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Textbook Cellular Flows Topological Metamorphoses in Fluid Mechanics 1St Edition Vladimir Shtern Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Cellular Flows Topological Metamorphoses in Fluid Mechanics 1St Edition Vladimir Shtern Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Cellular Flows
A cell, whose spatial extent is small compared with a surrounding flow, can develop
inside a vortex. Such cells, often referred to as vortex breakdown bubbles, provide
stable and clean flame in combustion chambers; they also reduce the lift force of
delta wings. This book analyzes cells in slow and fast, one- and two-fluid flows
and describes the mechanisms of cell generation: (a) minimal energy dissipation,
(b) competing forces, (c) jet entrainment, and (d) swirl decay. This book explains
the vortex breakdown appearance, discusses its features, and indicates means of
its control. Written in acceptable, non-math-heavy format, it stands to be a useful
learning tool for engineers working with combustion chambers, chemical and bio-
logical reactors, and delta-wing designs.
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Cellular Flows
Topological Metamorphoses in Fluid Mechanics
V L A D I M I R SH TERN
SABIC Houston, Texas
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University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
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www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108418621
DOI: 10.1017/9781108290579
© Vladimir Shtern 2018
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2018
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Shtern, V. (Vladimir), 1940– author.
Title: Cellular flows : topological metamorphoses in fluid mechanics / Vladimir Shtern,
SABIC Houston, Texas.
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2018. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017040155 | ISBN 9781108418621 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Cellular flow. | BISAC: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Mechanical.
Classification: LCC TA357.5.C45 S58 2018 | DDC 620.1/06–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017040155
ISBN 978-1-108-41862-1 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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Contents
2 Creeping Eddies 15
2.1 Moffatt Eddies 15
2.1.1 Corner Eddies 15
2.1.2 Asymptotic Flow in a Deep Cavity 17
2.1.3 Problem Formulation for a Flow in a Plane Cavity 18
2.1.4 Analytical Solutions Describing a Flow in a Plane Cavity 19
2.1.5 Analytical Solutions Describing a Flow in a Narrow Corner 25
2.2 Flow in an Annular Cylindrical Cavity 28
2.2.1 Problem Motivation 28
2.2.2 Problem Formulation 30
2.2.3 Axisymmetric Flow 31
2.2.4 Three-Dimensional Asymptotic Flow 38
2.3 Flow in an Annular Conical Cavity 42
2.3.1 Review and Motivation 42
2.3.2 Reduction of Governing Equations 42
2.3.3 Analytical and Numerical Solutions 44
2.3.4 Summary of the Results 47
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vi Contents
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Contents vii
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viii Contents
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Contents ix
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x Contents
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Contents xi
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xii Contents
Afterword 555
References 559
Index 571
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Acknowledgments
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1 Introduction: Flow Cells and
Mechanisms of Their Formation
This book discusses flow cells, their appearance, transformations, and physical
reasons of their metamorphoses. A flow cell is a compact region with no inflow
and outflow at any part of the region boundary. A cellular flow must have at least
one cell. A well-known driving mechanism of cellular motion is buoyancy. For
example, it generates cellular thermal convection in a horizontal layer of a fluid
heated from below. The heating reduces the fluid density, and the buoyancy force
pushes the warm fluid upward from the hot bottom toward the cold free surface,
where the fluid spreads and becomes cold. The gravity force pushes the cooled fluid
downward. These upward and downward motions constitute fluid circulation in the
thermal (Bénard) cells. Since warm particles can be cooled down by thermal diffu-
sion before they reach the surface, the cell generation only occurs if the tempera-
ture difference, characterized by the Rayleigh number, Ra, exceeds some threshold,
Racr. Heating from below produces the thermal cells via the Rayleigh instability
(Chandrasekhar 1961). No Bénard cell develops if the diffusion dominates convec-
tion, i.e., for Ra < Racr.
In contrast, the lateral heating can cause very elongated circulation, like the Gulf
Stream and its backflow in the ocean depths. This circulation develops with no
instability and can be stable up to very large Ra. New cells can emerge within the
global circulation also with no instability. These striking and practically important
features are discussed in Chapter 4 of this book.
