaging Society to Fight Invasive Alien Plants
in Portugal—One of the Main Threats to Biodiversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Elizabete Marchante and Hélia Marchante

xv
xvi Contents

Part III Engaging Society in Biodiversity Conservation

and Sustainability
Bugs and Society II: Testing Two Communication Strategies
for Public Engagement in the Azores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Isabel R. Amorim, Ana Moura Arroz, Rita São Marcos,
Paulo A.V. Borges and Rosalina Gabriel
Communicating Biodiversity Conservation Research Through
Dialogue and Mutual Learning in Rural and Indigenous
Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Isabel Ruiz-Mallén
Education for Sustainability in the Context
of Community Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Rita Serra, Patrícia Ferreira, Iryna Skulska, Mayrén Alavez-Vargas,
Anailton Salgado, João Arriscado Nunes and Raúl Garcia-Barrios

Part IV Designing Sustainable Futures

Urban Forest Governance: FUTURE—The 100,000 Trees Project
in the Porto Metropolitan Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Marta Pinto, Conceição Almeida, Ana Maria Pereira
and Margarida Silva
Reflexive Research and Education for Sustainable Development
with Coastal Fishing Communities in the Azores Islands:
A Theatre for Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Alison Laurie Neilson and Irina Castro
Public Policies and Education for Biodiversity: Brazilian
Challenges in a New Global Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Thiago Lima Klautau de Araújo
Education for Sustainable Development in Brazil: Challenges
for Inclusive, Differentiated and Multicultural Education . . . . . . . . . . 237
Andréia Faraoni Freitas Setti and Ulisses Miranda Azeiteiro
Protecting Soil Biodiversity and Soil Functions: Current
Status and Future Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Sara Mendes, Anabela Marisa Azul, Paula Castro,
Jörg Römbke and José Paulo Sousa
Interdisciplinary and Participatory Research at Early
Childhood to Biodiversity Education and Sustainable
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
João Miranda, Raquel Maricato, Joana Vila Nova,
Joana Margarida Baptista, João Lourenço Monteiro,
Nuno Freitas, Odete Gonçalves, Vera Vale and Anabela Marisa Azul
Contents xvii

Part V Online Education to Biodiversity and Sustainability

Awareness
Engaging ODL Students with Biodiversity Issues: A South
African Case Study on the Role of ESD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Rudi W. Pretorius, Mathilda E. Brand and Leslie R. Brown
Online Teaching for Biodiversity Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Ulisses Miranda Azeiteiro and Paula Bacelar-Nicolau
Knowledge Dissemination and Best Practice Transfer on Biosafety,
Biosecurity and Biorisk Management Through a Sustainable
and Effective Education and Awareness System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Carola Argiolas, Veronica Baldo and Maurizio Martellini
Biodiversity and Education
for Sustainable Development (ESD):
Tendencies and Perspectives
Walter Leal Filho, Paula Castro, Paula Bacelar-Nicolau,
Anabela Marisa Azul and Ulisses Miranda Azeiteiro

Abstract
This introductory paper outlines some of the areas where research and action is
needed, so as to allow a more systematic development of Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) in the Biodiversity Conservation context. Apart
from presenting the concepts of ecosystem services and biodiversity, this chapter
indicates the main initiatives needed to be developed to incorporate ESD in the
curricula as a multiple-perspective approach. Additionally, it is discussed how
biodiversity conservation through education action fit within the actual premises
and programmes of sustainability as the Convention on Biological Diversity and
the 2010 Biodiversity Target or under the scope of the Strategic Plan for
Biodiversity 2011–2020. Tendencies and perspectives on Education for Biodi-
versity Conservation in the coming decades is also a subject of debate in the
present chapter.

W.L. Filho
HAW Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
W.L. Filho
Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

P. Castro
Department of Life Sciences, Centre for Functional Ecology,
University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

P. Bacelar-Nicolau
U.M. Azeiteiro

Department of Science and Technology,
Universidade Aberta and Centre for Functional Ecology,
University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

A.M. Azul
Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra,
Coimbra, Portugal

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

P. Castro et al. (eds.), Biodiversity and Education for Sustainable Development,
World Sustainability Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32318-3_1
2 W.L. Filho et al.

1 Introduction

The incorporation of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in the cur-

