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MODULE: 05
Materials for Repair and Retrofitting: Artificial fiber reinforced polymer like CFRP,
GFRP, AFRP and natural fiber like Sisal and Jute. Adhesive like, Epoxy Resin, Special
concretes and mortars, concrete chemicals, special elements for accelerated strength gain,
Techniques for Repair: Rust eliminators and polymers coating for rebar during repair
foamed concrete, mortar and dry pack, vacuum concrete, Gunite and Shot Crete Epoxy
injection, Mortar repair for cracks, shoring and underpinning.

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REPAIR:
Concrete structures get damaged or defective, during their lifetime. The causes for such damages
or defects are because of poor quality control during construction, overloads on structure, natural
calamities, environmental factors, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to repair the damages and defects
or to restore the strength of concrete structures after assessing the condition of structure. For the
successful repair and protection of concrete structure, the following technical assistance is
required from the experts:
✓ professional assessment of the damage;
✓ Design a suitable method of repair; and
✓ Using the recommended methods to repair the damage or defects of concrete structures
with due supervision and execution.
For an effective repair, knowledge about repair materials and repair techniques is required.

MATERIALS SELECTION: Selecting repair materials is an important and complex process

involving an understanding of requirement of the repair by the owner, engineer, service, and
exposure conditions, and also installation technique. After requirements are established and
material properties are defined, the selection of specific materials can be made. Final selection
of material is made based on the relationship between cost, performance, and risk. Selecting
repair materials requires an understanding of material behaviour in the cured and uncured states
in the anticipated service and exposure conditions.
One of the greatest challenges facing the successful performance of repair materials is the
dimensional behaviour relative to the substrate. Relative dimensional changes cause internal
stresses within the repair material and within the substrate. High internal stresses may result in
tension cracks, loss of load carrying capability, delamination, or deterioration. Another challenge
is selecting repair materials for structural applications.
There are two obstacles to achieving 100 % repair efficiency in structural applications.
✓ Initial loading on repair material and removal of load from the structure during repair.
✓ The dimensional behaviour of repair materials on surface and are dependent on
temperature and moisture change.

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CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF REPAIR MATERIAL:

a) Compatibility:
✓ The repair material should be compatible with the existing structure in terms of physical
properties, such as strength, elasticity, and thermal expansion.
✓ It should also be chemically compatible with the existing materials to prevent degradation
or deterioration over time.
b) Strength:
✓ The repair material should be strong enough to resist the loads and stresses that the
structure is expected to experience.
✓ It should also be able to maintain its strength over time, even in harsh environmental
conditions.
✓ It should have sufficient strength in Compression, tension, and flexure.
c) Durability:
✓ The repair material should be durable enough to withstand the effects of weathering,
moisture, and other environmental factors.
✓ It should also be resistant to chemical attack and corrosion.
d) Workability:
✓ The repair material should be easy to work with, both in terms of application and shaping.
✓ It should also be able to bond well with the existing structure to ensure a strong and
reliable repair.
✓ The material should be good chemical compatibility with other repair materials.
e) Adhesion:
✓ The repair material should bond well with the existing concrete to ensure a strong and
reliable repair. It should also have good adhesion to the reinforcing steel, if present.
f) Shrinkage:
✓ The repair material should have lower shrinkage properties so that shrinkage cracks does
not develop due to stresses.
g) Cost-effectiveness:
✓ The repair material should be cost-effective, taking into account both the initial cost and
the long-term maintenance costs.
h) Low air and water permeability:
✓ Permeability of the repair material should be very low to provide adequate protection to
the reinforced concrete against ingress of harmful environmental chemicals

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i) Availability:
✓ The repair material should be readily available and accessible, to ensure timely repairs
and minimize downtime.
j) Aesthetics:
✓ The repair material should have an acceptable appearance and finish, especially for
visible areas
k) Curing time:
✓ The repair material should have a suitable curing time, to ensure adequate strength gain
and to prevent premature cracking.
l) Conditions prevailing at time of repair:
✓ The repair material should be suitable to conditions during the time of repair.

CLASSIFICATION OF REPAIR MATERIAL:

The materials used for concrete repairs on the basis of the type of application into following
categories:
a) Patch Repair materials:
i. Cementious mortar/concrete
ii. Polymer modified Cementious mortar/concrete
iii. Polymer mortar/concrete
iv. Quick setting compounds
✓ High alumina cement based
✓ Calcium sulphate based
✓ Magnesium phosphates
✓ Sulphur concrete.
b) Injection grouts:
✓ Cementitious grouts (with & without fibres)
✓ Gas forming grouts
✓ Sulpho-aluminate grouts
✓ Polymer grouts
c) Bonding Aids:
✓ Polymer emulsion type
✓ Polymer resin type
d) Resurface materials:
✓ Protective coatings & membranes
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✓ Impregnates and hydrophobic sealers

