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PDF Building Positive Behavior Support Systems in Schools Functional Behavioral Assessment 2Nd Ed 2Nd Edition Deanne A Crone Ebook Full Chapter
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ebook
THE GUILFORD PRESS
Building Positive Behavior
Support Systems
in Schools
Also from the Authors
Books
DVD
Deanne A. Crone
Leanne S. Hawken
Robert H. Horner
vi
Acknowledgments
vii
Preface
and effectively organize its members. This book is written as a guide for the lead-
ers and members of behavior support teams.
• The school should establish behavior support as one of the top three
annual development goals.
• The school should establish a team to address structural change in the
school. This team should include an administrator, at least one person
with behavior analysis skills, and adequate faculty/staff representation.
• The team should receive FBA-BSP training together and avoid relying on
training just one or two people and expecting them to train everyone
else. It is important to train 5–10 team members, from each participating
school, together.
• Adequate time and resources should be provided for the team to plan,
design, and implement the new procedures.
• The school faculty and staff should be informed about the purpose of the
behavior support team and how to access the team’s services.
• An evaluation system should be in place to provide regular, accurate infor-
mation to the faculty about the outcomes of FBA-BSP implementation.
• The new procedures need to produce an outcome valued by all key stake-
holders while requiring minimal time commitment from teachers.
x Preface
Public schools face a serious challenge. The incidence and severity of serious
behavior problems threaten effective education. On average, 5% of the students
within a school account for half or nearly half of all school discipline referrals
(Sherrod, Getch, & Ziomek-Daigle, 2009; Sugai, Sprague, Horner, & Walker,
2000). Students who engage in violent, disruptive, and dangerous behavior com-
promise the fundamental ability of our schools to educate children, making
these behaviors an issue for all students and all schools.
The bright spot in this picture is that we are now better prepared to pre-
vent and alter patterns of problem behavior than at any previous time (Carr et
al., 1999; Gresham, Sugai, Horner, Quinn, & McInerney, 1998; Scott & Caron,
2005; Scott & Eber, 2003; Sugai, Horner, et al., 2000). A practical and effective
technology for responding to problem behaviors, called functional behavioral
assessment (FBA), is accessible to school-based staff. The technology of FBA can
be used to identify the variables supporting problem behaviors and to rearrange
the environment to both reduce problem behaviors and build constructive skills
(e.g., Ervin, DuPaul, Kern, & Friman, 1998; Lewis & Sugai, 1996; Sugai & Horner,
2000). Carr et al. (1999) reported that in more than two-thirds of published stud-
ies interventions using positive behavior support resulted in reducing problem
behavior by 80% or more. This success rate is supported by more recent research
as well (Gage, Lewis, & Stichter, 2012). Of special importance were indications
that interventions were more likely to be effective if they were guided by func-
tional assessment, conducted in typical settings by typical personnel and imple-
mented in a comprehensive manner.
FBA is a powerful and effective technology that is expected in schools.
The 2004 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improve-
ment Act (IDEIA, 2004; von Ravensberg & Tobin, 2006) explicitly recommend
that FBA information be collected and used to guide behavior support in
schools.
Unfortunately, while the value and the positive results of FBA are now highly
acclaimed, there are important limitations to the availability of this technology
for school personnel. FBA has previously been characterized by procedures that
require very skilled personnel and considerable periods of time. If FBA is to
become a basic tool within schools, the efficiency of the procedures (both in
terms of who can use them and the amount of time required) must be improved.
Responding to this need is a primary focus of this book.
We describe procedures that were developed in collaboration with school
psychologists, teachers, administrators, families, and behavior specialists. These
procedures are designed to fit the needs, skills, and time constraints within typi-
cal schools. A major focus of the book will be on the school- and district-based
organizational commitments that are essential if FBA and individual behavior
support are to be used for real student gains.
Preface xi
Schools are required to conduct an FBA for any student with a disability who is at
risk for expulsion, alternative school placement, or more than 10 days of suspen-
sion (von Ravensberg & Tobin, 2006). Even though FBA is required under limited
circumstances, standards of good professional practice dictate a problem-solving
approach to managing problem behaviors in the school. Utilizing this function-
based approach ensures adherence to standards of professional practice while
increasing a school’s ability to reduce problem behavior and promote appropri-
ate behavior.
