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Lecture Notes in Physics 925

Mikko Laine
Aleksi Vuorinen

Basics of
Thermal
Field Theory
A Tutorial on Perturbative
Computations
Lecture Notes in Physics

Volume 925

Founding Editors
W. Beiglböck
J. Ehlers
K. Hepp
H. Weidenmüller

Editorial Board
M. Bartelmann, Heidelberg, Germany
B.-G. Englert, Singapore, Singapore
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R.A.L. Jones, Sheffield, UK
M. Lewenstein, Barcelona, Spain
H. von LRohneysen, Karlsruhe, Germany
J.-M. Raimond, Paris, France
A. Rubio, Donostia, San Sebastian, Spain
M. Salmhofer, Heidelberg, Germany
S. Theisen, Potsdam, Germany
D. Vollhardt, Augsburg, Germany
J.D. Wells, Ann Arbor, USA
G.P. Zank, Huntsville, USA
The Lecture Notes in Physics

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Mikko Laine • Aleksi Vuorinen

Basics of
Thermal Field Theory
A Tutorial on Perturbative Computations

123
Mikko Laine Aleksi Vuorinen
AEC, Institute for Theoretical Physics Department of Physics
University of Bern University of Helsinki
Bern, Switzerland Helsinki, Finland

ISSN 0075-8450 ISSN 1616-6361 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Physics
ISBN 978-3-319-31932-2 ISBN 978-3-319-31933-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-31933-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016941737

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Preface

These notes are based on lectures delivered at the Universities of Bielefeld and
Helsinki, between 2004 and 2015, as well as at a number of summer and winter
schools, between 1996 and 2015. The early sections were strongly influenced
by lectures by Keijo Kajantie at the University of Helsinki, in the early 1990s.
Obviously, the lectures additionally owe an enormous gratitude to existing textbooks
and literature, particularly the classic monograph by Joseph Kapusta.
There are several good textbooks on finite-temperature field theory, and no
attempt is made here to join that group. Rather, the goal is to offer an elementary
exposition of the basics of perturbative thermal field theory, in an explicit “hands-
on” style which can hopefully more or less directly be transported to the classroom.
The presentation is meant to be self-contained and display also intermediate steps.
The idea is, roughly, that each numbered section could constitute a single lecture.
Referencing is sparse; on more advanced topics, as well as on historically accurate
references, the reader is advised to consult the textbooks and review articles in
Refs. [1–12].
These notes could not have been put together without the helpful influence
of many people, varying from students with persistent requests for clarification;
colleagues who have used parts of an early version of these notes in their own
lectures and shared their experiences with us; colleagues whose interest in specific
topics has inspired us to add corresponding material to these notes; alert readers
who have informed us about typographic errors and suggested improvements; and
collaborators from whom we have learned parts of the material presented here. Let
us gratefully acknowledge in particular Gert Aarts, Chris Korthals Altes, Dietrich
Bödeker, Yannis Burnier, Stefano Capitani, Simon Caron-Huot, Jacopo Ghiglieri,
Ioan Ghisoiu, Keijo Kajantie, Aleksi Kurkela, Harvey Meyer, Guy Moore, Paul
Romatschke, Kari Rummukainen, York Schröder, Mikhail Shaposhnikov, Markus
Thoma, and Mikko Vepsäläinen.

Bern, Switzerland Mikko Laine

Helsinki, Finland Aleksi Vuorinen
January 2016

v
Notation

In thermal field theory, both Euclidean and Minkowskian spacetimes play a role.
In the Euclidean case, we write
Z
X  .; x / ; x  jxj ; SE D
i
LE ; (1)
X

where i D 1; : : : ; d,
Z Z ˇ Z Z Z
1
 d ;  dd x ; ˇ ; (2)
X 0 x x T

and d is the space dimensionality. Fourier analysis is carried out in the Matsubara
formalism via
Z
P
K  .kn ; ki / ; k  jkj ; .X/ D Q
.K/ eiKX ; (3)
K

where
Z XZ Z Z
P dd k
T ;  : (4)
kn k k .2/d
K

Here, kn stands for discrete Matsubara frequencies, which at times are also denoted
P
by !n . In the case of antiperiodic functions, the summation is written as T fkn g .
The squares of four-vectors read K 2 D kn2 C k2 and X 2 D  2 C x2 , but the Euclidean
scalar product between K and X is defined as

X
d
K  X D kn  C ki xi D kn   k  x ; (5)
iD1

vii
viii Notation

where the vector notation is reserved for contravariant Minkowskian vectors: x D

.xi /, k D .ki /. If a chemical potential is also present, we denote kQ n  kn C i.
In the Minkowskian case, we have
Z
X  .t; x/ ; x  jxj ; SM D LM ; (6)
X
R R 0
R
where X  dx x. Fourier analysis proceeds via
Z
K  .k ; k/ ; 0
k  jkj ; .X / D Q
.K/ eiKX ; (7)
K

R R dk0
R
where K D 2 k, and the metric is chosen to be of the “mostly minus” form,

K  X D k 0 x0  k  x : (8)

No special notation is introduced for the case where a Minkowskian four-vector

is on-shell, i.e., when K D .Ek ; k/; this is to be understood from the context.
The argument of a field  is taken to indicate whether the configuration space is
Euclidean or Minkowskian. If not specified otherwise, momentum integrations are
regulated by defining the spatial measure in d D 3  2 dimensions, whereas the
spacetime dimensionality is denoted by D D 4  2. A Greek index takes values in
the set f0; : : : ; dg and a Latin one in f1; : : : ; dg.
Finally, we note that we work consistently in units where the speed of light c and
the Boltzmann constant kB have been set to unity. The reduced Planck constant „ also
equals unity in most places, excluding the first chapter (on quantum mechanics) as
well as some later discussions where we want to emphasize the distinction between
quantum and classical descriptions.
General Outline