✓ Overlays
✓ Gunite /shotcrete
e) Sealing materials
f) Water proofing
g) Other repair materials:
✓ Corrosion inhibitors
✓ Rebar protective coatings
✓ Cathodic protection
✓ Realkalization

Artificial fibre reinforced polymer:

✓ Artificial fiber reinforced polymer (AFRP) is a composite material made up of a polymer
matrix and reinforcing fibres.
✓ The polymer matrix is usually a thermosetting resin such as epoxy, while the reinforcing
fibres can be made of various materials such as glass, carbon, or aramid.
✓ AFRP materials have several advantages over traditional materials such as steel or concrete.
✓ They are lightweight, have high strength-to-weight ratios, and are resistant to corrosion and
fatigue
✓ These properties make AFRP materials ideal for use in applications such as aerospace,
automotive, construction, and sports equipment.
✓ The use of AFRP materials has been growing in recent years due to advances in
manufacturing technology and increased awareness of their benefits. However, the cost of
AFRP materials is generally higher than that of traditional materials, which can be a limiting
factor in their widespread adoption.

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FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER:

✓ Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) is a composite material made of a polymer matrix
reinforced with fibres.
✓ The fibres can be made of different materials such as glass, carbon, or aramid, and are usually
arranged in a specific pattern to provide the desired mechanical properties.
✓ FRP is known for its high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and durability, and
is used in various applications, including constructions.

Constituents of FRP:
1. Polymer matrix:
✓ The polymer matrix is the material that binds the reinforcing fibres together and provides
the matrix for the composite.
✓ The polymer matrix can be made from a wide range of thermosetting or thermoplastic
resins, such as polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, or nylon.
✓ The choice of polymer matrix depends on the specific application and the desired
properties of the final product.
2. Reinforcing fibres:
✓ The reinforcing fibres are the material that provides the strength and stiffness to the
composite.
✓ The fibres can be made from different materials, such as glass, carbon, aramid, or basalt,
and can be oriented in different directions to provide the desired mechanical properties.
✓ The choice of reinforcing fibres depends on the specific application and the required
strength, stiffness, and other properties of the final product.

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Types of fibres used:

Following are the different type of fibres generally used in the construction industries
a. Steel fibres
b. Glass fibres
c. Polypropelene fibres
d. Nylon fibres
e. Asbestos fibres
f. Carbon fibres
g. Aramid fibres
h. Basalt

Types of fibre reinforced polymer:

There are several types of FRP, or Fibre Reinforced Polymer, composites, each with its own
unique properties and applications. Here are some of the common types of FRP:
1. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP): GFRP is one of the most commonly used
types of FRP. It consists of a polymer matrix, such as polyester or vinyl ester, reinforced
with glass fibres. GFRP is known for its high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion
resistance, and low cost, and is used in a wide range of applications, such as construction,
automotive, and marine.
2. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP): CFRP consists of a polymer matrix, such
as epoxy or phenolic, reinforced with carbon fibres. CFRP is known for its high strength
and stiffness, as well as its low weight and thermal expansion coefficient. It is used in
high-performance applications.
3. Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymer (AFRP): AFRP consists of a polymer matrix, such
as epoxy or polyester, reinforced with aramid fibres, such as Kevlar. AFRP is known for
its high strength, toughness, and impact resistance, and is used in ballistic protection,
aerospace, and sports equipment.
4. Basalt Fiber Reinforced Polymer (BFRP): BFRP consists of a polymer matrix, such as
epoxy or polyester, reinforced with basalt fibres. BFRP is known for its high strength and
stiffness, as well as its resistance to fire, corrosion, and UV radiation. It is used in
construction, transportation, and marine application

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✓ Natural fiber composites are composite materials made from natural fibres, such as hemp,
flax, sisal, jute, and bamboo, that are embedded in a polymer matrix.
✓ These composites are eco-friendly, biodegradable, and renewable, and are gaining popularity
as an alternative to synthetic fiber composites.
✓ The natural fibres used in these composites are typically derived from plant sources and have
properties such as high strength, low weight, and low cost.
✓ They can be processed into different forms, such as mats, yarns, or fabrics, and combined
with different polymer matrices, such as thermosets or thermoplastics.
✓ The use of natural fiber composites is growing due to their sustainability, low cost, and
ability to replace traditional materials. However, there are still challenges to overcome, such
as improving the properties and consistency of the fibres, optimizing the processing and
manufacturing techniques, and increasing the awareness and acceptance of these materials
in the market.