riculum in a multiple-perspective approach is usually used for teaching and learning
in primary and secondary schools, to promote interdisciplinary and intercultural
competencies to address ESD (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization [UNESCO] 2012). There are many recommended ways to do it: the
scientific perspective way of knowing about the world around us; the historical
perspective of changes in the world over time; the geographic perspective of events,
problems and issues take on different complexities; the human rights perspective;
the gender equality perspective; the values perspective of individuals, cultures and
countries; the cultural diversity perspective, and the sustainability perspective
(sustainability balances environmental, social, and economic concerns, as well as
taking into account the well-being of future generations) (UNESCO Teaching and
Learning for a Sustainable Future programme: http://www.unesco.org/education/
tlsf/). For Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) approaches to incorporate ESD in
the curricula include: coverage of some environmental issues and material in an
existing course; a separate module, or chapter in a traditional course, tailored to the
nature of each specific training; finally, a specific sustainable development course
and renewal of the curricula (formal or non-formal programs, undergraduate or
post-graduate programmes) (Lozano et al. 2015a).
ESD will require the development of initiatives needed to:
(a) reorient and train teachers (linking theory and practice, interdisciplinarity,
transdisciplinary, informal learning, transformative learning, leadership
approaches);
(b) make use of holistic, collaborative learning methods, approaches and tools
(e.g. problem based learning, Triple Bottom Line, life cycle analysis, games,
on-line collaborative learning);
(c) fulfil student learning outcomes and competences for ESD (Aktas et al. 2015;
Amador et al. 2015; Barth and Rieckmann 2012; Dlouha and Burandt 2015;
Lozano and Lozano 2014) and key competences for ESD as described by
Disterheft et al. (2013).
Besides training and education of human resources and physical changes,
organizations have to institutionalize sustainability into their systems and cultures
(through values, visions, philosophies, policies, employee empowerment, and
change management practices) (Lozano et al. 2015b), together with community
outreach activities (Müller-Christ et al. 2014).
This chapter aims, through a whole-institution approach, multi-stakeholder
interactions and lifelong learning, to provide a description of the achievements in
the field of biodiversity and Education for Sustainable Development. Furthermore,
this chapter will put in perspective future tendencies and point out some of the key
issues which will guide biodiversity and conservation teaching, education for
sustainable development, and sustainable development.
Biodiversity and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) … 3

2 Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity

Ecosystem services may be defined as the benefits that humans obtain from
ecosystems that support, directly or indirectly, their survival and quality of life
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [MEA] 2003). However, human modification
of Earth’s biological resources—its species and genetically distinct populations—is
substantial and growing. The overall risks associated with modification of land-
scapes and soil functions, are seriously threatening biodiversity conservation and
the services provided by ecosystems (European Environment Agency [EEA] 2011).
Human socio-economic activities as well as their quality of life and well-being are
highly dependent on the function and associated services that ecosystems provide.
These include services such as providing food, water, wool, fertile soils, timber, and
other products; they regulate ecosystem processes such as climate, land degrada-
tion, disease as well as ensuring the flow of clean water and protection from
flooding or other hazards like soil erosion and landslides. They are also important in
supporting services like soil formation, nutrient cycling, and primary production.
Finally, they provide cultural services through recreation, education, spiritual
well-being, and other nonmaterial benefits (MEA 2003, 2005; Pittock et al. 2012).
The connection between ecosystems and human well-being is well known
(Fig. 1). Therefore, it is crucial to understand human dependence on how ecosys-
tems work so to better understand their resilience capacity.
Biodiversity and ecosystems are closely related as biodiversity is essential for
the functioning and sustainability of an ecosystem. Biodiversity can be described as
the sum of the total biotic variation, from genes to ecosystems, and supports
ecosystem functioning which ultimately affects human well-being (EEA 2015;

Ecosystems and Biodiversity

Biophysical
structure or Human well -being
process Function*
(e.g. slow (socio-cultural context)
(e.g. vegetation
cover or net water passage, Service
primary biomass) (e.g. flood-
protection, Benefit(s)
productivity)
products) (contribution
to health, (Econ) Value
safety, etc.) (e.g. willingness
to pay for
protection or
products)
* subsetofbiophysicalstructureor
process providing the service

Fig. 1 The relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem function, and human well-being
(adapted from de Groot et al. 2002, after modification by Haines-Young and Potschin 2010)
4 W.L. Filho et al.

MEA 2005). Biodiversity conservation emerged as a field in international policies

in the 2nd half of the 20th century, culminating in the United Nations Convention
on Biological Diversity [CBD], which entered into force in 1992.
Changes in drivers that indirectly affect biodiversity, such as population, tech-
nology, and lifestyle, can lead to changes in drivers directly affecting biodiversity,
such as the catchment of fish, the application of fertilizers to increase food pro-
duction, or urbanization, which in turn affect ecosystem’s function by changing
their species composition and species richness, and communities’ structures
(Alberti 2005; Leung 2015). At the same time, human activities have homogenized
the Earth’s biota, introducing many species into new areas where they can disrupt
both natural and human systems (Ceballos et al. 2015; Vitousek et al. 1997).
The loss of biodiversity is the most critical global environmental threat. More
than a third of the global species are facing extinction and an estimated 60 % of the
Earth’s ecosystems have been degraded in the last 50 years, with consequences for
the services that depend on them (Joppa et al. 2015; European Commission [EC]
2010). Marine biodiversity is also under pressure, a worrying fact given that
approximately 90 % of the planet’s biomass lives in the ocean (EC 2010).

3 2010 Biodiversity Target—The Convention on Biological

Diversity

Since the 2nd half of the 20th century, concerns about the use of natural resources
and the recognition of the importance of biological diversity, have grown. In May
1992, the Nairobi Conference resulted in the adoption of the Agreed Text of the
CBD (www.cbd.int/), which was open for signature at the Rio “Earth Summit”
(United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in the same year.
The CBD text’s (1992) main objective (https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.
pdf) was to preserve biological diversity through its sustainable use. Biological
diversity was then defined as “the variability among living organisms from all
sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems”. This includes all populations, organisms, and
genetic resources or “any other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or
potential use or value for humanity”.
Since then, several periodic meetings—The Conference of the Parties [COP]—
have occurred as to monitor and discuss advances and new strategies about the
CBD commitments. In COP 6 (Decision VI/26, April 2002) a new challenge for
scientists, policy-makers, and society was undertaken (www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/
cop-06/full/cop-06-dec-en.pdf). All the parties, at the time, should comply with the
Convention objectives and work towards achieving “by 2010 a significant reduction
of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national level as a
contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on earth”. This
agreement became known as the 2010 Biodiversity Target or the Strategic Plan for
Biodiversity and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) … 5

