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 Comprehensive
Stress Management
FIFTEENTH EDITION

Jerrold S. Greenberg
Professor Emeritus, University of Maryland
COMPREHENSIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2021 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without
the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other
electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 24 23 22 21 20

ISBN 978-1-260-57575-0
MHID 1-260-57575-6

Cover Image: ©Image Source/Blend Images

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education
does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered
 brief table of contents
brief table of contents

part 1 Chapter 11
Autogenic Training, Imagery, and Progressive
Relaxation 249
Scientific Foundations 1
Chapter 12
Chapter 1 Other Relaxation Techniques 277
What Is Stress? 2

Chapter 2
Stress Psychophysiology 25 part 4
Chapter 3
General Applications: Physiological
Stress and Illness/Disease 43
Arousal and Behavior Change
Chapter 4 Interventions 305
Stress and the College Student 75
Chapter 13
Physiological Arousal Interventions 306

part 2 Chapter 14
Strategies for Decreasing Stressful Behaviors 331
General Applications: Life-Situation Chapter 15
and Perception Interventions 107 Diversity and Stress 351
Chapter 5
Intervention 108

Chapter 6
part 5
Life-Situation Interventions: Intrapersonal 123
Specific Applications 379
Chapter 7
Chapter 16
Life-Situation Interventions: Interpersonal 147
Occupational Stress 380
Chapter 8
Chapter 17
Perception Interventions 177
Family Stress 419
Chapter 9
Spirituality and Stress 215

part 3
General Applications: Relaxation
Techniques 235
Chapter 10
Meditation 236
table of contents
table of contents
Preface x

part 1 The Gastrointestinal System 36

The Muscles 37
The Skin 38
Scientific Foundations 1 Symptoms, Stress, and You 38
coping in today’s world 38
CHAPTER 1
summary 39
what is stress? 2 internet resources 39
What Can You Get Out of This Book references 39
and This Course? 3 lab assessment 2.1 how much do you know about
The Pioneers 3 stress psychophysiology? 41
Stress Theory 8 lab assessment 2.2 what are your physiological
Life-Events Theory 8 reactions to stress? 42
Hardiness Theory 8
Social Support Theory 8
The Stressor 9
CHAPTER 3
Stress Reactivity 11
Strain 11 stress and illness/disease 43
Gender Differences in Reactivity 11 Hot Reactors 43
A Definition of Stress 12 Psychosomatic Disease 43
Stress Management Goals 14 Stress and the Immunological System 44
The Way to Use This Book 14 Stress and Serum Cholesterol 47
Your Personal Stress Profile and Activity Specific Conditions 49
Workbook 14 Hypertension 49
The Stress Portfolio 15 Stroke 50
“Getting Involved in Your Community” Coronary Heart Disease 51
Boxes 15 Ulcers 53
coping in today’s world 19 Migraine Headaches 54
summary 19 Tension Headaches 55
internet resources 19 Cancer 56
references 20 Allergies, Asthma, and Hay Fever 56
lab assessment 1.1 what causes you stress? 23
Rheumatoid Arthritis 58
lab assessment 1.2 why do some of your stressors
Backache 58
result in a stress response? 24
TMJ Syndrome 59
Obesity 60
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 62
Symptoms of PTSD 62
CHAPTER 2 Treatment of PTSD 62
stress psychophysiology 25 Stress and Other Conditions 64
The Brain 25 coping in today’s world 65
The Endocrine System 29 summary 66
The Autonomic Nervous System 33 internet resources 66
The Cardiovascular System 35 references 66
lab assessment 3.1 do you know what to do for
posttraumatic stress disorder? 71 part 2
lab assessment 3.2 why did you get sick as a
result of stress? 72 General Applications:
lab assessment 3.3 how are my health Life-Situation and Perception
indices? 73 Interventions 107

CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 4
intervention 108
stress and the college student 75 Coping with a Stressor 108
The Younger College Student 76 A Model of Stress 109
Lifestyle Change 76 Feedback Loops in the Stress Model 111
Grades 77 Setting Up Roadblocks 111
Course Overload 78 Comprehensive Stress Management 112
Finances 78 Eustress and the Model 114
Friendship 83 Taking Control 115
Love 83 Making a Commitment 117
Sex 84
coping in today’s world 118
HIV/AIDS 86
Other Sexually Transmitted Infections 86 summary 119
Prevention of Sexually Transmitted internet resources 119
Infections 86 references 119
Acquaintance Rape 87 lab assessment5.1 what eustressors have you
experienced? 121
Shyness 89
Jealousy 90
Breakups 90 CHAPTER 6
Eating Disorders 91
life-situation interventions:
The Older College Student 93
Career and School 93 intrapersonal 123
Family and School 94 Eliminating Unnecessary Stressors 123
Self-Doubt 94 Nutrition and Stress 125
The Minority College Student 95 Noise and Stress 137
Interventions 97 Life Events and Stress 138
Life-Situation Interventions 97 Hassles and Chronic Stress 140
Perception Interventions 99 Success Analysis 140
Emotional Arousal Interventions 100 coping in today’s world 143
Physiological Arousal Interventions 101 summary 143
coping in today’s world 101 internet resources 143
summary 102 references 144
internet resources 102 lab assessment 6.1 what is your resting metabolic
references 102 rate (rmr)? 145
lab assessment 4.1 budgeting while in school: lab assessment 6.2 what hassles do you
using a worksheet to help manage encounter? 146
your money 105
lab assessment 4.2 how intimate are your
friendships? 106

Table of Contents v
 CHAPTER 7 Locus of Control 188
Anxiety Management 190
life-situation interventions:
Test Anxiety 190
interpersonal 147 Trait and State Anxiety 190
Asserting Yourself 147 Panic Disorder 190
Nonverbal Assertiveness 148 Social Phobia (Social Anxiety Disorder) 191
Verbal Assertiveness 149 Specific Phobias 192
Conflict Resolution 150 Coping Techniques 192
Communication 153 Resiliency 197
Nonverbal Communication 154 Hardiness 198
Verbal Communication 154 coping in today’s world 199
Emotional Intelligence 156 summary 199
The Importance of Emotional Intelligence 156 internet resources 200
Ways to Develop Emotional Intelligence 157 references 200
Technostress 158 lab assessment 8.1 what kind of sense of humor
Cyberbullying 159 do you have? 205
Time Management 160 lab assessment 8.2 are you a type a? 207
Assessing How You Spend Time 160 lab assessment 8.3 how is your self-esteem? 208
Setting Goals 161 lab assessment 8.4 how is your physical
Prioritizing 161 self-esteem? 209
Scheduling 161 lab assessment 8.5 what is your locus of
Maximizing Your Rewards 161 control? 210
Saying No 161 lab assessment 8.6 what is your level of test
Delegating 162 anxiety? 211
Evaluating Tasks Once 162 lab assessment 8.7 do you have irrational
Using the Circular File 162 beliefs? 213
Limiting Interruptions 162
Investing Time 162
Social Support Networking 163 CHAPTER 9
coping in today’s world 166 spirituality and stress 215
summary 166 Spiritual Health 215
internet resources 166 Religion and Spirituality 216
references 167 Spirituality and Health 216
lab assessment 7.1 how assertive are you? 169 Spirituality and College Students 218
lab assessment 7.2 how do you resolve How Spirituality and Religion
conflicts? 171 Affect Health 218
lab assessment 7.3 how is your social Control Theory 218
support? 172 Social Support Theory 219
lab assessment 7.4 what is your active listening Spirituality, Social Support, and
style? 174 Terrorism 219
Placebo Theory 220
Forgiveness and Health 220
CHAPTER 8 Volunteerism as a Spiritual
perception interventions 177 and Healthy Activity 221
Selective Awareness 177 Service-Learning: A Spiritual
Stop to Smell the Roses 179 and Academic Activity 223
Perspective and Selective Awareness 179 Closing Thoughts on Spirituality,
An Attitude of Gratitude 180 Health, and Managing Stress 225
Humor and Stress 182 coping in today’s world 226
Type A Behavior Pattern 183 summary 227
Self-Esteem 186

vi Table of Contents
internet resources 227 summary 268
references 228 internet resources 268
lab assessment 9.1 how spiritual are you? 231 references 268
lab assessment 9.2 how forgiving are you? 233 lab assessment 11.1 is autogenic training
for you? 273