Carbon fibre reinforced polymer(CFRP):

CFRP is often used as a repair material for structural components that have suffered damage or
deterioration. This is because CFRP composites have high strength, stiffness, and durability,
making them an effective solution for restoring the structural integrity of damaged components.
✓ Carbon fibres have high tensile strength (2110 to 2815 N/mm²) and young’s modulus.
✓ Carbon fibre as reinforcement has high modulus of elasticity, flexural strength, and durability.
✓ The ultimate elongation is 0.3-2.5 % where the lower elongation corresponds to the higher
stiffness and vice versa
✓ Carbon fibres do not absorb water and are resistant to many chemical solutions.
✓ They with stand fatigue excellently, do not stress corrode and do not show any creep or
relaxation, having less relaxation compared to low relaxation high tensile prestressing steel
strand.
✓ CFRP is Lightweight (4 times lower than steel and 30% lower than aluminium)
✓ CFRP’s are high temperature formable i.e., Suited for bending and reshaping.
✓ CFRP has low thermal conductivity, which means it does not conduct heat this can be an
advantage in some applications where insulation is needed.

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CFRP (Carbon fibre reinforced polymer)

Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP):

✓ Glass fibres are basically made by mixing silica sand, limestone, folic acid, and other minor
ingredients.
✓ The mix is heated until it melts at about 1260°C.
✓ The molten glass is then allowed to flow through fine holes in a platinum plate.
✓ The glass strands are cooled, gathered, and wound.
✓ The fibres are drawn to increase the directional strength.
✓ The fibres are then woven into various forms for use in composites.
✓ They have a high tensile strength of 1020 to 4080N/mm2
✓ Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Rebar does not contain any metal elements. It is
corrosive resistant and does not rust.
✓ The is a big advantage compared to reinforced concrete where rust will deteriorate the
material.
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✓ Creating a much longer building lifespan especially in areas or facilities where water
resistant is important.

Glass fibre reinforcement

Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymer (AFRP):

✓ Aramid fibres are most commonly known as Kevlar, Nomex and Technora.
✓ Aramids are generally prepared by the reaction between an amine group and a carboxylic acid
halide group (aramid) commonly this occurs when an aromatic polyamide is spun from a
liquid concentration of sulphuric acid into a crystallized fibre.
✓ Fibres are then spun into larger threads in order to weave into large ropes or woven fabrics
(Aramid).
✓ Aramid fibres are manufactured with varying grades based on varying qualities for strength
and rigidity, so that the material can be somewhat tailored to specific design needs concerns,
such as cutting the tough material during manufacture.
✓ AFRP composites offer excellent strength-to-weight ratios, high stiffness, and exceptional
resistance to fatigue, impact, and environmental degradation.
✓ The modulus of elasticity of these fibres ranges from 70-200Gpa.
✓ The elongation is 1.5-5%.

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Basalt Fiber Reinforced Polymer (BFRP):

✓ Basalt Fibre Reinforced Polymer (BFRP) is a composite material made by combining basalt
fibres with a polymer matrix.
✓ Basalt fibres are a type of natural volcanic rock fiber that is produced by melting basalt rock
at high temperatures and then drawing the molten material into thin fibres.
✓ BFRP composites have excellent mechanical properties, including high strength, stiffness, and
impact resistance.
✓ They are also highly resistant to corrosion, fire, and UV radiation, making them ideal for use
in harsh environments
✓ BFRP composites are commonly used in a variety of applications, such as reinforcing concrete
structures, building facades.
✓ Basalt has 20 - 40% better mechanical properties and puncture resistance than Fiberglass.
✓ Basalt is impervious to attacks from alkali, chemicals, or water, which causes Steel to corrode
or rust.

ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMERS

✓ High strength-to-weight ratio: FRPs have a very high strength-to-weight ratio, which means
they can support heavy loads while being much lighter than traditional materials such as steel
or concrete. This makes FRPs ideal for use in lightweight structures or in situations where
weight is a concern, such as in aerospace or automotive applications.
✓ Corrosion resistance: FRPs are highly resistant to corrosion, which is a major issue for
traditional materials such as steel or concrete. This makes FRPs an excellent choice for use in
harsh environments such as marine, chemical, or industrial settings.
✓ Durability: FRPs have excellent durability and can withstand extreme temperatures, UV
radiation, and other harsh environmental conditions without degrading or losing their strength.
This makes FRPs ideal for use in applications where longevity and reliability are important.
✓ Design flexibility: FRPs can be easily moulded into complex shapes, which allows for greater
design flexibility and the creation of innovative shapes and structures that would be difficult
or impossible to achieve with traditional materials.
✓ Reduced maintenance: FRPs require less maintenance than traditional materials, which can
result in lower long-term costs. FRPs are also easy to clean and can be painted or coated to
match the surrounding environment.
✓ Sustainability: FRPs are often made from recycled or renewable materials, and they can be
recycled at the end of their useful life.
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✓ Fatigue strength: FRPs have higher strength and resistance against fatigue loadings.
✓ Energy absorbing: FRPs have good energy absorbing capability due to which it can be used
in structures to enhance the ductility.
✓ Availability and User-friendly: FRPs are easily available and easy to assemble and can be
strengthened if necessary and to use which makes it user friendly.