In this second edition, we have added several new chapters, updated material to
reflect current educational contexts and research, and embedded the content,
to a greater extent, within the multi-tiered framework of schoolwide positive
behavior support (SWPBS). Chapters 1, 8, 9, and 11 are new material provided by
contributing guest authors. Chapter 10 is also a new chapter written by Deanne
A. Crone. Chapter 2 was extensively revised and rewritten by Leanne S. Hawken
and Deanne A. Crone.
Chapter 1 provides a review of the contextual, historical, and effective uses
of FBA-BSP in schools as well as a practical discussion of the challenges involved
in using FBA within the school system. In Chapter 2, we discuss how school per-
sonnel can think and act functionally within a multi-tiered system of behavior
support. Chapter 3 details the process of conducting an FBA for three example
students and introduces observation and interview instruments. Chapter 4 dem-
onstrates the process of developing an effective, efficient, and relevant BSP for
the three example students. In Chapter 5, the use of data-based decisions to eval-
uate and modify the BSP is discussed. Chapter 6 outlines the roles and respon-
sibilities of the individual members of the behavior support team and addresses
critical elements for creating a team that is organized and efficient. In Chapters
7 and 8, the issue of how to develop within-building and within-district capacity
(i.e., an array of individuals who have the skills to conduct FBAs and to design,
implement, evaluate, and modify BSPs) is outlined. Chapter 9 describes how
FBA-BSP procedures can be used when the behavioral issues arise mostly from
concerns related to academic skill or performance. In Chapter 10, we examine
how FBA-BSP can be applied in early childhood settings. Finally, in Chapter 11,
we describe how technology can best be used to facilitate data collection and
implementation of FBA-BSP. Copies of all relevant forms and instruments are
offered in the Appendices.
Contents
xiii
xiv Contents
Contextual Fit 73
Individualizing the BSP 74
Documenting a BSP 76
Supplementary Section 82
7. How Do You Generate within‑Building Capacity for Functional Behavioral Assessment 122
on the Behavior Support Team?
Introduction 122
Requirements and Commitments 123
A Model for Generating within‑Building Capacity 127
Leadership Models 129
Supplementary Section 131
Appendices
Appendix A. Request for Assistance Form 243
Appendix B. Functional Behavioral Assessment–Behavior Support Plan Protocol 245
(F-BSP Protocol)
Appendix C. Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS) 261
Appendix D. Student-Guided Functional Assessment Interview (Primary) 265
Appendix E. Assessing Activity Routines Form 267
Appendix F. Brief Functional Assessment Interview Form 268
Appendix G. Functional Assessment Observation Form 269
Appendix H. A Checklist for Assessing the Quality of Behavior Support Planning: 270
Does the Plan (or Planning Process) Have These Features?
References 271
Index 283
Introduction
Recent survey data from the National Center for Education Statistics (Neiman &
Hill, 2011; Robers, Kemp, Truman, & Snyder, 2013) indicate that disciplinary and
safety issues continue to be a stable or increasing concern for schools and dis-
tricts. The proportion of schools reporting concerns with classroom disruptive
behavior, bullying, physical assaults, and gang activity is as high as 50% or more
depending on the specific issue being assessed. A wide range of research indi-
cates that typical punitive approaches to dealing with challenging behavior such
as in- and out-of-school suspension or zero-tolerance expulsion are not effective
in reducing such behavior (Skiba & Raush, 2006; Skiba, Ritter, Simmons, Peter-
son, & Miller, 2006). There clearly remains a critical ongoing need for teach-
ers, administrators, and other school personnel to be prepared to effectively
implement and evaluate empirically based schoolwide positive behavior support
(SWPBS) strategies. In recent decades such approaches have been conceptual-
ized as providing behavioral support at multiple tiers (multi-tiered systems of
support [MTSS]). These include general support for all students in a school at
Tier 1, more targeted strategies for students needing additional support at Tier 2,
and intensive support at Tier 3 for students exhibiting more severe and chronic
challenging behavior (Crone, Hawken, & Horner, 2010; Sailor, Dunlap, Sugai,
& Horner, 2011). It is at this third tier where functional behavioral assessment
(FBA) strategies most often are considered to be critical.