part 3
lab assessment 11.2 is imagery for you? 274
lab assessment 11.3 is progressive relaxation
for you? 275
General Applications:
Relaxation Techniques 235 CHAPTER 12
other relaxation techniques 277
CHAPTER 10
Biofeedback 277
meditation 236 Benefits of Biofeedback 278
What Is Meditation? 236 How to Relax Using Biofeedback 279
Types of Meditation 236 How to Arrange for Biofeedback Training 281
Benefits of Meditation 237 Diaphragmatic Breathing 281
Physiological Effects 238 Body Scanning 282
Psychological Effects 239 Body Scan Relaxation Exercise 283
How to Meditate 240 Massage and Acupressure 284
Other Types of Meditation 242 Yoga and Stretching 284
Making Time for Meditation 242 Repetitive Prayer 287
coping in today’s world 243 Quieting Reflex 288
summary 244 Instant Calming Sequence 288
internet resources 244 Mindfulness 288
references 244 Music and Relaxation 290
lab assessment 10.1 is meditation for you? 247 Tai Chi 291
Pets and Stress 292
coping in today’s world 295
CHAPTER 11
summary 296
autogenic training, imagery, internet resources 296
and progressive relaxation 249 references 296
Autogenic Training 249 lab assessment 12.1 how do you cause stress,
Benefits of Autogenic Training 250 and what will you do about it? 303
Physiological Effects 250 lab assessment 12.2 pets: stress busters in spite
Psychological Effects 250 of it all? 304
How to Do Autogenic Training 251
Prerequisites 251
Body Position 251
Six Initial Stages of Autogenic Training 252
part 4
An Autogenic Training Experience 253
General Applications:
Imagery 255
Physiological Effects 256 Physiological Arousal and Behavior
Psychological Effects 257 Change Interventions 305
Progressive Relaxation 257
Bracing 257 CHAPTER 13
What Is Progressive Relaxation? 258 physiological arousal interventions 306
Benefits of Progressive Relaxation 259 Exercise and Health 307
How to Do Progressive Relaxation 259 Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise 307
coping in today’s world 267 Physical Health 307

Table of Contents vii

 Psychological Health 309 Self-Help Groups 336
Can Physical Fitness and Exercise Make You Professional Help 336
Smarter? 312 Application of Behavior
The Healthy Way to Exercise 312 Change Techniques 337
Principles of Exercise 313 Example: Exercise 338
Intensity, Frequency, and Duration 313 Behavior Change Theories and Stress 338
Assessing Your Cardiorespiratory Fitness 314 Stages of Change Theory 339
Starting an Exercise Program 315 Health Belief Model 340
How to Exercise 315 Self-Efficacy Theory 341
Do’s and Don’ts 315 Goal-Setting Theory 342
Competition and Enjoyment 316 coping in today’s world 342
Choosing an Exercise Program 317 su‌mmary 343
Swimming 317 internet resources 343
Rope Jumping 317 references 344
Bicycling 318 lab assessment 14.1 are your behaviors
Walking 318 healthy? 345
Jogging 319 lab assessment 14.2 are your lifestyle behaviors
Stretching 321 healthy? 347
Weight Training 321 lab assessment 14.3 decreasing stressful
Exercise Guidelines 321 behaviors: a guide 348
Exercise and the Elderly 323 lab assessment 14.4 can you use behavior change
Exercise—Keeping It Going 324 theory to change your behavior? 349
coping in today’s world 325
summary 326 CHAPTER 15
internet resources 326
references 326 diversity and stress 351
lab assessment 13.1 can you overcome roadblocks Diverse Populations 351
to exercise? 329 Positive Aspects of Minority Status 352
lab assessment 13.2 can you differentiate between An Introduction to Problems Faced by
exercise myths and facts? 330 Minorities 353
Stressors Challenging Minorities 354
Health Status 356
CHAPTER 14
National Health Objectives and Diversity 356
strategies for decreasing stressful Infant Mortality 358
behaviors 331 Life Expectancy 359
Health and Lifestyle Behaviors 331 Years of Potential Life Lost 359
Health-Behavior Assessment 331 High Blood Pressure 360
Selected Lifestyle Behaviors 331 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Barriers to Action 332 (AIDS) 360
Locus of Control 332 Cancer 361
Methods for Decreasing Mental Health 362
Stressful Behaviors 332 Poverty and Educational Level 362
Self-Monitoring 333 Family Life 363
Tailoring 333 Homelessness 363
Material Reinforcement 334 Family Structure 364
Social Reinforcement 334 Age and Physical Challenges 366
Social Support 335 Elders 366
Self-Contracting 335 People with Physical and Mental Challenges 368
Contracting with a Significant Other 335 Sexual Orientation 368
Shaping 335 coping in today’s world 369
Reminders 336 summary 370

viii Table of Contents

internet resources 370 references 409
references 371 lab assessment 16.1 do you have occupational
lab assessment 15.1 how has prejudice affected stress? 413
your level of stress? 375 lab assessment 16.2 how stressful is your
lab assessment 15.2 what biases do you job? 414
possess? 376 lab assessment 16.3 do you have burnout or
lab assessment 15.3 how well do you know diverse brownout? 417
groups and individuals? 377