the Convention on Biological Diversity, a global target incorporated as a new target

under the Millennium Development Goals.
To measure the progress towards the target of reducing biodiversity loss in
Europe by 2010, a set of 26 environmental indicators were presented in 2007 (EEA
2007). The process was however, initiated in 2005 by the Streamlining European
Biodiversity Indicators [SEBI] (http://biodiversity.europa.eu/topics/sebi-indicators).
Their goal was to build on current monitoring available data, to avoid duplication of
efforts and to complement—and not replace—other activities to describe, model,
and understand biodiversity and the pressures upon it.
The 2010 Biodiversity Target provides the scientific community with the chal-
lenge to engage in stimulating fundamental science and to participate in what is
likely to be the most significant conservation agreement of the early 21st century.
Despite some local successes and increasing responses (including the extent and
biodiversity coverage of protected areas, sustainable forest management, policy
responses to invasive alien species, and biodiversity-related aid), the rate of bio-
diversity loss did not appear to be slowing down (Butchart et al. 2010). Some
concern regarding the design of the indicators and communication to different and
relevant audiences was also demonstrated (Mace and Baillie 2007). Reports on the
assessment of biodiversity in Europe (EEA 2010) and the Global Biodiversity
Outlook 3 (http://gbo3.cbd.int), both launched in the 2010 International Year of
Biodiversity, demonstrated that despite some progresses, there was a continuing
decline in biodiversity at genes, species, and ecosystems levels, with the most
severe threats affecting several types of ecosystems (e.g. freshwater, coastal and
marine, forests, grassland, and urban ecosystems). It became clear that the original
global target had not been met and the loss of biodiversity in Europe was still a fact!

4 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020

Failing to meet the 2010 targets forced the Conference of the Parties to rethink and
update its strategy to halt the continuous loss of biodiversity. Thus, a new decision
(X/2) at COP 10 (2010) was adopted and a revised global Strategic Plan for Bio-
diversity for the period 2011–2020 was approved to safeguard biodiversity and the
benefits it provides to people (https://www.cbd.int/sp/), under the flag “Living in
harmony with nature”. This decision, among other outputs, adopted the 20 Aichi
Biodiversity Targets (https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/), which are grouped under 5
strategic goals: “(a) address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by main-
streaming biodiversity across government and society; (b) reduce the direct pres-
sures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use; (c) improve the status of
biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity; (d) enhance
the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services; and (e) enhance
implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and
capacity building”.
6 W.L. Filho et al.

Fig. 2 EU biodiversity strategy vision for 2050 and target for 2020 (EU 2011)

The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 aims to provide a flexible

broad-based framework for the establishment of national and regional targets by the
parties and other stakeholders, for the implementation of the CBD requirements.
The plan focused on the necessity of developing effective communication tools to
engage all stakeholders in complying with the Aichi Targets, as well as streamlining
the mainstreaming of biodiversity into broader national and global agendas.
An ambitious global vision is transmitted in the plan, where “Living in harmony
with nature” will serve as a pillar to ensure that: “By 2050, biodiversity is valued,
conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a
healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people”.
The European Union [EU] also shared the same long-term 2050 vision and the
2020 headline targets proposed by the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020
and a new EU biodiversity strategy—“Our life insurance, our natural capital: an EU
biodiversity strategy to 2020” was agreed by the EC in 2011 (COM/2011) (Fig. 2).
Recognizing the importance of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020, as
well as the Aichi Targets and the need to reduce the rate of global biodiversity loss,
the United Nations [UN] Secretary-General, Mr. Ban Ki-moon declared the period
2011–2020 the “Decade on Biodiversity” (Resolution 65/161—https://www.cbd.
int/2011-2020/), reinforcing the urgent need for the global implementation of the
Plan.

5 Education for Biodiversity Conservation in the 21st

Century: Beyond 2015

The 2014 UNESCO World Conference on Education for Sustainable Development

marked the end of the United Nations [UN] Decade of ESD (2005–2014) and
launched the Global Action Programme [GAP] on ESD. Under the banner of
“Learning Today for a Sustainable Future”, the Conference celebrated the
achievements of the Decade, identified lessons learnt while setting the stage for the
Biodiversity and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) … 7

future of ESD. It also showcased initiatives, key players, networks, and ideas that
the decade has stimulated. Such examples from all over the world will help to
generate future action under the GAP. The outcomes of the World Conference will
inform the deliberations of the World Education Forum to held from 19 to 22 May
2015 in Incheon, Republic of Korea. The GAP on ESD, as a follow-up to the UN
Decade of ESD after 2014, in its principles stated, “ESD relates to the environ-
mental, social and economic pillars of sustainable development in an integrated,
balanced and holistic manner. It equally relates to a comprehensive sustainable
development agenda as contained in the outcome document of Rio+20, which
includes, among others, the interrelated issues of poverty reduction, climate change,
disaster risk reduction, biodiversity, and sustainable consumption and production. It
responds to local specificities and respects cultural diversity”.
It is also noteworthy to refer to the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Devel-
opment, launched in October 2015, entitled “Transforming our world: the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development” (Resolution 70/1, 2015) (https://
sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld), a plan of action
for people, planet, and prosperity. The plan identifies as extremely important, the
quality of an inclusive and equitable education to promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all, as the way to achieve the sustainable development goals set for
2030. The vision expressed in this agenda embraces a world where equitable and
universal access to quality education at all levels is mandatory.