3
4 Using FBA in Schools
In many respects, the current emphasis on and adoption of FBA strategies comes
from the early roots of the field of applied behavior analysis. B. F. Skinner is typi-
cally credited with initial discussion of the importance of analyzing functional
relationships between behavioral performances and a range of environmental
variables and influences (e.g., Skinner, 1953, 1966). Examples of implementing
and evaluating behavioral strategies to manage challenging behaviors began to
appear in the 1960s (e.g., Lovaas, Freitag, Gold, & Kassorla, 1965; Risley, 1968;
Wolf, Risley, & Mees, 1964). These early efforts typically involved a conceptual-
ization of the contingencies maintaining the challenging behavior as a basis for
developing and implementing intervention strategies. This conceptual framework
set the stage for the influential work of Brian Iwata and his colleagues (Iwata,
Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994). In their seminal article (and in
many since) they described a methodology for conducting rigorous experimental
analyses of challenging behavior. Such analyses provided guidance in identifying
and implementing relevant intervention strategies.
Since then there has been a virtual explosion of research and procedural
books and manuals providing guidance on conducting FBAs (e.g., Dunlap & Kin-
caid, 2001). Conducting FBAs has become integral to a variety of educational
and human service fields, both in the United States and internationally (O’Neill
& Stephenson, 2010). Language referring specifically to FBAs was included in
the most recent reauthorizations of the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act (IDEIA, 2004). Standards requiring the competent use of a
range of FBA procedures have been put forth by a variety of professional orga-
nizations, including the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), Association for
Positive Behavioral Support (APBS), and the Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(BACB).
FBA includes both critical perspectives and sets of strategies and tools that may
be used in various ways at all three tiers of MTSS. However, as mentioned above,
it has typically been considered to be a primary component of behavior sup-
port at the Tier 3 level for students engaging in more severe chronic challenging
behavior (Crone & Horner, 2003). An FBA is typically conducted to evaluate the
behavior of a student to document the range of behaviors being exhibited, the set-
ting and antecedent conditions related to those behaviors, and the consequences
of reinforcing and maintaining the behaviors (O’Neill, Albin, Storey, Horner, &
Sprague, 2015). This information can then be analyzed and organized to help
guide the process of developing comprehensive behavior support plans (BSPs;
Bambara & Kern, 2005; Umbreit, Ferro, Liaupsin, & Lane, 2007). A large amount
Historical Background and the Current Context 5
Since the resurgence of FBA approaches beginning in the early 1980s, a major
focus of research and implementation has been their use in school settings.
Research in this area has involved a wide variety of student populations and set-
tings, including students with and without disability labels and regular and spe-
cial educational settings (Ervin et al., 2004; Solnick & Ardoin, 2010). For exam-
ple, a recent comprehensive review of 30 years of FBA research literature found
that 36% of published data-based studies involving FBA were conducted in school
settings (Beavers, Iwata, & Lerman, 2013). Anderson, Rodriguez, and Campbell
(2014) reported that at least 160 articles concerning FBA procedures in school
settings have been published since 1985. These included data-based studies as
well as conceptual and procedural articles.
Published work regarding the implementation of FBA procedures in schools
has presented something of a mixed picture. On the positive side, several stud-
ies have documented that school personnel can be trained to conduct effective
FBAs and develop and implement effective behavior support plans (BSPs) (e.g.,
Crone, Hawken, & Bergstrom, 2007). However, researchers and authors have
also expressed concerns that school personnel may experience difficulty in
implementing FBAs and function-based support due to a variety of issues includ-
ing time constraints, level of expertise required, and administrative and other
support (e.g., Hanley, Iwata, & McCord, 2003).
and procedures for conducting FBAs and implementing and evaluating indi-
vidual function-based support. They provided training workshops and on-site
consultation on FBA and function-based support over the project period. Partici-
pants conducted FBAs and implemented function-based support for 77 students
over the course of the project. The results indicated that participants’ scores on
an FBA Knowledge Test increased, and trained process components were largely
being implemented based on scores on the Individual Systems Evaluation Tool
(ISET). Participants gave the training and implementation process positive scores
on the FBA Training Acceptability Questionnaire. While individual student out-
come data were not collected for all students, single-case analyses of a subset
of student participants indicated positive outcomes on desired and challenging
behavior.
Ellingson, Miltenberger, Stricker, Galensky, and Garlinghouse (2000) col-
laborated with three teachers working with three students with developmental
disabilities who exhibited challenging behavior. They conducted teacher inter-
views and administered teacher questionnaires, and the teachers collected direct
observation data to develop hypotheses about the functions of student behavior.
The researchers and teachers jointly developed function-based BSPs, which the
teachers implemented. The results indicated positive changes in both desired
and challenging behaviors for all 3 students.