CHAPTER 17

part 5 family stress

The Family 419
419

Needs Satisfied by the Family 419

Specific Applications 379 The Changing Family 420
Marriage 422
CHAPTER 16 Cohabitation 422
occupational stress 380 Divorce 423
What Is Occupational Stress? 380 Single-Parent Families 423
Occupational Stress Cycle 381 Gay and Lesbian Families 423
Why Is Occupational Stress of Concern? 383 Family Stressors 425
Gender and Occupational Stress 387 The Dual-Career Family 425
Disease and Occupational Stress 388 Children 427
Physiological Effects 388 Family Planning 428
Disease States 388 Adoption 430
Psychological Effects 389 Mobility 430
Occupational Stressors 389 Violence: A Family Matter 431
Lack of Participation 390 Financial Stressors 434
Role Problems 390 Other Stressors 435
Job Dissatisfaction 391 A Model of Family Stress 435
The Work Environment 393 Interventions 436
The Workaholic 393 Life-Situation Interventions 436
Burnout 394 Financial Stress Interventions 438
A Five-Stage Theory of Burnout 395 Perception Interventions 439
Women and Work Outside the Home 396 Emotional Arousal Interventions 441
Types of Jobs and Wages 396 Physiological Arousal Interventions 441
Coping with Work Stress 397 coping in today’s world 441
Women and Retirement 397 summary 442
Family-Friendly Work-Related Policies 398 internet resources 442
Work-Family Balance 402 references 442
Working in the Home 403 lab assessment 17.1 are you ready for
Interventions 405 marriage? 445
Life-Situation Interventions 405 lab assessment 17.2 who is your ideal mate? 446
Perception Interventions 405
Emotional Arousal Interventions 406 Epilogue E-1
Physiological Arousal Interventions 407 Glossary G-1
Managing Occupational Stress 407 Index I-1
coping in today’s world 408
summary 408
internet resources 409

Table of Contents ix
 Preface

T his book evolved out of two needs. The first pertained to the experiences of
my students, colleagues, friends, and relatives who, as I listened to their stories,
seemed to be crying out for help in dealing with the stress of life. Upon closer
scrutiny, I realized that the only cries I was deaf to were my own. I, too, needed
help managing stress.
The second need related to the nature of texts on this subject. I thought they
were informative or interesting but seldom both. Furthermore, I didn’t think stress
management was presented as the complex subject I envision it to be. I thought
books on this subject explored parts of stress management but omitted several key
components. I wrote Comprehensive Stress Management both to address the com-
plexity of the subject and to respond to the very human needs of college students
living highly stressful lives.
This book, then, is written in a more personal, informal manner than most, and
it is organized around situations in life that, when perceived as distressing, result
in the emotional and physiological arousal we know as stress. There is an abun-
dance of scientific and statistical information in this book, but there is also a
healthy dose of anecdote, humor, and personal experience to bring the content to
life. In addition, numerous means of self-evaluation are provided so that content
takes on personal meaning for each student.

Managing Stress in an
Increasingly Stressful World
Comprehensive Stress Management empowers students to—
Learn what stress is—emotionally and physiologically—and how it affects their
health.
•• The science of stress is presented in three chapters covering everything from
the role of the brain in stress to the effects of stress on the body.
•• New or expanded topics include technological addiction and technological
stress, same-sex marriage, multigenerational families, a new occupational
stress scale that measures the various constructs comprising job stress, more
effective ways to manage and maintain one’s weight, numerous instances of
clarification based on student feedback, and many more.
Evaluate their current level of stress and develop a stress profile that identifies their
personal triggers and stressors.
•• Lab Assessments in each chapter help them identify attitudes, behaviors,
and coping skills and target areas for improvement.
•• The Personal Stress Profile and Activity Workbook—available through the
Instructor Resources on Connect—helps students actively create a personal
plan for managing stress in their lives.

x
Apply what they learn to their own lives by using the tools and activities to become
active participants in managing their own stress.
•• A chapter on stress and the college student helps students identify and
understand stressors unique to their current phase of life.
•• Detailed descriptions of stress management and relaxation techniques offer
many different approaches to explore and try, including yoga breathing tech-
niques, meditation, progressive relaxation, imagery, behavior and anxiety
management techniques, and more.
•• “Getting Involved in Your Community” boxes challenge students to partici-
pate in projects designed to decrease stress levels on a broader scale.