6 Education for Biodiversity: Tendencies and Perspectives

In 2015, Europe stands roughly halfway between the initiation of the European
environmental policy in the early 1970s and the General Union Environment
Action Programme to (7th Environment Action Programme) “Living well within
the limits of the planet” (Decision N.º 1386/2013/EU, 2013). Access to ecosystem
services will become an even more critical factor for economic success and resi-
lience in the 21st century.
A survey carried out by the Gallup Organization (2010) entitled “Attitudes of
Europeans towards the issue of biodiversity” showed that two-thirds of European
citizens were familiar with the term “biodiversity”. Moreover, 38 % of interviewees
said they knew the meaning of the term and 28 % stated they had heard of the term
but did not know its meaning. Approximately one-third (34 %) of respondents
claimed they had never heard of the term biodiversity, let alone understand what the
threats and challenges to its conservation are. Respondents with the lowest level of
education, manual workers and non-working respondents, were the most likely to
claim that they had never heard of the term. This study also demonstrated that
citizens were unaware of what Europe was doing to save biodiversity. However,
they were conscious of environmental matters. When the issue was explained to
them, over two-thirds considered the loss of biodiversity a serious problem,
8 W.L. Filho et al.

Table 1 Key findings and trends of the decade of education for sustainable development (DESD)
(UNESCO 2014)
Main subject Findings/trends
ESD, an enabler for sustainable Education systems are addressing sustainability issues
development Sustainable development agendas and education
agendas are converging
Importance of stakeholder Political leadership has proven instrumental
engagement for ESD Multi-stakeholder partnerships are particularly effective
Local commitments are growing
ESD is galvanizing pedagogical Whole-institution approaches practise ESD
innovation ESD facilitates interactive, learner-driven pedagogies
ESD has spread across all levels and ESD is being integrated into formal education
areas of education Non-formal and informal ESD is increasing
Technical and vocational education and training
advances sustainable development

principally at global level. These results clearly indicate that the level of under-
standing of the problem is still inadequate.
Despite these worrying numbers, the final report on the UN Decade of Education
for Sustainable Development (2005–2014), showed that during this time, some
interesting findings and trends could be observed regarding the integration of all
features of education and learning with principles and practices of sustainable
development (UNESCO 2014) (Table 1).
Despite these advances in education for sustainable development, societies still
face several important challenges. According to UNESCO (2014), additional
alignment between education and sustainable development sectors is needed, more
efforts are required to improve the institutionalization of ESD, and tools to monitor
and evaluate programmes and action should also be perfected. Bennett et al. (2015)
argued that in order to achieve a better management of natural resources, it is
essential to improve communication with different stakeholders (e.g. private actors)
and for inspiring advances in policy.
Thus it is essential to identify and clarify trends and assess the effectiveness of
current and future policies aimed at raising public awareness and participation with
regards to biodiversity, as far as communication to the public is concerned. In
addition, biodiversity research and intervention should integrate new perspectives,
bringing together biological sciences, social sciences and local knowledge (Alves
et al. 2013).

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 Part I
Education Research on Biodiversity
Conservation of Biological Resources:
Why Does It Matter?
Paula Castro, Anabela Marisa Azul and Jorge Paiva

Abstract
The world population has grown from 2500 million people in the year 1950 to
more than 7300 million people in the year 2015, posing a challenge never faced
before in human history. People are less aware about the limitedness of natural
resources and the consequences of the present development. Increased
population, associated with technological advancement undermines the sustain-
able development of any nation. Daily, many species are going extinct due to the
continuous fragmentation/destruction of habitats, many of which have not been
studied or referenced. Presently, we are living in the «Decade of Biodiver-
sity» from the period of year 2011 to the year 2020, which was launched at the
end of the year 2011 by the General Secretary of the United Nations, Ban
Ki-moon. This poses a great challenge and all societies and nations are saddled
with the responsibility of revising their actual models of economic development
and increasing their knowledge base, by planning more intelligent and
integrative programmes for the conservation of our biological resources and
its functions in the ecosystems and human health. This chapter aims to raise
awareness on the relevance of biodiversity in people’s life. It emphasizes
subjects, such as the importance of forests, the unknown biodiversity, and the
extinction of species, in order to alert the general public, students, teachers, and
other stakeholders to the importance of all biological resources.

P. Castro (&)
J. Paiva

Department of Life Sciences, Centre for Functional Ecology,
University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: pcastro@ci.uc.pt
A.M. Azul
Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra,
Coimbra, Portugal

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 13

P. Castro et al. (eds.), Biodiversity and Education for Sustainable Development,
World Sustainability Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32318-3_2
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 PLATE XXXVIII

SHRUBBY CINQUEFOIL.—P. fruticosa.

Of all the cinquefoils perhaps this one most truly merits the title
five finger. Certainly its slender leaflets are much more finger-like
than those of the common cinquefoil. It is not a common plant in
most localities, but is very abundant among the Berkshire Hills.

Silvery Cinquefoil.
Potentilla argentea. Rose Family.