Natural Fibres:
✓ Sisal and jute are plant-derived fibres that occur naturally in nature.
✓ These fibres are renewable, non-abrasive to Process equipment, and may be burned for energy
recovery at the end of their life cycle because to their high calorific value.

Sisal
✓ Sisal is a fiber that comes from the agave sisalana plant, which is native to Mexico but is now
grown in many countries around the world.
✓ The fiber is extracted by scraping off the fleshy parts of the plant's leaves, leaving behind the
strong, white fibres.
✓ Sisal is commonly used for making rope, twine, and other cordage, as well as for carpets,
mats, and other flooring materials.
✓ The soft tissue is scraped from the fibres by hand or machine. The fibres are dried and brushed
to remove the remaining dirt, resulting in a clean fibre.
✓ Sisal produces sturdy and strong fibres.
✓ Sisal fibres are also used as reinforcement in composite materials for construction and
automobile parts.
✓ Sisal fibres are known for their high tensile strength, resistance to moisture, and long lifespan,
making them a popular choice in various industries.
✓ The modulus of elasticity of polymer is 15Gpa.
✓ The sisal fibres are resistant against moisture and heat.
✓ Sisal short fibres delay restrained plastic shrinkage controlling crack development at early age

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Sisalana plant and sisal fibre

Jute fibre:
✓ Jute, on the other hand, comes from the Corchorus plant, which is native to India and
Bangladesh but is now grown in many other countries as well.
✓ The fiber is extracted from the plant's stem by soaking it in water and then stripping off the
bark.
✓ Jute is commonly used for making burlap, hessian, and other coarse fabrics, as well as for
twine and rope.
✓ To achieve better wet ability of jute resin is added and to improve strength properties, fibre
pre-treatment is necessary.
✓ Simple pre-treatment is done with low-condensed resins like melamine resin, phenolic resin
✓ It can withstand rotting very easily and are bio-degradable.
✓ Jute fibres have high tensile strength.

Adhesives such as Epoxy resin:

✓ Epoxies are a type of polymer and belong to epoxy group of organic chemicals.
✓ In epoxy system, polymerization process takes place when two materials: epoxy resin and
curing agent, come in contact by mixing thoroughly in specified proportions
✓ It is an excellent binding agents and has a good mechanical strength (high tensile strength),
chemical resistance and ease of working.
✓ These are chemical preparations and their compositions can be changed as per requirements
and can be injected into small cracks too.
✓ The epoxy components are mixed just prior to application.
✓ Epoxy mixture strength depends on curing temperature (for higher temperature. lower
strength) and method of application.

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✓ Epoxies are used in civil engineering as high performance coatings, adhesives, injection
grouting, high performance systems, industrial flooring, or grouting, etc.
✓ Low viscosity epoxy resins are injected into fine or small cracks to seal them
✓ Higher viscosity resins are used as binding agents for surface coating or for filling larger holes
and cracks.
✓ It is also used for gluing (bonding) steel plates to the distress members.
✓ In cement mortar or concrete, epoxy is incorporated as a second binder into concrete mix.

The properties of epoxy are:

✓ Good mechanical strength,
✓ good chemical resistance,
✓ good workability,
✓ high tensile strength, and
✓ They develop rapid excellent strength and adhesive properties.

Special concretes and mortars

✓ Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, and coarse aggregate, mixed with water. Special mortar
or concrete has additives either mineral or chemical admixtures apart from their above said
basic ingredients to meet special required desired properties.
✓ The desired properties may be high strength, high durable, less weight, colour, reduced
dimensions, etc.

Special mortar:
The following are the different types of special mortars:
i. Cement-clay mortar
ii. Light-weight mortar
iii. Heavy-weight mortar
iv. Decorative mortar
v. Air-entrained mortar
vi. Gypsum cement mortar
vii. Fire-resistance mortar
viii. Packing mortar
ix. Sound absorbing mortar
x. X-ray shielding mortar
xi. Quick-setting cement mortar
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i. Cement clay mortar:

✓ Here clay is introduced as an effective finely ground additive in quantities, ensuring a
cement-clay proportion of 1:1.
✓ The addition of clay improves the grain composition, the water retaining ability and the
workability of mortar and also increases the density of mortar.
✓ This type of mortar has better covering power and can be used in thin layers.
ii. Light-weight mortar:
✓ These are prepared using light porous sands from pumice and other fine aggregates.
✓ They are also prepared by mixing wood powder, wood shavings or sawdust with cement
mortar or lime mortar.
✓ In such mortars, fibres of jute coir and hair, cut into pieces of suitable size, or asbestos
fibres can also be used.
✓ These mortars have bulk density less than 15 kN/m³.
iii. Heavy-weight mortar:
✓ These are prepared from heavy quartz or other sands.
✓ They have bulk density of 15 kN/m³ or more.
✓ They are used for increasing load bearing capacity.
iv. Decorative mortar:
✓ These mortars are used for decoration purpose.
✓ These are obtained by using colour cements or pigments and fine aggregates of
appropriate colour, texture, and surface.
v. Fire-resistant mortar:
✓ It is prepared by adding aluminous cement to a finely crushed power of fire-bricks.
✓ Being fire-resistance, the mortar is used with fire-bricks for lining furnaces, fire places,
ovens, etc.
vi. Sound absorbing mortar:
✓ These mortars may have binding materials such as cement, lime, gypsum slag, etc., and
aggregate like light-weight porous materials such as pumice, cinders, etc.
✓ The bulk density of such a mortar varies from 6 to 12 kN/m3.
✓ Noise level can be reduced by using sound absorbing plaster formed with the help of
sound absorbing mortar.

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vii. X-ray shielding mortar:

✓ It is a heavy density mortar with bulk density over 52 kN/m³.
✓ Aggregates used are obtained from heavy rock like barite, magnetite, hematite, etc.
✓ To enhance the protective property of such mortar, admixtures are added.
✓ It is used for providing plastering coat to walls and ceiling of X-ray cabinets.

Special Concrete:
i. Low-cost concrete
ii. Ultra durable concrete
iii. Under water concrete
iv. Light weight concrete
v. Low noise concrete
vi. Epoxy concrete
vii. Quick setting concrete
viii. Polymer cement concrete

i. Low-cost concrete:
✓ Cement replacement with pulverised fly ash (PFA) helps to improve durability and
workability.
✓ Cement replacement with ground granulated blast slag (GGBS) helps to improve durability
but may increase bleeding.
✓ Water & cement reduction with a water reducer helps to improve durability.
ii. Light-weight concrete:
✓ Light-weight aggregate concrete: Concrete uses natural or artificial light-weight aggregates.
✓ The concrete has less strength and good thermal properties, and can be used for both structural
and non-structural applications.
✓ Foamed concrete: It is also called aerated concrete. It has very low strength thereby can be
used only for non-structural applications.
iii. Under water concrete:
✓ It uses quick setting cement and condensed silica fume (CSF) for good cohesive mix.
✓ It has non dispersal admixtures.
✓ It avoids washout of concrete due to water pressure.

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iv. Ultra durable concrete:

✓ Ultra-high strength with good curing.
✓ Controlled permeability formwork.
✓ Coated or stainless rebar.
✓ Silanes or siloxanes (glass fibre in surface).
✓ Fragmentation resistance with glass fibre.
v. Low-noise concrete:
✓ It is also called 'thin asphalt layers' or 'thin noise reducing asphalt road surfaces'.
✓ Small sized aggregate is used to obtain an optimised texture for minimising tyre
vibrations.
✓ The thickness is around 3cms.
✓ It reduces noise by 2-4 decibel at 50 km/h for cars when compared to average dense
asphalt concrete.
✓ The lifetime of a thin surface layer of this concrete is seven to nine years.
✓ Disadvantages are ravelling (loss of aggregates from surface) and de-bonding from the
underlying layer.

Concrete chemicals: An admixture is defined as a material other than water, aggregate,

hydraulic cements, and others, used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar and added to the batch
immediately before or during mixing
Necessity for adding concrete chemicals:
✓ To improve or enhance the performance or properties of concrete for applications in
concrete works with special requirements.
✓ To modify the properties of concrete to achieve desired workability in case of low water
cement ratio.
✓ To accelerate the setting time of concrete.
✓ To enhance setting time of concrete for long distance transportation of concrete.
✓ To make the structure waterproof.
✓ To protect the reinforcement
✓ To make concrete with desired or required properties.

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Concrete chemicals:
i. Accelerators
ii. Retarders
iii. Air-detraining admixtures
iv. Air-entraining admixtures
v. Workability admixtures
vi. waterproofing admixtures
vii. Grouting admixtures
viii. Bonding admixtures

Accelerators:
✓ Accelerating admixtures are added to concrete to increase the rate of early strength
development
✓ Accelerators are used to speed up the initial set of concrete or to reduce or shorten the
setting time of concrete.
✓ They are especially helpful when concrete is used in low temperature (cold weather
concreting) and marine construction.
✓ Proper care should be taken while choosing the type and proportion of accelerators, as
under most conditions, commonly used accelerators cause an increase in the drying
shrinkage of concrete.
Retarders:
✓ The function of retarding admixtures is to delay or extend or slow down the hydration of
cement and lengthening or increase the setting time of cement paste in concrete mix.
✓ These are required for concrete that has to be transported to long distance in transit mixers
and specially used as grouting admixture.
✓ Retarders are used in placing concrete at high temperatures or in hot weather conditions,
to overcome the accelerating effects on concrete setting time, because of higher
temperatures and large masses of concrete.
✓ Most retarders act as water reducers and reduce the water-cement ratio, so are frequently
called as water-reducing retarders.
✓ Usually, up to 10% water reduction can be achieved, resulting in increase of strength and
durability of concrete.
✓ It is used in fraction of percent by weight of cement.