Content Revisions by Chapter

We all learn from experience, and I am no exception. This edition of Comprehensive
Stress Management incorporates many changes and updates while still retaining the
content and features valued by instructors and students over the previous 14 editions.
All statistics, data, and websites are updated. In addition, the most current research
findings are incorporated into the text. There are many new references, with most
of those after 2017. New photos and figures have been added throughout the text.
Chapter 2: A new Stress and Your Memory box was added that clarifies the
role of protein kinase on stress and memory.
Clarification is provided on the role of cortisol and lymphocytes in relation to
the immunological system.
Lab Assessment 2.2 is replaced with a new scale that measures students’ phys-
iological reactions to stress.
Chapter 4: A new Internet Resource is added from the American Institute of
Stress that discusses the rising stress levels of college students and hints regarding
how to respond to that stress.
Chapter 5: Examples are added to clarify the concept of stress intervention
throughout the chapter.
Chapter 6: Two new Internet Resources are added; one of which describes
common reactions to stress and healthy ways to cope with stress, and another which
presents five ways to make students’ lives less stressful and techniques to manage stress.
Chapter 7: A new section on cyberbullying is added that discusses the effects
of cyberbullying and the role of social media on cyberbullying. In addition, the
effects of cyberbullying on the LGBTQ community is discussed.
Cyberbullying and its definition are added to the Running and End-of-Book
glossaries.
Examples are provided to clarify the direct effect theory and the stress buffering
theory as they relate to social support networking.
Chapter 8: The concept of cocreator perception deficiency is clarified in
response to students’ and instructors’ suggestions.
The anxiety management tool of relabeling is elaborated on as requested by
students and instructors.
Chapter 9: The benefits of volunteering are expanded consistent with the
latest research findings.
The National Health Objectives are classified into two categories: mental-health-
related objectives and physical-health-related objectives to help readers better
understand the purposes of these objectives.
Chapter 10: Clarification of the physiological changes that occur during
meditation—the relaxation response—is provided.

Preface xi
 Chapter 14: A new Internet Resource is added from the Office of Behavioral
and Social Sciences of the National Institutes of Health concerned with making
use of social science research.
Chapter 15: The latest statistics pertaining to hate crimes was updated with
emphasis on race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, disability, and gender.
Death rates and suicide rates are updated with emphasis on specific populations:
African Americans, Hispanics, and American Indian/Alaska Natives.
Infant mortality rates are updated with the latest data available.
Data on the leading causes of death are updated for whites, African Americans,
Native Americans, Asian/Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics.
The most current data pertaining to cancer is included to include incidence and
death rates for specific cancers and specific populations.
The most current data pertaining to mental health is included. Suicide and homicide
rates for specific populations are highlighted, as is the role of firearms in these deaths.
Poverty rates are updated for different races and ethnicities.
The discussion of homelessness is updated with statistics regarding those who
stayed in sheltered and unsheltered locations, child and family homelessness, race
and ethnicity, and veteran status.
A new Internet Resource is added from Cancer.Net designed to help families
better cope with cancer.
Chapter 16: Data regarding Americans’ vacation days received and vacation
days unused is updated.
The latest information regarding job satisfaction is included to indicate increased
job satisfaction in recent years.
A reorganization of the discussion of burnout is provided that separates the Five-
Stage Theory of Burnout into a sub-head to help students better understand this theory.
The latest data regarding the disparity in jobs and wages between men and
women is provided, as are statistics pertaining to working mothers.
Changes in recent years to the Family and Medical Leave Act are presented
with inclusion of leave provided service members and their families.
The discussion of home-based work and telecommuting is expanded with inclu-
sion of the benefits to workers, employers, and the general society.
The discussion of work-family balance issues is reorganized to separate the spill-
over and compensation theories’ effects on work-family balance.
A new Internet Resource is added from the University of Michigan School of
Public Health that provides 19 ways to prevent and respond to occupational stress.
Chapter 17: The description of family life is updated to include the latest
statistics regarding married families with children, those never married, those
divorced, and single-parent families.
The percent of people cohabiting is updated with the latest data available.
The divorce rate is updated based on government collected data.
The discussion of single-parent families is updated with the most current data
available.
An introduction to the Dual-Career Family section is provided to elaborate on
some of the issues faced by these families.
State laws pertaining to obtaining adoption records are updated to communicate
the availability of these records in most states.
The discussion of child abuse and neglect is updated to include the latest statistics
on the incidence of child abuse and neglect, and the role of firearms in these situations.
A new boxed feature is added presenting information and data regarding chil-
dren’s and parents’ worries about violence in schools and neighborhoods.
A new Internet resource is added from WebMD that describes how stress can
interfere with getting pregnant and strategies that can be used to counteract that
stress.

xii Preface
Resources for Instructors
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Electronic Textbook Option This text is offered through VitalSource for both
instructors and students. VitalSource is an online resource where students can
purchase the complete text online at almost half the cost of a traditional text.
Purchasing the eTextbook allows students to take advantage of VitalSource web
tools for learning, which include full text search, notes and highlighting, and e-mail
tools for sharing notes between classmates. To learn more about VitalSource
options, contact your sales representative or visit www.VitalSource.com.