Stems.—Ascending, branched at the summit, white, woolly. Leaves.—Divided

into five wedge-oblong, deeply incised leaflets, which are green above, white with
silvery wool, beneath.
The silvery cinquefoil has rather large yellow flowers which are
found in dry fields throughout the summer as far south as New
Jersey.

Golden Ragwort. Squaw-weed.

Senecio aureus. Composite Family (p. 13).

Stem.—One to three feet high. Root-leaves.—Rounded, the larger ones mostly

heart-shaped, toothed, and long-stalked. Stem-leaves.—The lower lyre-shaped, the
upper lance-shaped, incised, set close to the stem. Flower-heads.—Yellow,
clustered, composed of both ray and disk-flowers.
A child would perhaps liken the flower of the golden ragwort to a
yellow daisy. Stain yellow the white rays of the daisy, diminish the
size of the whole head somewhat, and you have a pretty good
likeness of the ragwort. There need be little difficulty in the
identification of this plant—although there are several marked
varieties—for its flowers are abundant in the early year, at which
season but few members of the Composite family are abroad.
The generic name is from senex—an old man—alluding to the
silky down of the seeds, which is supposed to suggest the silvery
hairs of age.
Closely allied to the golden ragwort is the common groundsel, S.
vulgaris, which is given as food to caged birds. The flower-heads of
this species are without rays.

——— ———
Clintonia borealis. Lily Family.

Scape.—Five to eight inches high, sheathed at its base by the stalks of two to
four large, oblong, conspicuous leaves. Flowers.—Greenish-yellow, rather large,
rarely solitary. Perianth.—Of six sepals. Stamens.—Six, protruding. Pistil.—One,
protruding. Fruit.—A blue berry.
 PLATE XXXIX

Clintonia borealis.

When rambling through the cool, moist woods our attention is

often attracted by patches of great dark, shining, leaves; and if it be
late in the year we long to know the flower of which this rich foliage
is the setting. To satisfy our curiosity we must return the following
May or June, when we shall probably find that a slender scape rises
from its midst bearing at its summit several bell-shaped flowers,
which, without either high color or fragrance, are peculiarly
charming. It is hard to understand why this beautiful plant has
received no English name. As to its generic title we cannot but
sympathize with Thoreau. “Gray should not have named it from the
Governor of New York,” he complains; “what is he to the lovers of
flowers in Massachusetts? If named after a man, it must be a man of
flowers.... Name your canals and railroads after Clinton, if you
please, but his name is not associated with flowers.”
C. umbellata is a more Southern species, with smaller white
flowers, which are speckled with green or purplish dots.

Yellow Lady’s Slipper. Whip-poor-Will’s Shoe.

Cypripedium pubescens. Orchis Family (p. 17).

Stem.—About two feet high, downy, leafy to the top, one to three-flowered.
Leaves.—Alternate, broadly oval, many-nerved and plaited. Flowers.—Large,
yellow. Perianth.—Two of the three brownish, elongated sepals united into one
under the lip; the lateral petals linear, wavy-twisted, brownish; the pale yellow lip
an inflated pouch. Stamens.—Two, the short filaments of each bearing a two-celled
anther. Stigma.—Broad, obscurely three-lobed, moist and roughish.
The yellow lady’s slipper usually blossoms in May or June, a few
days later than its pink sister, C. acaule. Regarding its favorite
haunts, Mr. Baldwin[3] says: “Its preference is for maples, beeches,
and particularly butternuts, and for sloping or hilly ground, and I
always look with glad suspicion at a knoll covered with ferns,
cohoshes, and trilliums, expecting to see a clump of this plant among
them. Its sentinel-like habit of choosing ‘sightly places’ leads it to
venture well up on mountain sides.”
The long, wavy, brownish petals give the flower an alert, startled
look when surprised in its lonely hiding-places.
 PLATE XL

SMALLER YELLOW LADY’S SLIPPER.

—C. parviflorum.

C. parviflorum, the small yellow lady’s slipper, differs from C.

pubescens in the superior richness of its color as well as in its size. It
also has the charm of fragrance.

Early Meadow Parsnip.

Zizia aurea. Parsley Family (p. 15).

One to three feet high. Leaves.—Twice or thrice-compound, leaflets oblong to

lance-shaped, toothed. Flowers.—Yellow, small, in compound umbels.
 This is one of the earliest members of the Parsley family to
appear. Its golden flower-clusters brighten the damp meadows and
the borders of streams in May or June and closely resemble the
meadow parsnip, Thaspium aureum, of which this species was
formerly considered a variety, of the later year.
The tall, stout, common wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, is
another yellow representative of this family in which white flowers
prevail, the three plants here mentioned being the only yellow
species commonly encountered. The common parsnip may be
identified by its grooved stem and simply compound leaves. Its roots
have been utilized for food at least since the reign of Tiberius, for
Pliny tells us that that Emperor brought them to Rome from the
banks of the Rhine, where they were successfully cultivated.

Golden Club.
Orontium aquaticum. Arum Family.

Scape.—Slender, elongated. Leaves.—Long-stalked, oblong, floating. Flowers.

—Small, yellow, crowded over the narrow spike or spadix.
When we go to the bogs in May to hunt for the purple flower of
the pitcher-plant we are likely to chance upon the well-named golden
club. This curious-looking club-shaped object, which is found along
the borders of ponds, indicates its relationship to the jack-in-the-
pulpit, and still more to the calla lily, but unlike them its tiny flowers
are shielded by no protecting spathe.
Kalm tells us in his “Travels,” “that the Indians called the plant
Taw-Kee, and used its dried seeds as food.”