Another well-known cellular motion is the Taylor vortices (Chandrasekhar
1961). They are observed in the gap between coaxial cylinders; for example, if the
outer cylinder is still while the inner cylinder rotates. The Taylor vortices develop
via the centrifugal instability as the rotation strength, characterized by the Taylor
number, Ta, exceeds its critical value, Tacr. The centrifugal force pushes fast-rotating
fluid to the outer cylinder and moves slowly rotating fluid to the inner cylinder,
thus developing circulation rings. No Taylor vortex develops if the viscous diffusion
dominates convection and consumes the angular momentum of a rotating fluid
particle before it reaches the outer cylinder. Thus, the Taylor eddies also emerge via
instability for Ta exceeding Tacr.
In contrast, a cell can develop with no instability in a sealed cylindrical container
filled with a fluid whose circulation is driven by a rotation lid. Moreover, multiple
cells emerge as the rotation intensifies. These counterintuitive features are important
for bioreactor and combustion applications, as Chapters 6–8 of this book discuss.
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3
2 Introduction
The Bénard and Taylor cells have been explored rather in detail. This book
discusses different and recently revealed cellular motions that emerge with no
instability. The described and explained scenarios of cell appearance and their
metamorphoses include: (a) the eddy formation in a very slow motion (Chapter 2),
(b) the eddy generation in two-fluid flows by competing forces (Chapter 3),
(c) velocity reversals via bifurcations in the thermal gravitational and centrifugal
convections (Chapter 4), (d) the axial velocity reversal in a swirling flow, which is
often referred to as vortex breakdown (Chapters 5–8), (e) the radial velocity rever-
sal in vortex-sink near-wall flows used in vortex burners and chemical reactors
(Chapter 9), and (f) the cell emergence due to entrainment (Chapters 4 and 9).
These mechanisms have important technological applications, are of fundamental
interest, and have not been well understood until recent times. Hence, they deserve
a detailed discussion, as addressed in this book.
The cell emergence and transformations change the flow topology. Therefore, this
book is a contribution to the topological fluid mechanics. This discipline has been
mostly mathematical for many years. Its origin can be traced back to the paper by
Arnold (1966). The notions, foundations, and typical features of topological fluid
dynamics are discussed in the book by Arnold & Khesin (1998) and in the proceed-
ings of two IUTAM symposiums edited by Moffatt & Tsinober (1989) and Moffatt,
Bajer & Kimura (2013). The current book focuses on the flow physics by discussing
and explaining mechanisms of vortex breakdown, eddy formation in the centrifu-
gal convection, in creeping and two-fluid cellular flows, at the interface, separating
fluids; and discusses physical reasons of topological metamorphoses related to cell
appearance, multiplication, and disappearance. The following review in Sections
1.1–1.8 briefly describes cellular motions and their physical mechanisms addressed
in this book.
Vortex breakdown was first recognized and studied due to its occurrence above
aircraft wings (Peckham & Atkinson 1957). The lift force of a delta-wing aircraft
(Figure 1.1) is enlarged compared with that of a conventional aircraft due to vor-
tices that develop on the upper surface of delta wings. The air flow separates from
the leading edge and rolls inward and above the wings, forming a pair of counter-
rotating vortices. The white threads in Figure 1.2 visualize air particles going from
the wing leading edge (Werle 1963). The black curves in Figure 1.2 illustrate how
air trajectories spiral inward, forming a rapidly rotating vortex core (Shtern et al.
1997). The emerging centrifugal force tends to push air away from the core and
thus reduces pressure below its atmospheric value. The difference between the sig-
nificantly reduced pressure above and nearly atmospheric pressure below the wings
creates the enlarged lift force – the main advantage of delta-wing design.
The vortex arises at the leading edge point, where the wing and fuselage meet.