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Air-entraining admixtures:
✓ These help in protecting concrete subjected to repeated freeze-thaw cycles.
✓ Concrete with entrained air has higher workability and cohesiveness.
✓ Segregation and bleeding are reduced by using air-entraining agents.
✓ These agents are generally used to ensure durability against frost.
✓ There is stability of the air voids between the cement gel and aggregate.
Bonding admixtures:
✓ Bonding admixtures are used to assist in bonding new or fresh concrete with old or
already set concrete.
✓ These include addition of compounds and materials such as polyvinyl chlorides and
acetates, acrylics, and butadiene-styrene copolymers.
✓ Colouring agents are also more commonly used in bonding admixtures, especially for
patios and walkways.
✓ Most are surface applied and often have the additional effect of surface hardening
✓ Such surface applied colouring admixtures should not be used on air-entrained concrete.
✓ Integrally coloured concrete is also available.
Water proofing admixtures:
✓ Water proofing and damp-proofing admixtures are used to decrease the amount of water
penetration into the larger pores of concrete.
✓ These include soaps, butyl stearate, mineral oil, and asphalt emulsions.
✓ Antifreeze' admixtures are accelerators used in very high doses to achieve a very fast set-
time, though they do not have properties to protect against freezing on their own.

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Techniques for Repair:

i. Rust Eliminators:
✓ Cement paste normally provides a highly alkaline environment that projects embedded
steel against corrosion.
✓ Concrete with a low water/cement ratio, well compacted and well cured, has a low
permeability and hence minimizes the penetration of atmospheric moisture as well as other
components such as oxygen, chloride ion, carbon dioxide and water, which encourage
corrosion of steel bar.
✓ In very severe environments, the reinforced bars are coated with special materials that
prevents them from corrosion.
✓ The coating applied to reinforcing steel acts as a barrier, protecting the steel from the
surrounding environment. This helps to prevent corrosion and isolates the steel from
potential sources of damage or degradation.
✓ For high corrosive atmospheres caused by chloride ions from the de-icing salts applied to
protect against sodium chloride and calcium chloride, usually near seashores, epoxy coating
is applied to protect the steel reinforcing bars from corrosion
ii. Polymer coatings:
✓ A polymeric coating is applied to the concrete member to keep out aggressive agents.
✓ A polymeric coating is applied to the reinforcing bars to protect them from moisture and
severe exposure conditions.
✓ When selecting a polymer coating for corrosion protection, it is important to consider
factors such as the environment the structure will be exposed to and the expected service
life of the coating.
✓ Polymer coatings acts as a barrier and forms a smooth thin film which prolongs the
initiation of corrosion.
✓ Embedded epoxy coating on steel bars provides some degree of protection to steel bars and
delays initiation of corrosion.
✓ These coatings allow movement of moisture to the steel surface, but, restrict oxygen
penetration so that a necessary reactant at cathodic sites is excluded.
✓ The number of coats required depends on the surface texture, porosity and the targeted dry
film thickness.

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Foamed Concrete:
✓ Foamed concrete, also known as cellular concrete, is a lightweight concrete that is made by
mixing a cementitious material (such as Portland cement, fly ash, or slag cement), water,
and a foaming agent.
✓ The foaming agent, which is typically a surfactant or protein-based material, is added to the
mixture to create bubbles, which give the concrete a cellular structure and reduce its density.
✓ Foamed concrete has several benefits, including its low density, which makes it ideal for use
in lightweight construction applications where weight is a concern.
✓ It also has good thermal and acoustic insulation properties, as well as good fire resistance.
✓ Foamed concrete can be used in a variety of applications, including as a fill material, in road
sub-bases, as a lightweight screed or topping, and in precast concrete elements.
✓ It can also be used as an alternative to traditional lightweight aggregates, such as expanded
clay or shale, in concrete mix design.
✓ Care must be taken during the mixing and placement of foamed concrete to ensure the
desired properties are achieved and to avoid issues such as segregation or excessive
shrinkage.
✓ Two main methods are used for production of foamed concrete
▪ Inline Method
✓ The base mix of cement and sand is added to a unit. In this unit, the mix is blended with
foam thoroughly.
✓ The process of mixing is carried out with proper control. This will help in mixing of larger
quantities.
✓ The inline method comprises two processes;
• Wet Method- Inline System
• Dry Method -Inline System
▪ Pre- Foam Method
✓ Here, the ready-mix truck brings the base material to the site. Through the other end of
the truck, the pre- formed foam is injected into the truck, while the mixer is rotating. So,
small quantities of foam concrete can be produced for small works, like for grouting or
trench fill works.