Spearwort.
Ranunculus ambigens. Crowfoot Family.

Stems.—One to two feet high. Leaves.—Oblong or lance-shaped, mostly

toothed, contracted into a half-clasping leaf-stalk. Flowers.—Bright yellow, solitary
or clustered. Calyx.—Of five sepals. Corolla.—Of five to seven oblong petals.
Stamens.—Indefinite in number, occasionally few. Pistils.—Numerous in a head.
Many weeks after the marsh marigolds have passed away, just
such marshy places as they affected are brightly flecked with gold.
Wondering, perhaps, if they can be flowering for the second time in
the season, we wade recklessly into the bog to rescue, not the marsh
marigold, but its near relation, the spearwort, which is still more
closely related to the buttercup, as a little comparison of the two
flowers will show. This plant is especially common at the North.

Indian Cucumber-root.
Medeola Virginica. Lily Family.

Root.—Tuberous, shaped somewhat like a cucumber, with a suggestion of its

flavor. Stem.—Slender, from one to three feet high, at first clothed with wool.
Leaves.—In two whorls on the flowering plants, the lower of five to nine oblong,
pointed leaves set close to the stem, the upper usually of three or four much
smaller ones. Flowers.—Greenish-yellow, small, clustered, recurved, set close to
the upper leaves. Perianth.—Of three sepals and three petals, oblong and alike.
Stamens.—Six, reddish-brown. Pistil.—With three stigmas, long, recurved, and
reddish-brown. Fruit.—A purple berry.
One is more apt to pause in September to note the brilliant
foliage and purple berries of this little plant than to gather the
drooping inconspicuous blossoms for his bunch of wood-flowers in
June. The generic name is after the sorceress Medea, on account of
its supposed medicinal virtues, of which, however, there seems to be
no record.
The tuberous rootstock has the flavor, and something the shape,
of the cucumber, and was probably used as food by the Indians. It
would not be an uninteresting study to discover which of our
common wild plants are able to afford pleasant and nutritious food;
in such a pursuit many of the otherwise unattractive popular names
would prove suggestive.

Common Bladderwort.
Utricularia vulgaris. Bladderwort Family.

Stems.—Immersed, one to three feet long. Leaves.—Many-parted, hair-like,

bearing numerous bladders. Scape.—Six to twelve inches long. Flowers.—Yellow,
five to twelve on each scape. Calyx.—Two-lipped. Corolla.—Two-lipped, spurred at
the base. Stamens.—Two. Pistil.—One.
 This curious water-plant may or may not have roots; in either
case it is not fastened to the ground, but is floated by means of the
many bladders which are borne on its finely dissected leaves. It is
commonly found in ponds and slow streams, flowering throughout
the summer. Thoreau calls it “a dirty-conditioned flower, like a
sluttish woman with a gaudy yellow bonnet.”
The horned bladderwort, U. cornuta, roots in the peat-bogs and
sandy swamps. Its large yellow helmet-shaped flowers are very
fragrant, less than half a dozen being borne on each scape.

Yellow Pond-lily. Spatter Dock.

Nuphar advena. Water-lily Family.

Leaves.—Floating or erect, roundish to oblong, with a deep cleft at their base.

Flowers.—Yellow, sometimes purplish, large, somewhat globular. Calyx.—Of five
or six sepals or more, yellow or green without. Corolla.—Of numerous small, thick,
fleshy petals which are shorter than the stamens and resemble them. Stamens.—
Very numerous. Pistil.—One, with a disk-like, many-rayed stigma.
Bordering the slow streams and stagnant ponds from May till
August may be seen the yellow pond-lilies. These flowers lack the
delicate beauty and fragrance of the white water-lilies; having,
indeed, either from their odor, or appearance, or the form of their
fruit, won for themselves in England the unpoetic title of “brandy-
bottle.” Owing to their love of mud they have also been called “frog-
lilies.” The Indians used their roots for food.
 PLATE XLI

INDIAN CUCUMBER-ROOT.—M.
Virginiana.

Winter-cress, Yellow Rocket. Herb of St. Barbara.

Barbarea vulgaris. Mustard Family (p. 17).

Stem.—Smooth. Leaves.—The lower lyre-shaped; the upper ovate, toothed or

deeply incised at their base. Flowers.—Yellow, growing in racemes. Pod.—Linear,
erect or slightly spreading.
As early as May we find the bright flowers of the winter-cress
along the roadside. This is probably the first of the yellow mustards
to appear.
 Black Mustard.
Brassica nigra. Mustard Family (p. 17).

Often several feet high. Stem.—Branching. Leaves.—The lower with a large

terminal lobe and a few small lateral ones. Flowers.—Yellow, rather small, growing
in a raceme. Pods.—Smooth, erect, appressed, about half an inch long.
Many are familiar with the appearance of this plant who are
ignorant of its name. The pale yellow flowers spring from the waste
places along the roadside and border the dry fields throughout the
summer. The tall spreading branches recall the biblical description:
“It groweth up, and becometh greater than all herbs, and shooteth
out great branches; so that the fowls of the air may lodge under the
shadow of it.”
This plant is extensively cultivated in Europe, its ground seeds
forming the well-known condiment. The ancients used it for
medicinal purposes. It has come across the water to us, and is a
troublesome weed in many parts of the country.