The swirl and longitudinal velocities increase downstream, reach their maxima near
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1.1 Vortex Breakdown 3
the wing middle, then decay, and vanish far away from aircraft. At the location of
maximal swirl velocity, pressure reaches its minimal value. This drop in pressure
sucks ambient air, decelerates the downstream flow, and can reverse it.
This reversal is a sign of vortex breakdown (Leibovich 1978), and results in the
vortex core, visualized by the white threads in Figure 1.3, expanding into either a
bubble-like circulation region, shown in the lower part of Figure 1.3, or a helical
pattern, shown in the upper part of Figure 1.3 (Lambourne & Brayer 1961).
The vortex breakdown reduces the lift force. The closer to the leading edge
the vortex breakdown occurs, the smaller is the lift force. As the angle of attack
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5
4 Introduction
Figure 1.3 Spiral (above) and bubble-like (below) vortex breakdown over a delta wing.
α (between the wing plane and the flow direction, see the left inset in Figure 1.4)
increases, the lift force initially also increases, but at some threshold value of
α = α2 abruptly drops down. Now, if α decreases, the lift force initially decreases,
but at another threshold value of α = α1 abruptly jumps up. Accordingly, the
lift and drag forces also jump. Figure 1.4 shows the dependence of α1 and α2 on
the aircraft speed characterized by the Mach number (Ma). The right inset in
Figure 1.4 depicts the abrupt changes in the lift force as α varies – hysteresis – and
two stable states existing in the range, α1 < α < α2 (Muylaert 1980). The sudden
changes in lift and drag are dangerous because they can cause the loss of flight
control.
While vortex breakdown is problematic for aircraft control, it can be beneficial
for other applications. One important application is combustion (Gupta et al. 1984).
A flame front propagates via diffusion with a speed around 1 m/s. For turbines, the
front must be stationary. Therefore, a flow is required that moves slowly against the
flame propagation. A circulatory motion, induced by vortex breakdown, has such
necessary pattern including stagnation points, near which the flow velocity is small.
The reversed flow transports the combustion heat back to a fuel source and warms
up a fuel and an oxidizer that makes combustion stable and clean. As an example,
Figure 1.5 shows a photo of vortex combustion chamber where swirl generates
a double-reversed flow having stagnation points in the chamber depth (Borissov
et al. 2010).
Pressurized air tangentially enters the chamber through the inlet, which is visi-
ble in the lower-right corner above the time record in Figure 1.5. The air does not
go outward, but paradoxically spirals inward near the sidewall to the dead end,
turns around (this is the first flow reversal), and meets an injected fuel (here, pro-
pane), which combusts due to air oxygen. Flue gases, consisting of combustion
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1.1 Vortex Breakdown 5
Figure 1.4 Hysteretic transitions in the vortex breakdown location as the angle of attack α varies.
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6 Introduction
products, exhaust through an annular region. The ambient air is sucked inward
near the chamber axis, turns around (this is the second flow reversal), and mixes
with the flue gases.
The thermocouple rods, located at the right-hand side of the chamber, visualize
the temperature distribution: the rods are dark where the flow is cold (in the near-
wall and near-axis inflows), and bright where the flow is hot (the annular exhaust
motion of flue gases). This double counterflow provides the transparent combus-
tion observed in Figure 1.5, and significantly reduces harmful emissions as Section
5.4.11 describes in more detail.
In addition to the mentioned technological devices, vortex breakdown sometimes
occurs in a tornado (Figure 1.6), which is a kind of atmospheric swirling jet. In a
swirling motion of air away from the ground, the centrifugal force is balanced by
the radial gradient of pressure. Where the spinning air touches the ground, the cen-
trifugal force vanishes, since the swirl velocity drops down to zero on the ground.
In contrast, the radial gradient of pressure does not vanish and, being unbalanced
by the centrifugal force, pushes air toward the axis of rotation. Therefore, a con-
verging, swirling near-ground flow develops. This flow turns upward near the rota-
tion axis and forms a jet spiraling along the axis. The upper part of converging
flow transports the angular momentum to the axis vicinity, thus enhancing the air
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1.1 Vortex Breakdown 7
swirl velocity and, therefore, the centrifugal force. This results in a deep minimum
of pressure located near the ground-axis intersection. The reduced pressure sucks
ambient air and thus can reverse its near-axis motion, forming a flow pattern, sche-
matically shown by the arrows in Figure 1.6. There are the annular ascending flow
and near-axis downflow. Such vortex breakdown pattern widens the tornado fun-
nel, making the twister less destructive.