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Materials for foam concrete

✓ Cement: 300-400kg/m3 (with fly ash blend)
✓ Pozzolana: Fly ash or GGBS (30 to 70%)
✓ Sand: The maximum size of sand used can be 5mm. Use of finer sands up to 2mm with
amount passing through 600-micron sieve range from 60 to 95%.
✓ Foam: The hydrolysed proteins or the synthetic surfactants are the most common forms
based on which foams are made. The synthetic based foam agents are easier to handle and
are cheap. They can be stored for a longer period.

VACUUM CONCRETE:
✓ Vacuum concrete is a concrete in which excess water is removed from concrete using
vacuum technique.
✓ Vacuum concrete is made by using steam to produce vacuum inside a concrete mixing truck
to release air bubbles inside the concrete.
✓ The idea is that the steam displaces the air normally, over the concrete.
✓ When the steam condenses into water it will create a low pressure over the concrete that will
pull air from the concrete.
✓ This will make concrete stronger due to less air in the mixture.

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Necessity of vacuum concrete:

✓ It is well known that excessive or high water/cement ratio is detrimental (i.e., harmful) to
the overall quality of concrete.
✓ Whereas, low water/cement ratio does not give enough workability for concrete to be
compacted hundred percentages.
✓ Vacuum concreting is an effective technique used to overcome this conflicting demand, i.e.,
contradiction of opposite requirements of workability and high. strength. With this technique
both these are possible at the same time.
✓ This process helps a high workable concrete to get high strength.

Necessity of vacuum concrete

Procedure:
✓ In the usual manner, a concrete mix with good workability is pace in the form-works. As
fresh concrete contains continues the system of water-filled channels
✓ The application of a vacuum to the surface concrete results in a large amount of a vacuum
to the surface of the concrete. This results in a large amount of water being extracted from a
certain depth of the concrete.
✓ The vacuum is applied through porous mats connected to a vacuum pump.
✓ The final water cement ratio before setting is thus reduced and as this ration largely controls
the strength, vacuum concrete has a higher strength and also density a lower permeability
and a greater durability.

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Gunite or shotcrete:
• Gunite - Cement (shot from a gun)
• Shotcrete-Concrete (shot from a gun)
• Gunite is cheaper and easier to use.
• Shotcrete is stronger as concrete, it is more expensive and more durable than Gunite.
✓ Shotcrete also known by the trade name Gunite, uses compressed air to shoot concrete onto
or into a frame or structure.
✓ Gunite is a process in which dry cementitious mixture (mortar) is conveyed or air blown
through a hose to nozzle, water being injected immediately at nozzle before mixture exits the
nozzle and pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a surface.
✓ Recently, the method has been further developed by using small sized coarse aggregate in
mortar, to obtain considerably greater thickness with reduction in cement content, thereby
making the process economical. The process is called shotcrete.
✓ Therefore, shotcrete (sprayed concrete) is a process in which compressed air forces high
strength cement mortar or cement concrete (with coarse aggregate size maximum 10 mm)
with high pressure through a nozzle and sprayed pneumatically on a surface at high velocity
onto a prepared concrete or masonry surface.
✓ Jet force used for application of shotcrete material on surface, compacts and produces a dense
homogeneous mass.
✓ The bond between prepared concrete surface of damaged member and layer of shotcrete is
ensured with application of suitable epoxy adhesive formulation.
✓ The shear transfer between the existing and new layer of concrete is ensured with provision
of shear keys.
✓ Normally, fresh material with zero slump can support or stick itself without sagging (falling)
or peeling off.
✓ The impact jet force on surface will be enough to compact the material.
✓ For overhead placing, set accelerators are used for assisting stickiness.
✓ Redi-set cement' is also used for shotcreting process.
✓ The method of application can be done either by wet-process or dry-process.

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Epoxy Injection:
✓ In restoration (re-establishment) of structural strength, it is very important that in structural
members (load bearing members) which may be masonry or concrete, even fine cracks
reduce their strength or resistance against loads considerably.
✓ Therefore, all cracks should be observed, located, and marked out the critical damaged zones
in concrete members carefully to restore the designed strength of members.
✓ The critical cracks should be fully repaired either by injecting strong cement grout or
chemical grout or by providing external bandage or jacketing.
✓ For repairing minor and medium cracks (0.5 mm to 5 mm), the pressure injection of epoxy
technique is used to restore the original tensile strength of cracked element.
✓ Epoxy is as strong as concrete and forms a structural seal.
✓ It hardens slowly, therefore if there is gap or space at the back of crack, it may leak out.