Wild Radish.
Raphanus Raphanistrum. Mustard Family (p. 17).

One to three feet high. Leaves.—Rough, lyre-shaped. Flowers.—Yellow, veiny,

turning white or purplish; larger than those of the black mustard, otherwise
resembling them. Pod.—Often necklace-form by constriction between the seeds.
This plant is a troublesome weed in many of our fields. It is the
stock from which the garden radish has been raised.
 PLATE XLII

WINTER-CRESS.—B. vulgaris.

Cynthia. Dwarf Dandelion.

Krigia Virginica. Composite Family (p. 13).

Stems.—Several, becoming branched, leafy. Leaves.—Earlier ones roundish;

the latter narrower and often cleft. Flower-heads.—Yellow, composed entirely of
strap-shaped flowers.
In some parts of the country these flowers are among the earliest
to appear. They are found in New England, as well as south and
westward.
 The flowers of K. amplexicaulis appear later, and their range is a
little farther south. Near Philadelphia great masses of the orange-
colored blossoms and pale green stems and foliage line the railway
embankments in June.

Rattlesnake-weed.
Hieracium venosum. Composite Family (p. 13).

Stem or Scape.—One or two feet high, naked or with a single leaf, smooth,
slender, forking above. Leaves.—From the root, oblong, often making a sort of flat
rosette, usually conspicuously veined with purple. Flower-heads.—Yellow,
composed entirely of strap-shaped flowers.
The loosely clustered yellow flower-heads of the rattlesnake-
weed somewhat resemble small dandelions. They abound in the
pine-woods and dry, waste places of early summer. The purple-
veined leaves, whose curious markings give to the plant its common
name, grow close to the ground and are supposed to be efficacious in
rattlesnake bites. Here again crops out the old “doctrine of
signatures,” for undoubtedly this virtue has been attributed to the
species solely on account of the fancied resemblance between its
leaves and the markings of the rattlesnake.
H. scabrum is another common species, which may be
distinguished from the rattlesnake-weed by its stout, leafy stem and
unveined leaves.

Dandelion.
Taraxacum officinale. Composite Family (p. 13).
 PLATE XLIII

RATTLESNAKE-WEED.—H. venosum.

If Emerson’s definition of a weed, as a plant whose virtues have

not yet been discovered, be correct, we can hardly place the
dandelion in that category, for its young sprouts have been valued as
a pot-herb, its fresh leaves enjoyed as a salad, and its dried roots
used as a substitute for coffee in various countries and ages. It is said
that the Apache Indians so greatly relish it as food, that they scour
the country for many days in order to procure enough to appease
their appetites, and that the quantity consumed by one individual
exceeds belief. The feathery-tufted seeds which form the downy balls
beloved as “clocks” by country children, are delicately and beautifully
adapted to dissemination by the wind, which ingenious arrangement
partly accounts for the plant’s wide range. The common name is a
corruption of the French dent de lion. There is a difference of opinion
as to which part of the plant is supposed to resemble a lion’s tooth.
Some fancy the jagged leaves gave rise to the name, while others
claim that it refers to the yellow flowers, which they liken to the
golden teeth of the heraldic lion. In nearly every European country
the plant bears a name of similar signification.

Poverty-grass.
Hudsonia tomentosa. Rock-rose Family.

“Bushy, heath-like little shrubs, seldom a foot high.” (Gray.) Leaves.—Small,

oval or narrowly oblong, pressed close to the stem. Flowers.—Bright yellow, small,
numerous, crowded along the upper part of the branches. Calyx.—Of five sepals,
the two outer much smaller. Corolla.—Of five petals. Stamens.—Nine to thirty.
Pistil.—One, with a long and slender style.
In early summer many of the sand-hills along the New England
coast are bright with the yellow flowers of this hoary little shrub. It is
also found as far south as Maryland and near the Great Lakes. Each
blossom endures for a single day only. The plant’s popular name is
due to its economical habit of utilizing sandy unproductive soil
where little else will flourish.

Bush-honeysuckle.
Diervilla trifida. Honeysuckle Family.

An upright shrub from one to four feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, oblong, taper-
pointed. Flowers.—Yellow, sometimes much tinged with red, clustered usually in
threes, in the axils of the upper leaves and at the summit of the stem. Calyx.—With
slender awl-shaped lobes. Corolla.—Funnel-form, five-lobed, the lower lobe larger
than the others and of a deeper yellow, with a small nectar-bearing gland at its
base. Stamens.—Five. Pistil.—One.
 PLATE XLIV

BUSH-HONEYSUCKLE.—D. trifida.

This pretty little shrub is found along our rocky hills and
mountains. The blossoms appear in early summer, and form a good
example of nectar-bearing flowers. The lower lobe of the corolla is
crested and more deeply colored than the others, thus advising the
bee of secreted treasure. The hairy filaments of the stamens are so
placed as to protect the nectar from injury by rain. When the
blossom has been despoiled and at the same time fertilized, for the
nectar-seeking bee has probably deposited some pollen upon its
pistil, the color of the corolla changes from a pale to a deep yellow,
thus giving warning to the insect world that further attentions would
be useless to both parties.