Physics Context

From the physics point of view, there are two important contexts in which rela-
tivistic thermal field theory is being widely applied: cosmology and the theoretical
description of heavy ion collision experiments.
In cosmology, the temperatures considered vary hugely, ranging from T '
1015 GeV to T ' 103 eV. Contemporary challenges in the field include figuring
out explanations for the existence of dark matter, the observed antisymmetry in the
amounts of matter and antimatter, and the formation of large-scale structures from
small initial density perturbations. (The origin of initial density perturbations itself
is generally considered to be a nonthermal problem, associated with an early period
of inflation.) An important further issue is that of equilibration, i.e., details of the
processes through which the inflationary state turned into a thermal plasma and in
particular what the highest temperature reached during this epoch was. It is notable
that most of these topics are assumed to be associated with weak or even superweak
interactions, whereas strong interactions (QCD) only play a background role. A
notable exception to this is light element nucleosynthesis, but this well-studied topic
is not in the center of our current focus.
In heavy ion collisions, in contrast, strong interactions do play a major role.
The lifetime of the thermal fireball created in such a collision is  10 fm/c, and
the maximal temperature reached is in the range of a few hundred MeV. Weak
interactions are too slow to take place within the lifetime of the system. Prominent
observables are the yields of different particle species, the quenching of energetic
jets, and the hydrodynamic properties of the plasma that can be deduced from the
observed particle yields. An important issue is again how fast an initial quantum-
mechanical state turns into an essentially incoherent thermal plasma.
Despite many differences in the physics questions posed and in the microscopic
forces underlying cosmology and heavy ion collision phenomena, there are also
similarities. Most importantly, gauge interactions (whether weak or strong) are
essential in both contexts. Because of asymptotic freedom, the strong interactions

ix
x General Outline

of QCD also become “weak” at sufficiently high temperatures. It is for this reason
that many techniques, such as the resummations that are needed for developing a
formally consistent weak-coupling expansion, can be applied in both contexts. The
topics covered in the present notes have been chosen with both fields of application
in mind.

Organization of These Notes

The notes start with the definition and computation of basic “static” thermodynamic
quantities, such as the partition function and free energy density, in various settings.
Considered are in turn quantum mechanics (Sect. 1), free and interacting scalar field
theories (Sects. 2 and 3, respectively), fermionic systems (Sect. 4), and gauge fields
(Sect. 5). The main points of these sections include the introduction of the so-called
imaginary-time formalism, the functioning of renormalization at finite temperature,
and the issue of infrared problems that complicates almost every computation in
relativistic thermal field theory. The last of these issues leads us to introduce the
concept of effective field theories (Sect. 6), after which we consider the changes
caused by the introduction of a finite density or chemical potential (Sect. 7). After
these topics, we move on to a new set of observables, so-called real-time quantities,
which play an essential role in many modern phenomenological applications of
thermal field theory (Sect. 8). In the final chapter of the book, a number of concrete
applications of the techniques introduced are discussed in some detail (Sect. 9).
We note that Sects. 1–7 are presented on an elementary and self-contained
level and require no background knowledge beyond statistical physics, quantum
mechanics, and rudiments of quantum field theory. They could constitute the
contents of a one-semester basic introduction to perturbative thermal field theory.
In Sect. 8, the level increases gradually, and parts of the discussion in Sect. 9
are already close to the research level, requiring more background knowledge.
Conceivably the topics of Sects. 8 and 9 could be covered in an advanced course
on perturbative thermal field theory or in a graduate student seminar. In addition the
whole book is suitable for self-study and is then advised to be read in the order in
which the material has been presented.

Recommended Literature

A pedagogical presentation of thermal field theory, concentrating mostly on

Euclidean observables and the imaginary-time formalism, can be found in Ref. [1].
The current notes borrow significantly from this classic treatise.
In thermal field theory, the community is somewhat divided between those who
find the imaginary-time formalism more practicable and those who prefer to use
the so-called real-time formalism from the beginning. Particularly for the latter
General Outline xi

community, the standard reference is Ref. [2], which also contains an introduction
to particle production rate computations.
A modern textbook, partly an update of Ref. [1] but including also a full account
of real-time observables, as well as reviews on many recent developments, is
provided by Ref. [3].
Lucid lecture notes on transport coefficients, infrared resummations, and
nonequilibrium phenomena such as thermalization can be found in Ref. [4]. Worthy
reviews with varying foci are offered by Refs. [5–11].
Finally, an extensive review of current efforts to approach a non-perturbative
understanding of real-time thermal field theory has been presented in Ref. [12].

References

1. J.I. Kapusta, Finite-Temperature Field Theory (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989)
2. M. Le Bellac, Thermal Field Theory (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000)
3. J.I. Kapusta, C. Gale, Finite-Temperature Field Theory: Principles and Applications (Cam-
bridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006)
4. P. Arnold, Quark-Gluon plasmas and thermalization. Int. J. Mod. Phys. E 16, 2555 (2007)
[0708.0812]
5. V.A. Rubakov, M.E. Shaposhnikov, Electroweak baryon number non-conservation in the early
universe and in high-energy collisions. Usp. Fiz. Nauk 166, 493 (1996); Phys. Usp. 39, 461
(1996) [hep-ph/9603208]
6. J.P. Blaizot, E. Iancu, The Quark-Gluon plasma: collective dynamics and Hard Thermal Loops.
Phys. Rep. 359, 355 (2002) [hep-ph/0101103]
7. D.H. Rischke, The Quark-Gluon plasma in equilibrium. Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 52, 197 (2004)
[nucl-th/0305030]
8. U. Kraemmer, A. Rebhan, Advances in perturbative thermal field theory. Rep. Prog. Phys. 67,
351 (2004) [hep-ph/0310337]
9. S. Davidson, E. Nardi, Y. Nir, Leptogenesis. Phys. Rep. 466, 105 (2008) [0802.2962]
10. D.E. Morrissey, M.J. Ramsey-Musolf, Electroweak baryogenesis. New J. Phys. 14, 125003
(2012) [1206.2942]
11. J. Ghiglieri, D. Teaney, Parton energy loss and momentum broadening at NLO in high
temperature QCD plasmas. Int. J. Mod. Phys. E 24, 1530013 (2015) [1502.03730]
12. H.B. Meyer, Transport properties of the Quark-Gluon plasma: a lattice QCD perspective. Eur.
Phys. J. A 47, 86 (2011) [1104.3708]
Contents