This scenario likely explains the two tornado patterns and the transitions between
them, observed in Jordan, Iowa on June 13, 1976. One pattern had a narrow funnel
and the other pattern had a wide funnel. These patterns were recorded by detailed
photographs reported by Burggraf & Foster (1977). The flow can switch between
these two states, which are stable for small disturbances but unstable for large dis-
turbances. Such behavior is quite similar to the hysteretic transitions between the
two stable flow states above a delta wing (the right inset in Figure 1.4).
To summarize, vortex breakdown has three striking and important features: (i)
the flow reversal, which is obligatory, and two optional: (ii) the emergence of helical
patterns and (iii) hysteretic transitions. Chapters 5 and 6 of this book discuss these
features, explain their physical nature, and illustrate their mechanisms with the help
of analytical and numerical solutions describing appropriate model flows.
The flow reversal, related to vortex breakdown, typically occurs near the axis of
rotation. Another important phenomenon of swirling flows is the reversal of radial
velocity occurring remote from the axis in a disk-like vortex chamber (DVC). DVCs
attracted the attention of researchers due to applications in a rocket nuclear engine
(Savino & Keshock 1965), which was conceived starting from 1957. DVCs are also
used in chemical technology (Kovacevic et al. 2014, 2015).
A fluid nearly tangentially enters a DVC through slots in the disk sidewall, and
develops the centrifugal force that presses nuclear-fuel or catalyst particles to the
periphery, balancing the particle-fluid drag. This DVC feature is beneficial for
achieving a high power-to-volume ratio of propulsion that is especially important
for space applications.
Unfortunately, strong jets develop near the disk end walls. The jets entrain parti-
cles and can result in their loss, which is absolutely unacceptable for nuclear devices.
Moreover, experiments revealed that the radial velocity reverses in the middle part
of the disk. The reversal, being counterintuitive, was initially interpreted as an arti-
fact of the measurement inaccuracy (Donaldson & Williamson 1964). However,
the precise and detailed experimental study by Savino & Keshock (1965) definitely
established that the reversal does occur, and results in a flow cell that occupies a
rather large portion of DVC disk. The reversal was later confirmed numerically
(Vatistas et al. 2008). This phenomenon is problematic for nuclear reactors, but can
be beneficial for other applications, e.g., combustion. A toroidal circulation region
of swirling gas can provide stable and clean flame in a disk-like combustion cham-
ber. To this end, the reversal nature should be well understood. This book explains
in Section 9.3 that the radial velocity reversal develops via the jet-entrainment
mechanism.
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8 Introduction
Thermal convection in rotating systems has been extensively studied for astrophysi-
cal and geophysical applications, e.g., for large-scale circulations in the atmosphere
and oceans caused by the temperature difference between equatorial and polar
regions (Herrmann & Busse 1997; Hart 2000). The centrifugal convection can also
have important applications in vortex tubes (Secchiaroli et al. 2009).
The centrifugal-to-gravity acceleration ratio, gc/g, is small for planets and stars,
but is very large (up to 106) in vortex tubes, as is the length-to-radius ratio. These
features can be utilized for the development of efficient heat exchangers. One more
important factor is that the steady flow can be stable up to very large value of the
Rayleigh number Ra, which characterizes the convection strength. The steady lam-
inar convection is experimentally observed in a horizontal layer with the horizontal
gradient of temperature up to Ra around 109 (Bejan et al. 1981; Kirdyashkin 1984).
The physical reason of this striking flow stability is that the fluid circulation devel-
ops the stable vertical stratification of density that suppresses disturbances. The
effect is even stronger for the centrifugal convection due to large gc/g and the stable
stratification of angular momentum.