Christensen, Renshaw, Caldarella, and Young (2012) reported a series of
studies during which they worked with general education teachers who were
teaching students at risk for behavior disorders. They provided an ongoing series
of training and support activities for teachers with regard to conducting FBAs
and implementing function-based support. They presented data from an indi-
vidual teacher who participated in their work. Results from FBA Knowledge Tests
indicated increasing understanding of the processes. Social validity/acceptability
measures were positive for both teacher and students regarding the assessment
and intervention procedures. Observational data on student performance indi-
cated positive changes in both desired and challenging behaviors.
These studies represent a range of literature that indicate that FBA proce-
dures and function-based support can be effectively implemented in school set-
tings. It is important to note, however, that successful implementation in these
studies was dependent on ongoing substantial involvement and guidance from
“outside” personnel (e.g., university-based researchers and graduate students).
results indicated substantial deficits in the adequacy of the FBAs and BIPs in com-
parison to accepted best practices. Reviews of the published literature on recom-
mendations for conducting FBAs/BIPs, and state-level policies and resources in
this area, illustrate significant shortcomings about what is available to practitio-
ners in terms of resources and support (Allday, Nelson, & Russel, 2011; Weber,
Killu, Derby, & Barretto, 2005).
A number of authors have addressed some of the most common challenges
that may arise for school personnel when implementing FBA (Hanley et al.,
2003). Scott, Anderson, and Spaulding (2008) suggest that the main potential
challenges in implementing FBA relate to time requirements, sustainability of the
practice influenced by personnel and resources, and validity of implementation.
Time
One of the primary challenges of FBA implementation is the time that is required
(Packenham, Shute, & Reid, 2004). A typical effective FBA process may require
multiple interviews, rating forms, and systematic observations and manipula-
tions. As indicated by the survey data we described, individuals such as school
psychologists whose primary job responsibilities lie elsewhere may be respon-
sible for implementing FBAs. Balancing FBA implementation with the myr-
iad other tasks educators must do therefore may become difficult. Additional
research based on feedback gathered from school psychologists, special educa-
tion administrators, and teachers (Desrochers, Hile, & Williams-Moseley, 1997;
Nelson, Roberts, Rutherford, Mathur, & Aaroe, 1999) via surveys indicate that
school based personnel often view FBA as difficult to implement primarily due
to time requirements.
Training
Given the complexities of FBA, it is essential that individuals who may be respon-
sible for implementing it be provided with effective pre- and/or inservice train-
ing. Unfortunately, research indicates that the majority of general educators, as
well as some special educators, have not received adequate training (Allday et al.,
2011; Blood & Neel, 2007; Christensen et al., 2012; Desrochers et al., 1997; Scott,
McIntyre, et al., 2004, 2005; Stormont, Reinke, & Herman, 2011). The majority
(57%) of general educators surveyed by Stormont et al. (2011) did not even know
whether FBA was used at their school. In addition, members of the Psychology
Division of the American Association on Mental Retardation surveyed by Desro-
chers et al. (1997), indicated that FBA was difficult to implement due to a lack
of peer expertise and support, as well as knowledge of how to conduct FBA.
This demonstrates that a significant potential challenge to FBA implementation
involves inadequate training for special and general educators.
One challenge to designing and providing effective pre- and inservice FBA
training may be that there is disagreement about the necessary and sufficient
procedures of FBA (Scott, McIntyre, et al., 2004). It is generally agreed that FBA
involves at least operationally defining the behavior, identifying predictable
antecedent–behavior–consequence (ABC) chains, determining stimulus control
and the function of the behavior, identifying appropriate replacement behav-
iors, and manipulating antecedents and consequences to determine the effi-
cacy of the replacement behavior (Scott, Alter, Rosenberg, & Borgmeier, 2010).
There are disagreements about how best to identify the function of the students’
behavior, as well as how to develop interventions from FBA results (Ervin et al.,
2004; Gage et al., 2012; Reid & Nelson, 2002). The mechanisms used to identify
the function of the behavior range from the use of rating forms to direct obser-
vations and experimental manipulation of environmental variables (Ervin et al.,
2004; Reid & Nelson, 2002). There is additional disagreement about how many
observations are needed to implement FBA. Out of the 14 studies reviewed by
Reid & Nelson (2002), the total time needed to implement FBA varied between
3 and 20 sessions. Effective training is difficult to provide when the literature
indicates such a large range in how FBA is implemented and used to develop
interventions.