The Personal Stress Profile and Activity Workbook is available as an accompaniment

to Comprehensive Stress Management. The workbook includes numerous other
scales to help students learn more about the stressors in their lives and how they
can best manage them. How to make the best use of the Personal Stress Profile and
Activity Workbook is described on page 14.

® The 15th edition of Comprehensive Stress Manage-

ment is now available online with Connect,
McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment
and assessment platform. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edition,
which is the first adaptive reading experience proven to improve grades and help
students study more effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is
also available through Connect, including:
•• A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central
concepts and ideas in each chapter.
•• An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with full chapter outlines, sample
test questions, and discussion topics.
•• Lecture Slides for instructor use in class.

Preface xiii
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Acknowledgments
Many people have helped bring this project to completion. Carrie M Edwards Vicki Boye
They can never be adequately thanked, but perhaps a men- Southeastern Louisiana Concordia University—Nebraska
tion here will let them know that their help has been University
Steven J. Radlo
appreciated. Linn Benton Western Illinois University
First were my students, who taught me as much about Community College
stress management as I have ever taught them. Not only Berniece Jones
did I learn from their term papers and other assignments, Yi-Wen Su Nebraska Wesleyan University
but also the way in which they lived their lives taught me University of Florida
Stephen Sowulewski
much about managing stress.
Then there were my professional colleagues, who I would be remiss not to acknowledge the support of
encouraged, stimulated, and provoked me to be as com- the entire McGraw-Hill team and Anna Howland, for
petent and as qualified as I could—if for no other reason helping to guide the fifteenth edition of Comprehensive
than to keep pace with them. Stress Management. Their support, competence, and
And, there are the academic reviewers, whose com- encouragement are very much appreciated.
ments sometimes exasperated, bewildered, or angered me Most important, there is my family. They not only
but who also encouraged me and provided important guid- respect my need for quiet time to write but also provide
ance for revision. Because of them, this book is better much of the inspiration I need. Karen, Keri, and Todd—I
than it otherwise would have been. These reviewers don’t tell you often enough how much you contribute to
include my work and productivity, but you do, and I recognize
your support and value it.
Robert Hess Mary Fawcett
Community College of Winona State University
Baltimore County

This edition is dedicated to Jonah, Zoe, and

Garrett—my three grandchildren. When I am
with them all stress evaporates away. I wish
them that feeling throughout their lives,
although I know that to be unrealistic. So,
when they experience stress, I hope they are
successful employing the numerous stress Courtesy of the Jerrold Greenberg

management techniques learned from

reading their grandpa’s book and, as a result,
achieve lives of satisfaction and fulfillment.
—Jerrold S. Greenberg
 part 1

Scientific Foundations

Sinna Karvonen/EyeEm/Getty Images

 1 What Is Stress?

I t was a pleasant spring day—about 70 degrees, with the sun shining and a slight
breeze. It was the kind of day I would have enjoyed celebrating by playing tennis,
jogging, and helping my son learn how to ride his bicycle (an aggravating but neces-
sary task). Instead, I was on the shoulder of a country road in upstate New York
with my hands on my knees, vomiting. The story of how I wound up on such a glori-
ous day in such an inglorious position serves as an important lesson.
At the time, I was an assistant professor, imposing my know-it-all attitude upon
unsuspecting and innocent college students at the State University of New York at
Buffalo. I had become quite successful in each of the three areas the university
established as criteria for promotion and tenure: teaching, research and other
publications, and university and community service. The student evaluations of my
classes were quite flattering. I had published approximately 15 articles in profes-
sional journals and was contracted to write my first book. So much for teaching
and the proverbial “publish or perish” syndrome. It is on the community-service
criteria that I need to elaborate.
To meet the community-service standards of acceptance for promotion and ten-
ure, I made myself available as a guest speaker to community groups. I soon found
that I was able to motivate groups of people through speeches and workshops on
numerous topics, both directly and tangentially related to my area of expertise—
health education. I spoke to the local Kiwanis Club on the topic “Drug Education
Techniques” and to the Green Acres Cooperative Nursery School’s parents and
teachers on “Drug Education for Young Children.” I was asked to present the se-
nior class speech at Medaille College on “Sex Education” and wound up conduct-
ing workshops for local public school districts on such concerns as “Why Health
Education?” “Values and Teaching,” “Group Process,” and “Peer Training Pro-
grams for Cigarette-Smoking Education.” Things started to take shape, and I ex-
panded my local presentations to state and national workshops and to presenting
papers at various state and national meetings.
My life changed rapidly and repeatedly. I went to Buffalo as an assistant
professor and was promoted twice, leaving as a full professor with tenure and
administrative responsibility for the graduate program in health education.
When I left Buffalo, I had published more than 40 articles in professional jour-
nals, and my second book was soon to come off the presses. During my tenure
at SUNY/Buffalo, I appeared on radio and television programs and was the
subject of numerous newspaper articles. In Buffalo I bought my first house,
fathered my two children, and won my first tennis tournament. In short, I
became a success.
So why the vomiting? I was experiencing too much change in too short a period
of time. I wondered if I was as good as others thought I was or if I was just lucky.
I worried about embarrassing myself in front of other people and became extremely
anxious when due to speak in front of a large group—so anxious that on a nice
spring day, about 70 degrees, with the sun shining and a slight breeze, as I was on
my way to address a group of teachers, school administrators, and parents in
Wheatfield, New York, I became sick to my stomach. I pulled the car off the road,