1 Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Path Integral Representation of the Partition Function .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Evaluation of the Path Integral for the Harmonic Oscillator .. . . . . . . . . 7
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Free Scalar Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Path Integral for the Partition Function . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Evaluation of Thermal Sums and Their Low-Temperature Limit . . . . 21
2.3 High-Temperature Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3 Interacting Scalar Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 Principles of the Weak-Coupling Expansion . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Problems of the Naive Weak-Coupling Expansion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 Proper Free Energy Density to O./:
Ultraviolet Renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3
3.4 Proper Free Energy Density to O. 2 /:
Infrared Resummation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4 Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1 Path Integral for the Partition Function of a Fermionic Oscillator .. . . 65
4.2 The Dirac Field at Finite Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5 Gauge Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.1 Path Integral for the Partition Function . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2 Weak-Coupling Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.3 Thermal Gluon Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.4 Free Energy Density to O.g3 / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

xiii
xiv Contents

6 Low-Energy Effective Field Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

6.1 The Infrared Problem of Thermal Field Theory . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.2 Dimensionally Reduced Effective Field Theory for Hot QCD . . . . . . . 120
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7 Finite Density .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.1 Complex Scalar Field and Effective Potential . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.2 Dirac Fermion with a Finite Chemical Potential . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8 Real-Time Observables .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.1 Different Green’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.2 From a Euclidean Correlator to a Spectral Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.3 Real-Time Formalism .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.4 Hard Thermal Loops .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9.1 Thermal Phase Transitions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
9.2 Bubble Nucleation Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.3 Particle Production Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9.4 Embedding Rates in Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
9.5 Evolution of a Long-Wavelength Field in a Thermal Environment.. . 240
9.6 Linear Response Theory and Transport Coefficients .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.7 Equilibration Rates/Damping Coefficients. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
9.8 Resonances in Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

A Extended Standard Model in Euclidean Spacetime ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Chapter 1
Quantum Mechanics

Abstract After recalling some basic concepts of statistical physics and quantum
mechanics, the partition function of a harmonic oscillator is defined and evaluated
in the standard canonical formalism. An imaginary-time path integral representation
is subsequently developed for the partition function, the path integral is evaluated
in momentum space, and the earlier result is reproduced upon a careful treatment of
the zero-mode contribution. Finally, the concept of 2-point functions (propagators)
is introduced, and some of their key properties are derived in imaginary time.

Keywords Partition function • Euclidean path integral • Imaginary-time formal-

ism • Matsubara modes • 2-point function

1.1 Path Integral Representation of the Partition Function

Basic Structure

The properties of a quantum-mechanical system are defined by its Hamiltonian,

which for non-relativistic spin-0 particles in one dimension takes the form

pO 2
HO D C V.Ox/ ; (1.1)
2m

where m is the particle mass. The dynamics of the states j i is governed by the
Schrödinger equation,

@ O i;
i„ j i D Hj (1.2)
@t

O t0 /. This
which can formally be solved in terms of a time-evolution operator U.tI
operator satisfies the relation

O t0 /j .t0 /i ;
j .t/i D U.tI (1.3)

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

M. Laine, A. Vuorinen, Basics of Thermal Field Theory, Lecture Notes
in Physics 925, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-31933-9_1
2 1 Quantum Mechanics

and for a time-independent Hamiltonian takes the explicit form

O
O t0 / D e „i H.tt0/
U.tI : (1.4)

It is useful to note that in the classical limit, the system of Eq. (1.1) can be described
by the Lagrangian

1 2
L D LM D mPx  V.x/ ; (1.5)
2
which is related to the classical version of the Hamiltonian via a simple Legendre
transform:

@LM p2
p ; H D xP p  LM D C V.x/ : (1.6)
@Px 2m
Returning to the quantum-mechanical setting, various bases can be chosen for
the state vectors. The so-called jxi-basis satisfies the relations

hxjOxjx0 i D xhxjx0 i D x ı.x  x0 / ; hxjOpjx0 i D i„ @x hxjx0 i D i„ @x ı.x  x0 / ;

(1.7)

whereas in the energy basis we simply have

O
Hjni D En jni : (1.8)

An important concrete realization of a quantum-mechanical system is provided

by the harmonic oscillator, defined by the potential

1
V.Ox/  m! 2 xO 2 : (1.9)
2

In this case the energy eigenstates jni can be found explicitly, with the corresponding
eigenvalues equalling
 1
En D „! n C ; n D 0; 1; 2; : : : : (1.10)
2
All the states are non-degenerate.
It turns out to be useful to view (quantum) mechanics formally as (1+0)-
dimensional (quantum) field theory: the operator xO can be viewed as a field operator
O at a certain point, implying the correspondence

O
xO $ .0/ : (1.11)
1.1 Path Integral Representation of the Partition Function 3

In quantum field theory operators are usually represented in the Heisenberg picture;
correspondingly, we then have

xOH .t/ $ O H .t; 0/ : (1.12)

In the following we adopt an implicit notation whereby showing the time coordinate
t as an argument of a field automatically implies the use of the Heisenberg picture,
and the corresponding subscript is left out.

Canonical Partition Function

Taking our quantum-mechanical system to a finite temperature T, the most funda-

mental quantity of interest is the partition function, Z. We employ the canonical
ensemble, whereby Z is a function of T; introducing units in which kB D 1 (i.e.,
There  kB TSI-units ), the partition function is defined by

O 1
Z.T/  Tr ŒeˇH  ; ˇ  ; (1.13)
T
where the trace is taken over the full Hilbert space. From this quantity, other
observables, such as the free energy F, entropy S, and average energy E can be
obtained via standard relations:

F D T ln Z ; (1.14)
@F 1 O ˇHO  D  F C E ;
SD D ln Z C Tr ŒHe (1.15)
@T TZ T T
1 O ˇHO  :
ED Tr ŒHe (1.16)
Z
Let us now explicitly compute these quantities for the harmonic oscillator. This
becomes a trivial exercise in the energy basis, given that we can immediately write

X1 X1
O 1 eˇ„!=2 1
ZD hnjeˇH jni D eˇ„!. 2 Cn/ D ˇ„!
D  : (1.17)
nD0 nD0
1e 2 sinh „!
2T

Consequently,
 „! „!
 „!  
F D T ln e 2T  e 2T D C T ln 1  eˇ„! (1.18)
2
8
< „! ;
ˆ
T  „!
 2  ;
T  (1.19)
:̂ T ln ; T  „!
„!
4 1 Quantum Mechanics

  „! 1
S D  ln 1  eˇ„! C (1.20)
T eˇ„!  1
8
< „! e „!
ˆ T ; T  „!
 T
T ; (1.21)
:̂ 1 C ln ; T  „!
„!
 
1 1
E D F C TS D „! C ˇ„! (1.22)
2 e 1
8
< „!
; T  „!
 :
: T2; T  „!
(1.23)

Note how in most cases one can separate the contribution of the ground state,
dominating at low temperatures T  „!, from that of the thermally excited states,
characterized by the appearance of the Bose distribution nB .„!/  1=Œexp.ˇ„!/ 
1. Note also that E rises linearly with T at high temperatures; the coefficient is said
to count the number of degrees of freedom of the system.