Chapter 4 of this book discusses these paradoxical and important features of
thermal convection. In particular, it is shown that the stable thermal convection,
in a rotating container for large Ra, concentrates in a thin near-wall jet adjacent to
the entire container boundary. In the rest domain, the flow is comparatively slow
and multicellular. The cells emerge near the container center via bifurcations. This
book explains the bifurcation mechanism and the physical reason for the cell for-
mation and the nature of multicell flow stability. Two instability mechanisms could
work here. One is shear-layer instability occurring for a small Prandtl number Pr.
As Pr exceeds its threshold value, the shear-layer instability is suppressed by the
emerging density stratification. The other is thermal instability developing for large
Pr, if sidewall temperature is prescribed. This instability disappears if the sidewalls
are adiabatic. The density stratification is stabilizing in this case. These features and
mechanisms are generic, also being observed in the thermo-gravitational convec-
tion of one and two fluids in a horizontal layer with lateral heating (Chapter 4 of
this book).
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1.4 Two-Fluid Cellular Flows 9
Air-water circulatory flows have recently attracted the attention of researchers due
to their applications in aerial vortex biological reactors (Ramazanov et al. 2007).
These bioreactors provide the gentle and fine mixing of ingredients required for
growth of proteins, enzymes, vitamins, antibiotics, sensitive embryonic, hybrid and
other medical cells, ferments and supplements for food industry, and other tissue
cultures.
For a proper mixing, a rotating disk is typically used to induce both swirl and
the meridional motions of air and water in bioreactors. Stimulated by bioreac-
tor applications, Lo Jacono et al. (2009) experimentally, and Liow et al. (2008,
Liow et al. 2009) numerically, explored air-water flows in cylindrical contain-
ers. Lo Jacono et al. (2009) addressed a whirlpool-like flow where the rotating
bottom disk drives the meridional water flow and pushes the interface down near
the axis and up near the sidewall. However, such driving can result in large shear
stresses, which can be harmful for the tissue culture. A more careful driving of the
water flow can be provided by an air flow driven above the interface (Ramazanov
et al. 2007).
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10 Introduction
Liow et al. (2008) and Liow et al. (2009) investigated a model aerial bioreactor,
where the mixing occurs due to the rotating top disk. The induced centrifugal force
pushes the air to the periphery near the top disk and thus drives the meridional
circulation. The circulation transports air oxygen, required for the efficient growth
of tissue culture, to the interface. The air flow converges to the axis near the inter-
face and smoothly drives a slow counter-circulation of the water. This circulation
transports the oxygen from the interface in the water depth, mixes the oxygen with
other ingredients and thus helps the culture growth. Such aerial bioreactors have a
number of advantages (Ramazanov et al. 2007), but their control parameter must
be carefully chosen to avoid undesirable effects such as the tearing of culture by
shear stresses.
As this book discusses for whirlpool (Chapter 7) and water-spout (Chapter 8)
flows, the air and water motions in bioreactors can be rather complicated, including
a number of eddies depending on the reactor geometry. Cylindrical, semispheri-
cal, conical, and truncated-conical geometries are particularly addressed. The flow
pattern includes a number of air and water eddies, depending on the fluid frac-
tions and the device geometry. It is paradoxical that two-fluid eddies can develop
even in a very slow – creeping – motion. As the water fraction varies, numerous
changes in the flow topology occur. These striking features of two-fluid creeping
flows are discussed in detail in Chapter 3 of this book. Some physical mechanisms
behind the above-mentioned cellular motions and their metamorphoses are briefly
discussed next.
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1.6 Eddy Generation by Jet Entrainment 11
decelerates the downstream near-axis flow, reverses the axial velocity, and drives the
backflow near the axis.
The swirl decay mechanism (SDM) theory initially aimed to explain the elon-
gated counterflows occurring in hydrocyclones and vortex tubes (Shtern & Borissov
2010a, 2010b). Then SDM helped explain the development of double counter-
flows in a vortex combustor (Shtern et al. 2011a) and in a vortex trap (Shtern et al.