Application procedure:
✓ External surface of the member near cracks is thoroughly cleaned and any loose or non-
structural material is removed.
✓ Plastic injection ports are placed along the surface or length of cracks on both sides of
member and are secured in place with an epoxy sealant.
✓ Ports are installed at intervals with centre-to-centre spacing approximately equal to thickness
of element being repaired.
✓ After the sealant has hardened, the low viscosity epoxy resin is injected into one port at a
time, starting from the port at lowest level of crack and moving upwards, if crack is in
vertical location or from one end of crack if it is horizontal.
✓ The resin is injected through a port till the resin flows out from the adjacent port or from a
port at a level higher than where it is injected.
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✓ The current injection port is closed at this stage and injection equipment or packer is moved
to the next higher port for continuing epoxy injection.
✓ For cracks smaller than 0.75 mm, it may be difficult to pressure inject, so cracks smaller than
0.75 mm should not be repaired by this method.
✓ In such case, vacuum injection can be used to fill fine cracks even as small as 0.025 mm
with a typical fill level of 95%.

Epoxy injection

SHORING:
✓ In buildings, when a column or wall supporting beams and floors, is removed, vertical
supports or supports to wall laterally are used as a temporary replacement for the building
columns or walls. The form of prop or support used temporarily is called shoring.
✓ Shoring is the means of arranging or providing support to get stability of structure and to
support or prevent a damaged structure either due to foundation settlement or other reasons
from collapse.
✓ Shoring is also used for providing temporary support to a structure which is being
remodelled.
✓ It is used in construction to provide stability or support to a structure which is endangered
due to removal of a defective portion of the structure in order to prevent collapse so that
construction can proceed.
✓ Shores are also used to support the forms for cast-in-place concrete slabs, beams, and girders
in reinforced concrete frames.

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Types of shoring:
✓ Raking or inclined shoring (10 m building)
✓ Flying or horizontal shoring (space between two buildings, 9 m)
✓ Dead or vertical shoring

Raking or inclined shoring (10 m building):

✓ It is used to give temporary support to an unsafe wall.
✓ Inclined members known as 'rakers' are used to give lateral support to walls
✓ The support is supplied by the shoring wall with heavy timbers, sloping upward at about
65° to 75° from ground.

Raking or inclined shoring

Horizontal or flying shores:
✓ The shores employed to support the walls of adjoining property while demolishing the
building are called horizontal or flying shores.
✓ It is a system of providing temporary support to the party (property) walls of the two
buildings where the intermediate building is to be pulled down and rebuilt.
✓ In this type, notches are cut in the walls of building and inclined posts on the property.
✓ All types of arrangements supporting the unsafe structure in which the shores do not reach
the ground are of this type.

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Dead or vertical shoring:

✓ The vertical shores used to support walls temporarily are called vertical or dead shores.
✓ This is the system of shoring which is used to render vertical support to walls and roofs, floors,
etc., when the lower part of a wall has been removed for the purpose of providing an opening
in the wall or to rebuild a defective load bearing wall in a structure.
✓ The dead shore consists of an arrangement of beams and posts which are required to support
the weight of the structure above and transfer same to the ground on firm foundation below.

Dead or vertical shoring

UNDERPINNING:
✓ The construction of a new permanent foundation underneath the existing foundation for
strengthening purposes without endangering the stability of the existing structure is known as
underpinning.
✓ Underpinning techniques are also used to replace an existing weak foundation.
✓ The main objective of underpinning work is to transfer the load carried by a foundation from
its existing bearing level to a new level at a lower depth.

Types of underpinning:
i. Pit underpinning
ii. Jack pile underpinning
iii. Underpinning to columns
iv. Underpinning to walls
v. Pier underpinning

Pit underpinning:
✓ In this method, a pit is dug to expose foundation to be remodelled and old foundation is
either removed completely or strengthened suitably.
✓ Existing wall over foundation is divided into sections generally 1.2 to 1.5 m in length.
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✓ Holes are then made at adequate height in the existing wall.

✓ In these holes, steel needle beams with bearing plates are inserted and supported on either
side of the wall by means of crib supports (wooden blocks) and screw jacks.
✓ Pit is excavated up to desired level of proposed new foundation in sections.
✓ Old foundation is extended up to the level of foundation directly or by cutting lower part of
old foundation as required.

Jack pile underpinning:

✓ This method is suitable when the depth of a suitable bearing capacity subsoil is too deep and
to make traditional underpinning is uneconomical.
✓ Jack pile underpinning is noiseless, vibration-free, and flexible as the pile depth can be
adjusted to suit subsoil conditions.
✓ The existing foundations should be in a good condition as they have to span over the pile
cap heads which are cast onto the jack pile heads, after the hydraulic jacks have been
removed.

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