Path Integral for the Partition Function

In the case of the harmonic oscillator, the energy eigenvalues are known in an
analytic form, and Z could be easily evaluated. In many other cases the En are,
however, difficult to compute. A more useful representation of Z is obtained by
writing it as a path integral.
In order to get started, let us recall some basic relations. First of all, it follows
from the form of the momentum operator in the jxi-basis that
ipx
hxjOpjpi D phxjpi D i„ @x hxjpi ) hxjpi D A e „ ; (1.24)

where A is some constant. Second, we need completeness relations in both jxi and
jpi-bases, which take the respective forms
Z Z
dp
dx jxihxj D O ; jpihpj D O ; (1.25)
B

where B is another constant. The choices of A and B are not independent; indeed,
Z Z Z Z Z Z
dp dp0 dp dp0 i.p0 p/x
½O D dx jpihpjxihxjp0 ihp0 j D dx jpijAj2 e „ hp0 j
B B B B
Z Z Z
dp dp0 2„jAj2 dp 2„jAj2
D jpijAj2 2„ ı.p0  p/hp0 j D jpihpj D ½O ; (1.26)
B B B B B
1.1 Path Integral Representation of the Partition Function 5

implying that B D 2„jAj2 . We choose A  1 in the following, so that B D 2„.

Next, we move on to evaluate the partition function, which we do in the x-basis,
so that our starting point becomes
Z Z
O O O
H O
H
Z D Tr ŒeˇH  D dx hxjeˇH jxi D dx hxje „    e „ jxi : (1.27)

Here we have split eˇHO into a product of N  1 different pieces, defining  

ˇ„=N.
A crucial trick at this point is to insert
Z
dpi
O D jpi ihpi j ; i D 1; : : : ; N ; (1.28)
2„

on the left side of each exponential, with i increasing from right to left; and
Z
O D dxi jxi ihxi j ; i D 1; : : : ; N ; (1.29)

on the right side of each exponential, with again i increasing from right to left.
Thereby we are left to consider matrix elements of the type

 ipi xiC1  2
O
hxiC1 jpi ihpi je „ H.Op;Ox/ jxi i D e hpi je „ H.pi ;xi /CO . / jxi i
„

  
 p2i xiC1  xi
D exp   ipi C V.xi / C O./ : (1.30)
„ 2m 

Moreover, we note that at the very right, we have

hx1 jxi D ı.x1  x/ ; (1.31)

which allows us to carry out the integral over x. Similarly, at the very left, the role of
hxiC1 j is played by the state hxj D hx1 j. Finally, we remark that the O./ correction
in Eq. (1.30) can be eliminated by sending N ! 1.
In total, we can thus write the partition function in the form
ˇ
Z Y    2  ˇ
1 X pj ˇ
N N
dxi dpi xjC1  xj ˇ
Z D lim exp    ipj C V.xj / ˇ ;
N!1
iD1
2„ „ jD1 2m  ˇ
xNC1  x1 ;   ˇ„=N
(1.32)
which is often symbolically expressed as a “continuum” path integral
Z  Z  
DxDp 1 ˇ„ Œ p./2
ZD exp  d  ip./Px./ C V.x.// :
x.ˇ„/Dx.0/ 2„ „ 0 2m
(1.33)
6 1 Quantum Mechanics

The integration measure here is understood as the limit indicated in Eq. (1.32); the
discrete xi ’s have been collected into a function x./; and the maximal value of the
-coordinate has been obtained from N D ˇ„.
Returning to the discrete form of the path integral, we note that the integral over
the momenta pi is Gaussian, and can thereby be carried out explicitly:
Z 1    r  
dpi  p2i xiC1  xi m m.xiC1  xi /2
exp   ipi D exp  :
1 2„ „ 2m  2„ 2„
(1.34)

Using this, Eq. (1.32) becomes

ˇ
Z Y     2  ˇ
1 X m xjC1  xj ˇ
N N
dxi ˇ
Z D lim p exp   C V.xj / ˇ ;
N!1
iD1 2„=m „ jD1 2  ˇ
xNC1  x1 ;   ˇ„=N
(1.35)

which may also be written in a continuum form. Of course the measure then contains
a factor which appears quite divergent at large N,
 N=2   
m N mN
C D exp ln : (1.36)
2„ 2 2„2 ˇ

This factor is, however, independent of the properties of the potential V.xj / and
thereby contains no dynamical information, so that we do not need to worry too
much about the apparent divergence. For the moment, then, we can simply write
down a continuum “functional integral”,
Z  Z    
1 ˇ„ m dx./ 2
ZDC Dx exp  d C V.x.// : (1.37)
x.ˇ„/Dx.0/ „ 0 2 d

Let us end by giving an “interpretation” to the result in Eq. (1.37). We recall

that the usual quantum-mechanical path integral at zero temperature contains the
exponential
 Z   
i m dx 2
exp dt LM ; LM D  V.x/ : (1.38)
„ 2 dt

We note that Eq. (1.37) can be obtained from its zero-temperature counterpart with
the following recipe [1]:
(i) Carry out a Wick rotation, denoting   it.
(ii) Introduce
 
m dx 2
LE  LM . D it/ D C V.x/ : (1.39)
2 d
1.2 Evaluation of the Path Integral for the Harmonic Oscillator 7

(iii) Restrict  to the interval .0; ˇ„/.

(iv) Require periodicity of x./, i.e. x.ˇ„/ D x.0/.
With these steps (and noting that idt D d), the exponential becomes
 Z     Z 
i .i/.iv/ 1 1 ˇ„
exp dt LM ! exp  SE  exp  d LE ; (1.40)
„ „ „ 0

where the subscript E stands for “Euclidean”. Because of step (i), the path integral
in Eq. (1.40) is also known as the imaginary-time formalism. It turns out that this
recipe works, with few modifications, also in quantum field theory, and even for
spin-1/2 and spin-1 particles, although the derivation of the path integral itself looks
quite different in those cases. We return to these issues in later chapters of the book.