Best‑Practice Recommendations
Scott and Kamps (2007) proposed three main elements to focus on to address
the challenges of implementing FBA in schools: function, efficiency, and con-
text. Function refers to the need for school personnel to be able to implement
FBA independently and for FBA to work effectively with a variety of students in
a variety of circumstances. Efficiency refers to striking a balance between valid-
ity, effectiveness, and efficiency. This balance is essential to ensure that FBA is
actually used by practitioners. Context refers to the need to focus on settings
Historical Background and the Current Context 11
and environmental factors that are unique to school contexts, such as student
academic needs and how they may relate to behavior when considering FBA
implementation. Research regarding best practices of FBA implementation can
be grouped into three main categories: tools and strategies, personnel, and train-
ing. For each of these categories, studies have indicated that there is a range of
practices that have been associated with positive outcomes.
— Oli Helsinkiinkin.
— Ja muuannekin. Niinkö?
— Oli muuannekin.
— Minne muuanne?
Äänettömyys.
Äänettömyys.
Tämmöisessä tapauksessa — niitä oli ennenkin sattunut — ei
rankaiseminen tullut kysymykseenkään, asia jäi silleen enkä minä
päässyt käsiksi karkaamisen syihin enkä palaamiseenkaan.
Rivit luettuani muistin että Lilli oli saanut kirjeen muutamaa päivää
ennen karkaamistaan. Kun osoitekirjoitus muistutti hänen siskojensa
käsialaa, en tullut sitä avanneeksi, vaikka se kyllä joutui käsiin.
— Kuka on Tuupeli?
— Ja nyt sinä kerrot minulle kaikki mitä tiedät siitä tutusta pojasta.
Hän kertoi melko laveasti. Kertomatuulelle kerran jouduttuaan ei
hän enää malttanut lopettaakaan, ja minun oli helppo ohjata hänen
kertomahalunsa paluun syihin.
Mutta tulematta oli vielä lopullinen isku, ja niin kauan kuin se oli
tulematta, en minä oikein ymmärtänyt poikaa. Hän oli kuin
ristiriidassa itsensä kanssa. Toisin päivin kiltti, tarkkaavainen ja
huolellinen, ja sitte taas vaihteeksi tappelut, pään kallistelemiset ja
huolimaton käytös. Mutta niissäkin kaikissa oli jotakin voidetta, joka
vaikutti ettei niitä voinut milloinkaan ottaa täysin vakavalta kannalta.
Hänen häijyyksissäänkin kuvastui jotakin hänelle aivan omituista, ja
se omituinen oli useimmiten vallattoman iloisessa äänilajissa. Se oli
aivan kuin orkesterisoitossa joku heikko, mutta korvaa hivelevä
soolo, jonka ainoastaan musiikillisesti kehittynyt kuulee, mutta joka
silti on kaiken sielu. Tämmöisen soolon opin aina löytämään Lillin
elkeissä, joissa useinkin soi sekaisin monet kimeätkin torvet ja huilut.
Mutta siten oli laita. Keksin vakavuuden hänessä, vaikka hän vielä
koki näyttäytyä entiseltä. Hänen silmänsä olivat entisen kirkkaat, hän
oli kiltti ja häijy, huolellinen ja hutilus, mutta sitteki oli hän muuttunut.
Musta ja masentava ei ollut enää luontaista, se oli tekemällä tehtyä,
mutta vakavuus oli toisellaista, oli kuin pojan olentoon kuuluvaa.
Mitä piti minun vastata? Särkeäkö eräs taivas, joka vielä oli
ehjänä, taikka valehdella. Toinen tai toinen oli tehtävä. Oli kyllä tuttu
ilmiö minullekin se, että nainen ylhäällä alenee ja alhaalla ylenee,
mutta että nainen olisi pysynyt niin kirkkaan kehyksen ympäröimänä
pahantapaisen pääkaupunkilaispojan mielikuvissa, se oli toki
odottamatonta.
— Kaikki on hyvin.
— Kahdentoista.
— Toisella.
— Pohjanmaalta ovat.
Pistäysin usein pikku tupaan, jossa hän asui, ja joka kerta varoitin
tuvan emäntää pitämään Nyyriä ahkeraan silmällä. Siten kului
kuukausi eikä tapahtunut mitään mainittavaa.
Poika naurahteli.
— Onpahan vain.
— Ei ne ole löydettyjäkään.
— Milloin?
— Puhutko totta?
— Minkä suhteen?
— On tuo huomattu.