2
jumped out, vomited, jumped back in, proceeded to Wheatfield, and presented a
one-hour speech that is long since forgotten by everyone who was there.
What I didn’t know then, but know now, is that I was experiencing stress—too
much stress. I also didn’t know what to do. Everything seemed to be going very
well; there seemed to be no reason to become anxious or ill. I think I understand
it all now and want to explain it to you. I want to help you learn about stress and
how to manage it so that your life will be better and you will be healthier.

What Can You Get Out of This Book

and This Course?
What if you were told you could buy a drink and feel less stressful when you have
an exam in class, or are at a social gathering, or when going to the doctor or
dentist? What if this drink also helped you better manage the stress you feel when
having to speak in front of a group of people, or when meeting with your profes-
sor? How much would you pay for such a drink? Well, unfortunately, there is no
such beverage. However, the same benefits can be gained in another way. That is,
if you learn, practice, and employ stress management techniques, you can achieve
all the benefits above. This book and the stress management course in which you
are enrolled will help you become less stressful and, as a result, be healthier and
live a more fulfilling, satisfying life. Now how can you beat that? So, let’s get
started. First we consider how this whole field of stress management developed
and how it has achieved credibility.

The Pioneers
I don’t know about you, but I found that the history courses I was required to take
as an undergraduate were not as interesting as they might have been. On the other
hand, the information included in those classes was important to learn—not for the
facts per se, but for the general concepts. For example, although I long ago forgot
the specific economic factors preceding the World Wars, I have remembered that
wars are often the result of economic realities and not just conflicts of ideology.
That is an important concept that I would not have appreciated had I not enrolled
in History 101.
This wordy introduction to the history of stress management somewhat assuages
my conscience but won’t help you much unless I make this discussion interesting.
Accepting this challenge, and with apologies for my failures to meet it, let’s wander
through the past and meet some of the pioneers in the field of stress (see Table 1.1).
The first person we meet is Walter Cannon. In the early part of the twentieth
century, Cannon was a noted physiologist employed at the Harvard Medical School.
It was he who first described the body’s reaction to stress.1 Picture this: You’re
walking down a dark alley at night, all alone, and you forgot your glasses. Halfway
through the alley (at the point of no return) you spot a big, burly figure carrying a
club and straddling your path. Other than thinking “Woe is me,” what else happens
within you? Your heart begins to pound and speed up, you seem unable to catch
your breath, you begin to perspire, your muscles tense, and a whole array of changes
occur within your body. Cannon was the researcher who first identified this stress
reaction as the fight-or-flight response. Your body prepares itself, when confronted fight-or-flight response
by a threat, to either stand ground and fight or run away. In the alley, that response The body’s stress reaction that includes an
is invaluable because you want to be able to mobilize yourself quickly for some kind increase in heart rate, respiration, blood
of action. We’ll soon see, though, that in today’s society the fight-or-flight response pressure, and serum cholesterol.
has become a threat itself—a threat to your health.
Curious about the fight-or-flight response, a young endocrinologist studied it in stressor
detail. Using rats and exposing them to stressors—factors with the potential to cause Something with the potential to cause a
stress reaction.
stress—Hans Selye was able to specify the changes in the body’s physiology.