1.2 Evaluation of the Path Integral for the Harmonic

Oscillator

As an independent crosscheck of the results of Sect. 1.1, we now explicitly evaluate

the path integral of Eq. (1.37) in the case of a harmonic oscillator, and compare
the result with Eq. (1.17). To make the exercise more interesting, we carry out the
evaluation in Fourier space with respect to the time coordinate . Moreover we
would like to deduce the information contained in the divergent constant C without
making use of its actual value, given in Eq. (1.36).
Let us start by representing an arbitrary function x./, 0 <  < ˇ„, with the
property x..ˇ„/ / D x.0C / (referred to as “periodicity”) as a Fourier sum
1
X
x./  T xn ei!n  ; (1.41)
nD1

where the factor T is a convention. Imposing periodicity requires that

ei!n ˇ„ D 1 ; i.e. !n ˇ„ D 2n ; n2Z; (1.42)

where the values !n D 2Tn=„ are called Matsubara frequencies. The correspond-
ing amplitudes xn are called Matsubara modes.
Apart from periodicity, we also impose reality on x./:

x./ 2 R ) x ./ D x./ ) xn D xn : (1.43)

8 1 Quantum Mechanics

If we write xn D an C ibn , it then follows that


an D an
xn D an  ibn D xn D an C ibn ) ; (1.44)
bn D bn

and moreover that b0 D 0 and xn xn D a2n C b2n . Thereby we now have the
representation
 1 
X 
x./ D T a0 C .an C ibn /ei!n  C .an  ibn /ei!n  ; (1.45)
nD1

where a0 is called (the amplitude of) the Matsubara zero mode.

With the representation of Eq. (1.41), general quadratic structures can be
expressed as
Z ˇ„ X Z ˇ„
1 1
d x./y./ D T 2 xn ym d ei.!n C!m /
„ 0 m;n
„ 0

X 1 X
D T2 xn ym ın;m D T xn yn : (1.46)
m;n
T n

In particular, the argument of the exponential in Eq. (1.37) becomes

Z ˇ„  
1 m dx./ dx./
 d C ! 2 x./x./
„ 0 2 d d

mT X h i
1
(1.46)
D  xn i!n i!n C ! 2 xn
2 nD1
1
!n D!n mT X
D  .! 2 C ! 2 /.a2n C b2n /
2 nD1 n

X1
(1.45) mT 2 2
D  ! a0  mT .!n2 C ! 2 /.a2n C b2n / : (1.47)
2 nD1

Next, we need to consider the integration measure. To this end, let us make a
change of variables from x./,  2 .0; ˇ„/, to the Fourier components an ; bn . As
we have seen, the independent variables are a0 and fan ; bn g, n 1, whereby the
measure becomes
ˇ  ˇ hY i
ˇ ıx./ ˇˇ
ˇ
Dx./ D ˇdet da da db : (1.48)
ıxn ˇ
0 n n
n1
1.2 Evaluation of the Path Integral for the Harmonic Oscillator 9

The change of bases is purely kinematical and independent of the potential V.x/,
implying that we can define
ˇ  ˇ
ˇ ıx./ ˇˇ
C0  C ˇˇdet ˇ ; (1.49)
ıx n

and regard now C0 as an unknown coefficient.

R1 p
Making use of the Gaussian integral 1 dx exp.cx2 / D =c, c > 0, as well
as the above integration measure, the expression in Eq. (1.37) becomes
Z 1 Z 1 hY i  X 
1
Z D C0 da0 dan dbn exp  mT! 2 a20  mT .!n2 C ! 2 /.a2n C b2n / (1.50)
1 1 n1
2 n1
r 1
2 Y  2Tn
D C0 ; !n D : (1.51)
mT! 2 nD1 mT.!n2 C ! 2 / „

The remaining task is to determine C0 . This can be achieved via the following
observations:
• Since C0 is independent of ! [which only appears in V.x/], we can determine it
in the limit ! D 0, whereby the system simplifies.
• The integral over the zero mode a0 in Eq. (1.50) is, however, divergent for ! ! 0.
We may call such a divergence an infrared divergence: the zero mode is the
lowest-energy mode.
• We can still take the ! ! 0 limit, if we momentarily regulate the integration
over the zero mode in some way. Noting from Eq. (1.45) that
Z ˇ„
1
d x./ D Ta0 ; (1.52)
ˇ„ 0

we see that Ta0 represents the average value of x./ over the -interval. We may
thus regulate the system by “putting it in a periodic box”, i.e. by restricting the
(average) value of x./ to some (large but finite) interval x.
With this setup, we can now proceed to find C0 via matching.
“Effective theory computation”: In the ! ! 0 limit but in the presence of the
regulator, Eq. (1.50) becomes
Z Z 1 hY i  X 
lim Zregulated D C0 da0 dan dbn exp mT !n2 .a2n C b2n /
!!0 x=T 1 n1 n1
1
x Y  2Tn
D C0 ; !n D : (1.53)
T nD1 mT!n2 „
10 1 Quantum Mechanics

“Full theory computation”: In the presence of the regulator, and in the absence
of V.x/ (implied by the ! ! 0 limit), Eq. (1.27) can be computed in a very
simple way:
Z
pO2
lim Zregulated D dx hxje 2mT jxi
!!0 x
Z Z 1
dp pO2
D dx hxje 2mT jpihpjxi
x 1 2„
Z Z 1
dp  p2
D dx e 2mT hxjpihpjxi
x 1 2„ „ ƒ‚ …
1

xp
D 2mT : (1.54)
2„
Matching the two sides: Equating Eqs. (1.53) and (1.54), we find the formal
expression

Y1
T p mT!n2
C0 D 2mT : (1.55)
2„ nD1


Since the regulator x has dropped out, we may call C0 an “ultraviolet” matching
coefficient.
With C0 determined, we can now continue with Eq. (1.51), obtaining the finite
expression
1
T Y !n2
ZD (1.56)
„! nD1 !n2 C ! 2
T 1
D Q h i: (1.57)
„! 1 .„!=2T/2
nD1 1 C n2

Making use of the identity

Y1 
sinh x x2
D 1C 2 (1.58)
x nD1
n

we directly reproduce our earlier result for the partition function, Eq. (1.17). Thus,
we have managed to correctly evaluate the path integral without ever making
recourse to Eq. (1.36) or, for that matter, to the discretization that was present in
Eqs. (1.32) and (1.35).
Appendix: 2-Point Function 11

Let us end with a few remarks:

• In quantum mechanics, the partition function Z as well as all other observables
are finite functions of the parameters T, m, and !, if computed properly. We saw
that with path integrals this is not obvious at every intermediate step, but at the
end it did work out. In quantum field theory, on the contrary, “ultraviolet” (UV)
divergences may remain in the results even if we compute everything correctly.
These are then taken care of by renormalization. However, as our quantum-
mechanical example demonstrated, the “ambiguity” of the functional integration
measure (through C0 ) is not in itself a source of UV divergences.
• It is appropriate to stress that in many physically relevant observables, the
coefficient C0 drops out completely, and the above procedure is thereby even
simpler. An example of such a quantity is given in Eq. (1.60) below.
• Finally, some of the concepts and techniques that were introduced with this
simple example—zero modes, infrared divergences, their regularization, match-
ing computations, etc.—also play a role in non-trivial quantum field theoretic
examples that we encounter later on.