2011b). Next, it was found that SDM helps understand the chain-like process of
emergence of vortex breakdown (VB) bubbles in the Vogel-Escudier flow (Shtern
et al. 2012). A recent experimental study by Mununga et al. (2014) revealed that
SDM also helps explain the opposite control effects caused by (a) the central rod,
whose corotation suppresses vortex breakdown (Husain et al. 2003) and (b) by the
small disk, embedded in the still end wall, whose corotation enhances vortex break-
down (Mununga et al. 2014). Thus, SDM has been shown relevant both for the
understanding vortex breakdown physics and for the elaborating control strategies,
as Chapters 5 and 6 of this book discuss in more detail.
It is well known that a jet-like flow entrains an ambient fluid. Schlichting (1933)
found for a round jet, that the fluid flow rate (through a normal-to-jet plane)
increases proportionally to the distance from the jet source, and therefore the far-
field flow consists mostly of entrained fluid. If a jet issues from a nozzle in a wall,
the flow reversal occurs. There are relevant experiments by Zauner (1985) visualiz-
ing the ambient-fluid entrainment (Figure 1.8) and the theory by Schneider (1985)
(Figure 1.9) showing that the jet, issuing from a wall, induces the flow of ambient
fluid moving toward the wall. Similar reversals also occur in a plume (Schneider
et al. 1987), in a flow driven by the thermal surface tension effect (Herrada & Shtern
2014b), in a flow near a hot vertical wall (Gill 1966), and in a horizontal fluid layer
with lateral heating (Herrada & Shtern 2016a). More jet-induced counterflows are
discussed in Shtern (2012a). The plurality of examples indicates that the velocity
reversal by jet entrainment likely is generic, being independent of how the jet is
driven.
A sufficiently strong jet causes not only the velocity reversal, but can also gen-
erate a local circulation cell. An instructive example is the cell formation by strong
near-wall swirling jets occurring in cyclones (Kelstall 1952) and in disk-like vortex
chambers (Savino & Keshock 1965). This book argues that these cells are generated
by the jet entrainment mechanism.
In a few words, the jet entrainment mechanism in disk-like vortex chambers
works in the following way. The cyclostrophic balance ∂p/∂r = ρʋ2/r developing in
fast swirling flows vanishes near a wall. The no-slip condition renders that ʋ = 0 at
a wall, i.e., the centrifugal force drops to the second-order zero. The drop occurs in
a thin near-wall boundary layer in a fast flow. In contrast, pressure remains nearly
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12 Introduction
Figure 1.8 Visualization shows the velocity reversal by the jet issuing downward from an orifice in
the wall.
Figure 1.9 Numerically simulated streamline pattern of the flow shown in Figure 1.8.
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1.8 Eddies Induced by Competing Forces 13
The physical reasoning behind the cellular patterns discovered by Moffatt (1964)
is determined by dead-end geometry and by the dissipation of kinetic energy
(Chapter 2 of this book). The dead end yields a counterflow and the dissipation
appears to be smaller in a set of eddies than that in a global counterflow. According
to the Helmholtz theorem (Happel and Brenner 1965), the dissipation rate of
kinetic energy in the Stokes flow is less than that in any other motion of an incom-
pressible viscous fluid under the same boundary conditions. The cellular pattern
provides minimal dissipation for the planar and axisymmetric flows. This book pro-
vides examples illustrating this energy-dissipation mechanism in Chapter 2.
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14 Introduction
1.9 Approach
This book does not pretend to encompass all types of cellular flows. It would
be unrealistic. The book is a kind of introduction to the topic. The results and
methods discussed in this book are limited to studies in which the author has been
closely involved. A specific style of this monograph is in applications of analytical
solutions where they can be obtained.
Whenever possible, the governing partial differential equations are reduced
to ordinary differential equations with the help of similarity and/or asymptotic
approaches. Physical experiments and numerical simulations of laminar and tur-
bulent flow states, discussed in detail here, were stimulated and supported by our
analytical studies and physical analyses. The results discussed in this book describe
a number of effects of both fundamental and technological interest.
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