Cow Wheat.
Melampyrum Americanum. Figwort Family.
 Stem.—Low, erect, branching. Leaves.—Opposite, lance-shaped. Flowers.—
Small, greenish-yellow, solitary in the axils of the upper leaves. Calyx.—Bell-
shaped, four-cleft. Corolla.—Two-lipped, upper lip arched, lower three-lobed and
spreading at the apex. Stamens.—Four. Pistil.—One.
In the open woods, from June until September, we encounter
the pale yellow flowers of this rather insignificant little plant. The
cow wheat was formerly cultivated by the Dutch as food for cattle.
The Spanish name, Trigo de Vaca, would seem to indicate a similar
custom in Spain. The generic name, Melampyrum, is from the
Greek, and signifies black wheat, in reference to the appearance of
the seeds of some species when mixed with grain. The flower would
not be likely to attract one’s attention were it not exceedingly
common in some parts of the country, flourishing especially in our
more eastern woodlands.

Meadow Lily. Wild Yellow Lily.

Lilium Canadense. Lily Family.

Stem.—Two to five feet high. Leaves.—Whorled, lance-shaped. Flowers.—

Yellow, spotted with reddish-brown, bell-shaped, two to three inches long.
Perianth.—Of six recurved sepals, with a nectar-bearing furrow at their base.
Stamens.—Six, with anthers loaded with brown pollen. Pistil.—One, with a three-
lobed stigma.
What does the summer bring which is more enchanting than a
sequestered wood-bordered meadow hung with a thousand of these
delicate, nodding bells which look as though ready to tinkle at the
least disturbance and sound an alarum among the flowers?
 PLATE XLV

MEADOW LILY.—L. Canadense.

These too are true “lilies of the field,” less gorgeous, less
imposing than the Turks’ caps, but with an unsurpassed grace and
charm of their own. “Fairy-caps,” these pointed blossoms are
sometimes called; “witch-caps,” would be more appropriate still.
Indeed they would make dainty headgear for any of the dim
inhabitants of Wonder-Land.
The growth of this plant is very striking when seen at its best.
The erect stem is surrounded with regular whorls of leaves, from the
upper one of which curves a circle of long-stemmed, nodding
flowers. They suggest an exquisite design for a church candelabra.
 Prickly Pear. Indian Fig.
Opuntia Rafinesquii. Cactus Family.

Flowers.—Yellow, large, two and a half to three and a half inches across.
Calyx.—Of numerous sepals. Corolla.—Of ten or twelve petals. Stamens.—
Numerous. Pistil.—One, with numerous stigmas. Fruit.—Shaped like a small pear,
often with prickles over its surface.
This curious-looking plant is one of the only two representatives
of the Cactus family in the Northeastern States. It has deep green,
fleshy, prickly, rounded joints and large yellow flowers, which are
often conspicuous in summer in dry, sandy places along the coast.
O. vulgaris, the only other species found in Northeastern
America, has somewhat smaller flowers, but otherwise so closely
resembles O. Rafinesquii as to make it difficult to distinguish
between the two.

Four-leaved Loosestrife.
Lysimachia quadrifolia. Primrose Family.

Stem.—Slender, one or two feet high. Leaves.—Narrowly oblong, whorled in

fours, fives, or sixes. Flowers.—Yellow, spotted or streaked with red, on slender,
hair-like flower-stalks from the axils of the leaves. Calyx.—Five or six-parted.
Corolla.—Very deeply five or six-parted. Stamens.—Four or five. Pistil.—One.
 PLATE XLVI

FOUR-LEAVED LOOSESTRIFE.—L.
quadrifolia.

This slender pretty plant grows along the roadsides and attracts
one’s notice in June by its regular whorls of leaves and flowers.
Linnæus says that this genus is named after Lysimachus, King of
Sicily. Loosestrife is the English for Lysimachus; but whether the
ancient superstition that the placing of these flowers upon the yokes
of oxen rendered the beasts gentle and submissive arose from the
peace-suggestive title or from other causes, I cannot discover.
 Yellow Loosestrife.
Lysimachia stricta. Primrose Family.

The yellow loosestrife bears its flowers, which are similar to

those of L. quadrifolia, in a terminal raceme; it has opposite lance-
shaped leaves. Its bright yellow clusters border the streams and
brighten the marshes from June till August.

Rock-rose. Frost-weed.
Helianthemum Canadense. Rock-rose Family.

About one foot high. Leaves.—Set close to the stem, simple, lance-oblong.
Flowers.—Of two kinds: the earlier, more noticeable ones, yellow, solitary, about
one inch across; the later ones small and clustered, usually without petals. Calyx.—
(Of the petal-bearing flowers) of five sepals. Corolla.—Of five early falling petals
which are crumpled in the bud. Stamens.—Numerous. Pistil.—One, with a three-
lobed stigma.
These fragile bright yellow flowers are found in gravelly places in
early summer. Under the influence of the sunshine they open once;
by the next day their petals have fallen, and their brief beauty is a
thing of the past. On June 17th Thoreau finds this “broad, cup-like
flower, one of the most delicate yellow flowers, with large spring-
yellow petals, and its stamens laid one way.”
In the Vale of Sharon a nearly allied rose-colored species
abounds. This is believed by some of the botanists who have travelled
in that region to be the Rose of Sharon which Solomon has
celebrated.
The name of frost-weed has been given to our plant because of
the crystals of ice which shoot from the cracked bark at the base of
the stem in late autumn.