Appendix: 2-Point Function

Defining a Heisenberg-like operator (with it ! )

O O
xO ./  e „ xO e „ ;
H H
0 <  < ˇ„ ; (1.59)

we define a “2-point Green’s function” or a “propagator” through

1 h i
O
G./  Tr eˇH xO ./Ox.0/ : (1.60)
Z
The corresponding path integral can be shown to read
R
x.ˇ„/Dx.0/ Dx x./x.0/ expŒSE =„
G./ D R ; (1.61)
x.ˇ„/Dx.0/ Dx expŒSE =„

whereby the normalization of Dx plays no role. In the following, we compute G./

explicitly for the harmonic oscillator, by making use of
O and xO in terms of the annihilation and
(a) the canonical formalism, i.e. expressing H
creation operators aO and aO ,
(b) the path integral formalism, working in Fourier space.
12 1 Quantum Mechanics

Starting with the canonical formalism, we write all quantities in terms of aO and
aO :
r
 
O D „! aO aO C 1 ;
H xO D
„
.Oa C aO / ; ŒOa; aO  D 1 : (1.62)
2 2m!

In order to construct xO ./, we make use of the expansion

O O 1 O O O 1 O O O O
eA BO eA D BO C ŒA;
O B
O C ŒA; ŒA; B C ŒA; ŒA; ŒA; B C : : : : (1.63)
2Š 3Š
Noting that

O aO  D „!ŒOa aO ; aO  D „! aO ;
ŒH;
O ŒH;
ŒH; O aO  D .„!/2 aO ;
O aO  D „!ŒOa aO ; aO  D „! aO ;
ŒH;
O ŒH;
ŒH; O aO  D .„!/2 aO ; (1.64)

and so forth, we can write

r   
O O
 H „ 1
aO 1  ! C .!/2 C : : :
H
e „ xO e „ D
2m! 2Š
 
1
COa 1 C ! C .!/2 C : : :
2Š
r
„  ! 
D aO e C aO e! : (1.65)
2m!
Inserting now Z from Eq. (1.17), Eq. (1.60) becomes

 ˇ„!  X 1
1 „  ! 
G./ D 2 sinh hnjeˇ„!.nC 2 / aO e C aO e! aO C aO jni :
2 nD0
2m!
(1.66)
p p
With the relations aO jni D n C 1jn C 1i and aO jni D njn  1i we can identify
the non-zero matrix elements,

hnjOaaO jni D n C 1 ; hnjOa aO jni D n : (1.67)

Thereby we obtain

„  ˇ„!   ˇ„!  X1 h  i
G./ D sinh exp  eˇ„!n e! C n e! C e! ;
m! 2 2 nD0
(1.68)
Appendix: 2-Point Function 13

where the sums are quickly evaluated as geometric sums,

1
X 1
eˇ„!n D ;
nD0
1  eˇ„!
1
X 1 d 1 eˇ„!
neˇ„!n D  D : (1.69)
nD0
ˇ„ d! 1  eˇ„! .1  eˇ„! /2

In total, we then have

„   e!   eˇ„!

ˇ„! ! !
G./ D 1e C e Ce
2m! 1  eˇ„! .1  eˇ„! /2
„ 1 h i
! !. ˇ„/
D e C e
2m! 1  eˇ„!
h  i
ˇ„
„ cosh 2
  !
D h i : (1.70)
2m! sinh ˇ„! 2

As far as the path integral treatment goes, we employ the same representation as
in Eq. (1.50), noting that C0 drops out in the ratio of Eq. (1.61). Recalling the Fourier
representation of Eq. (1.45),
 1 
X 
i!k  i!k 
x./ D T a0 C .ak C ibk /e C .ak  ibk /e ; (1.71)
kD1
 1
X
x.0/ D T a0 C 2al ; (1.72)
lD1

the observable of our interest becomes

R RQ
˝ ˛ da0 n1 dan dbn x./ x.0/ expŒSE =„
G./ D x./x.0/  R RQ : (1.73)
da0 n1 dan dbn expŒSE =„

At this point, we employ the fact that the exponential is quadratic in a0 ; an ; bn 2

R, which immediately implies

ha0 ak i D ha0 bk i D hak bl i D 0 ; hak al i D hbk bl i / ıkl ; (1.74)

with the expectation values defined in the sense of Eq. (1.73). Thereby we obtain

D 1
X E
G./ D T 2 a20 C 2a2k ei!k  C ei!k  ; (1.75)
kD1
14 1 Quantum Mechanics

where
R
da0 a20 exp  12 mT! 2 a20
ha20 i D R
da0 exp  12 mT! 2 a20
 Z    r 
2 d 1 2 2 2 d 2
D ln da0 exp  mT! a0 D ln
m! 2 dT 2 m! 2 dT m! 2 T
1
D ; (1.76)
m! 2 T
R
dak a2k exp mT.!k2 C ! 2 /a2k
ha2k i D R
dak exp mT.!k2 C ! 2 /a2k
1
D : (1.77)
2m.!k2 C ! 2 /T

Inserting these into Eq. (1.75) we get

 X1 i!k   1
T 1 e C ei!k  T X ei!k 
G./ D C D ; (1.78)
m !2 kD1
!k2 C ! 2 m kD1 !k2 C ! 2

where we recall that !k D 2kT=„.

There are various ways to evaluate the sum in Eq. (1.78). We encounter a generic
method in Sect. 2.2, so let us present a different approach here. We start by noting
that
  1
d2 T X i!k  „
 2 C ! 2 G./ D e D ı. mod ˇ„/ ; (1.79)
d m kD1 m
P1
where we made use of the standard summation formula kD1 ei!k  D
ˇ„ ı. mod ˇ„/.1
Next, we solve Eq. (1.79) for 0 <  < ˇ„, obtaining
 
d2 2
 2 C ! G./ D 0 ) G./ D A e! C B e! ; (1.80)
d

P1 P1 h
i 2  i 2  1
1
“Proof”: kD1 ei!k  D 1 C lim!0 kD1 Œ.e ˇ„ /k C .e ˇ„ /k  D lim!0 i 2 

i 1e ˇ„
1
i 2 C
. If  ¤ 0 mod ˇ„, then the limit  ! 0 can be taken, and the two terms cancel
1e ˇ„

against each other. But if 2  0, we can expand to leading order in a Taylor series, obtaining
h i ˇ„
lim!0 2 Ci  2 i D 2ı. 2
i i
ˇ„
/ D ˇ„ ı. /.
ˇ„ ˇ„
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 To find this flower, your eyes must be brighter than usual. It grows
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Fig. 215

Fig. 216

The general building plan of the violet (Fig. 216) is the old one of
calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil. But the leaves of this calyx (Fig. 217)
are put together in a curious, irregular fashion; and the different
leaves of the corolla are not of the same shape and size as in the
cherry blossom. Then the five stamens of the violet are usually
joined about the stalk of the pistil in a way that is quite confusing,
unless you know enough to pick them apart with a pin, when they
look like this picture you see above, to the right (Fig. 218).

Fig. 217 Fig. 219 Fig. 220 Fig. 218

Fig. 221

Fig. 222

The garden pansy (Figs. 219, 220) is cousin to the violet. You
notice at once that it uses just the same building plan.
The wild geranium (Figs. 221, 222) is put together almost as
simply as the cherry blossom.
A more beautiful flower than the columbine it would be difficult to
find (Fig. 223). Its graceful hanging head and brilliant coloring make
it a delight to the passer-by.
 Fig. 223

It has not the fragrance of some other flowers, but for this there is
a good reason.
The columbine is so brightly colored that the nectar-hunting bee
can see it from a great distance.
It is only when a blossom is so small and faintly colored as to be
unlikely to attract the eye, that it needs to make its presence known
in some other way than by wearing gay clothes. By giving out
fragrance it notifies the bee that material for honey making is on
hand.
So you see that a pale little flower with a strong fragrance is just
as able to attract the bee’s attention as is a big flower with its bright
flower handkerchiefs. A big flower with bright flower handkerchiefs
does not need to attract the bee by its perfume.
Perhaps you will be somewhat surprised to learn that this
columbine uses the old plan, calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil.
In the columbine the calyx as well as the corolla is brightly and
beautifully colored, and only the botanist can tell which is which. In
this way many flowers confuse one who is only beginning their study.
So you must try to be patient when you come across a flower whose
coloring and shape make it impossible for you to say what is calyx
and what is corolla. You should turn both over into the one division of
flower leaves, and when older you may be able to master the
difficulty.
 Fig. 224

Fig. 225

The pretty fringed polygala (Fig. 224) is one of these confusing

flower. You find it in the May woods. Its discovery is such a delight,
that one is not apt to make himself unhappy because he cannot
make out all its parts.
The jewelweed (Fig. 225), the plant which blossoms down by the
brook in August, is another of these puzzling blossoms.
 A CELEBRATED FAMILY

D O you know this pretty flower (Fig. 226)?

Fig. 226

It is the yellow lady’s slipper. It lives deep in the woods of May,

perhaps part way up the mountain side. It has several sisters. One of
these is the pink lady’s slipper, which blossoms just a little later.
Another is the white lady’s slipper. This comes late in June, and is
one of the loveliest of our wild flowers.
These three sisters belong to a celebrated family, that of the
Orchids.
The Orchid family is noted for the beauty of its flowers, and for the
pains which these take to attract the attention of the bees.
The building plan used by the orchids is too difficult for you to
learn yet awhile. Perhaps the orchids take more trouble than any
other flowers to have their pistils well dusted with pollen. A good
landing place for the bee is provided; signs are hung out to point the
way to the hidden nectar; and if directions are followed, the pistil is
sure to receive the wished-for pollen.
This picture (Fig. 227) shows you an orchid which you see in the
windows of flower shops during the winter. It comes to us from far
South, not growing out of doors in our climate.

Fig. 227

Its building plan would almost serve for a wayside tavern. You can
see that the pocket would answer as a front doorstep, making a
convenient landing place for bee or butterfly.
The dark spots on the upper flower leaf point downward to the
refreshment room.
Even more curious than this one are other orchids which grow in
far-away places.
In their efforts to please, they wear the most striking colors, and
take on a variety of fantastic shapes.
One of them dresses itself much like a bee. In this way perhaps it
secures a visit from the real bee.
Another is called the baby orchid, because in the center of each
flower is an object which really looks like a fairy baby.
There are some ten or twelve orchids which are common in our
Northern woods. I hope you children will keep on the lookout for
them all summer.
Just now you could not tell whether or not a flower was an orchid.
But if you come across a plant whose flowers look as though they
were built to serve as wayside taverns for the bees, why, carry them
to your teacher, and ask her to find out for you whether they belong
to the Orchid family.
But it is only fair to tell you that some of our orchids bear flowers
so small and insignificant that you would hardly guess them to be
members of so distinguished a family.
 CLEVER CUSTOMS

O N this page you see a picture of the garden foxglove.

The garden foxglove is an English wild flower. It is so striking
and beautiful that it was brought across the sea to decorate our
gardens.
We can guess that the spots within each bell are the signposts
leading to the refreshment room.
The yellow false foxglove (Fig. 228), which grows wild in our
woods in midsummer, is a less brilliant flower than its English cousin,
and is without the spots that serve as signposts.
 Fig. 228

Our wood and meadow lilies (Figs. 229, 230) are well fitted to
secure bee visitors. Their colors are brilliant enough to catch the eye
of the most unobserving of bees in its voyage across the meadow,
and their spots vivid enough to lead it at once to the refreshment
room.

Fig. 229

Try for yourselves to follow these markings with your tongue, and
you will win the bee’s reward, a sweet drop of nectar.
Whenever you see a flower with such vivid markings as these, it
will be worth your while to play the bee, and start a honey hunt.
Sometimes the sweet drop lies at the base of the flower leaves, as
in the lilies; sometimes in a pocket, as in many of the orchids;
sometimes it is in the bottom of a long spur such as you see in the
columbine, violet, and nasturtium (Fig. 231).

Fig. 230

Fig. 232 shows you the beautiful flowers of the mountain laurel.
These flowers play a clever trick on their bee visitors. They wish to
make perfectly sure that their pollen will be carried from one blossom
to another, and so they set a little trap.

Fig. 231

In a freshly opened blossom each stamen is bent over, as you see

they are bent over in the picture (Fig. 233).
Their dust boxes are caught in little pockets of the flower cup.
When a bee lights on a flower (Fig. 234), the jar causes the dust
boxes to spring from the pockets with so much violence that the
pollen is shaken over the body of the visiting bee, which is sure to
leave some of it on the pistil of the next flower.
 Fig. 232

Some flowers take special care to prevent their pistils from being
dusted with pollen from the dust boxes of the same blossom. The
fireweed bears such blossoms as these.

Fig. 233

In Fig. 235 you see that the stamens of the fireweed are large and
ripe, and ready to shed their pollen; but the pistil is bent sideways,
pushing its closed tip quite out of the corolla, and out of reach of any
pollen from a neighboring stamen.

Fig. 234 Fig. 235 Fig. 236

Fig. 236 shows you another blossom from this same plant. The
stamens have shed their pollen, and are quite dry and withered; but
its pistil has straightened itself, and spreads out its four tips so as to
receive the pollen from another flower.

Fig. 237

It is believed that those seeds which are touched with life by pollen
from another flower are more likely to change into healthy, hardy
plants than those which are quickened by the pollen of their own
flower.
Such of you as live near the sea know the lovely sea pinks (Fig.
237), which make a rosy carpet across the salt meadows early in
August. The stamens and pistils of this sea pink act in the same way.
 FLOWERS THAT TURN NIGHT INTO DAY

A LREADY we have read that certain flowers attract insects rather

by their fragrance than by their brilliancy of coloring.
It is interesting to learn that some blossoms open usually only
during the night. Of course, if these flowers hope to receive visitors,
and get their share of pollen, they must devise some means of
making known their presence to those insects which are awake and
at work in the darkness.
You can understand that at night the brightest colors would be
useless. A red flower is less easily seen in the darkness than a white
or a yellow one; so night-opening flowers nearly always wear a white
or yellow dress.
And not only this: to make sure that they will not be overlooked,
and so miss the chance of ripening their seeds, they send out a
strong fragrance as soon as the night falls. Through the deepest
gloom this message of invitation reaches the wandering moth.
Do you know the evening primrose (Fig. 238)? There ought to be
no need of asking you this, for it is one of our commonest wayside
plants. But perhaps you have hardly noticed it, because ordinarily
only at night is its flower wide awake.
 Fig. 238

When the sun has set, this pale yellow blossom unfolds, and gives
out a strong, sweet fragrance, which means that it is “at home” to
visitors.
After one short summer night it dies.
But during its little life the chances are that its invitation has been
accepted by the pretty pink moth which oftentimes you find asleep in
the faded flower cup.
The moth visitor has brought its hostess the pollen from another
blossom, and has powdered the pistil’s four spreading tips, so that
the little primrose seeds below get the needed touch of life, and the
short life of the flower has not been in vain.
If you keep on the lookout, you are likely to come across one of
these yellow flowers with the sleepy pink moth inside its cup. I have
caught this little fellow napping so often, that I have wondered if the
nectar of the evening primrose might not have the effect of a
sleeping potion. But after all, I suppose that pretty pink moths, like
boys and girls, are likely to be dull and sleepy in the daytime if they
have been up too late the night before.
 HORRID HABITS

D ID you ever know that some plants manage to attract insects in

ways that are quite disgusting to us human beings?
While spending a morning in the woods, some of you may have
noticed an odor so unpleasant that you were driven to find another
resting place.
Perhaps you thought that this unpleasant smell was caused by the
decaying body of some dead animal; but had you known the truth,
you would have laid the blame where it rightly belonged.
And where was that, do you think?
Why, to that beautiful climbing plant close by, with large, thick
leaves, and clusters of pale, greenish flowers, that were twisting all
about the bushes. This plant it was that caused all the disturbance. It
is called the “carrion vine” on account of the carrionlike odor of its
flowers. Its pollen is carried from one little blossom to another by tiny
flies, drawn to the spot by a smell like that of decaying flesh. These
flies would pass carelessly over the sweet-smelling carpet of the
partridge vine, they would scorn the invitation of the evening
primrose; but the odor which drives us hurriedly from our cozy corner
induces them to gather together in hundreds. Whether they come,
actually expecting to find decaying flesh, I cannot say.
In some countries grows a plant which not only smells like
decaying flesh, but which adds to the deception by its red, beefy
look, thus doubly attracting the flies which like this sort of food.
 THE STORY OF THE STRAWBERRY

I N the wood which edges the meadow is a hollow where it is almost

sure to be cool and shady. Let us find our way there this morning,
and see how we can amuse ourselves.
At first we want only to enjoy the wind which is coming through the
trees, or to lie back on the grass and spy out the bird which is
singing overhead, or else to laugh at the red squirrel which is
scolding away at a great rate above us.
Suddenly our eyes fall on a cluster of ripe, shining wild
strawberries. Bird and squirrel are forgotten, for no fruit of all the
year is prettier to look at than the wild strawberry; and, what is more
important, no other fruit has such a delicious flavor of the woods and
fields.
Soon we have eaten all the berries within reach. The creeping
vines lead us out into the meadow, where we push aside the long
grasses and pick one ripe mouthful after another. At last we are
satisfied to go back to our shady nook.
The little white blossoms that a few weeks ago were so plentiful
have nearly all disappeared. Who among you can tell me how these
juicy berries have managed to take the place of the blossoms?

Fig. 239 Fig. 240 Fig. 241

Fig. 242

Fig. 243

Why, ever so many of you can tell me much of the story, at any
rate. It is very nearly that of the apple and cherry and plum and pear.
The nectar-hunting bee carried the pollen of its many stamens from
one strawberry blossom to another, leaving some of it on the flat tips
of its numerous pistils. Down the pistils’ stalks went the tiny life
bearing tubes which pushed their way into the little seeds below.
 Fig. 244

So far, the story of the strawberry is not new to us; but just here it
begins to differ from the stories of the apple and pear, of the plum
and peach and cherry. The flowers of all these trees had but one
seedbox. But each of the many little strawberry pistils has a separate
seedbox; and when the little seeds within get their touch of new life,
the flat, cushionlike object (Fig. 241) which bears these many pistils
begins to act in a most surprising manner.
This flat flower cushion swells upward and outward (Fig. 242),
growing big and juicy and sweet, bearing its pistils (Fig. 243) with it.
And so in the strawberry blossom it is the flat cushion hidden out
of sight which grows into the delicious fruit.