1 What Is Stress? 3
Table 1.1 Pioneer Date Area of Study/Influence

Pioneers in Stress and Oskar Vogt 1900 Hypnosis

Stress Management Walter Cannon 1932 The fight-or-flight response
Edmund Jacobson 1938 Progressive relaxation
Johannes Schultz 1953 Autogenic training
Stewart Wolf/Harold Wolff 1953 Stress and headaches
George Engel 1955 Stress and ulcerative colitis
Hans Selye 1956 The physiological responses to stress
A. T. W. Simeons 1961 Psychosomatic disease
Stewart Wolf 1965 Stress and the digestive system
Wolfgang Luthe 1965 Autogenic training
Lawrence LeShan 1966 Stress and cancer
Richard Lazarus 1966 Stress and coping/hassles
Thomas Holmes/Richard Rahe 1967 Stress/life change/illness
Robert Keith Wallace 1970 Transcendental meditation
Thomas Budzynski 1970 Stress and headaches
Meyer Friedman/Ray Rosenman 1974 Type A behavior pattern
Carl Simonton 1975 Stress and cancer
Robert Ader 1975 Psychoneuroimmunology
Herbert Benson 1975 The relaxation response/meditation
Daniel Goleman 1976 Meditation
Gary Schwartz 1976 Meditation/biofeedback
Robert Karasek 1979 Job demand-control model
Suzanne Kobasa 1979 Hardiness
Anita DeLongis 1982 Hassles and illness
Dean Ornish 1990 Stress/nutrition/coronary heart
   disease
Jon Kabat-Zinn 1992 Meditation and stress reduction
Christina Maslach 1993 Burnout
J.K. Kiecolt-Glaser 1999 Psychoneuroimmunology
Shelly Taylor 2000 Tend and befriend/women’s coping
   style
Patch Adams 2002 Humor and stress and health
Johan Denollet 2005 Type D personality
E. L. Worthington 2005 Forgiveness and health

general adaptation syndrome
The three stages of stress reaction
described by Hans Selye.
Selye concluded that, regardless of the source of the stress, the body reacted in the
same manner. His rats developed a “substantial enlargement of the cortex of the
adrenal glands; shrinkage or atrophy of the thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and other
lymphatic structures; an almost total disappearance of eosinophil cells (a kind of
white blood cell); and bleeding ulcers in the lining of the stomach and duodenum.”2
His research was first published in his classic book The Stress of Life.3 Selye sum-
marized stress reactivity as a three-phase process termed the general adaptation
syndrome (see Figure 1.1):
Phase 1: Alarm reaction. The body shows the changes characteristic of the
first exposure to a stressor. At the same time, its resistance is diminished
and, if the stressor is sufficiently strong (severe burns, extremes of
temperature), death may result.

4 Part 1 Scientific Foundations

 1. Alarm Phase
For example, being at
Figure 1.1
a party but having The general adaptation syndrome in
social anxiety. action.

2. Resistance Phase
For example, when others try to
involve the socially anxious party
guest, he experiences stress
(perspiration, muscle tension,
increased heart rate, etc.).

3. Exhaustion Phase
For example, if the social
anxiety is experienced often,
and over a long period of
time, it can result in illness
and disease such as
coronary heart disease.

Phase 2: Stage of resistance. Resistance ensues if continued exposure to

the stressor is compatible with adaptation. The bodily signs characteristic
of the alarm reaction have virtually disappeared, and resistance rises
above normal.
Phase 3: Stage of exhaustion. Following long-continued exposure to the
same stressor, to which the body has become adjusted, eventually
adaptation energy is exhausted. The signs of the alarm reaction reappear,
but now they are irreversible, and the individual dies.
Hans Selye defined stress as “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand
made upon it.”4 That means good things (e.g., a job promotion) to which we must
adapt (termed eustress) and bad things (e.g., the death of a loved one) to which we eustress
must adapt (termed distress); both are experienced the same physiologically. Good things to which one has to adapt
Selye was really onto something. His research proved so interesting and impor- and that can lead to a stress reaction.
tant that he drew a large number of followers. One of these was A. T. W. Simeons,
who related evolution to psychosomatic disease in his classic work, Man’s Presump- distress
tuous Brain.5 Simeons argued that the human brain (the diencephalon, in particu- Bad things to which one has to adapt
lar) had failed to develop at the pace needed to respond to symbolic stressors of and that can lead to a stress reaction.
twentieth-century life. For example, when our self-esteem is threatened, Simeons
stated, the brain prepares the body with the fight-or-flight response. If the threat
to self-esteem stems from fear of embarrassment during public speaking, neither
fighting nor running away is an appropriate reaction. Consequently, the body has
prepared itself physiologically to do something our psychology prohibits. The un-
used stress products break down the body, and psychosomatic disease may
result.
Other researchers have added to the work of Cannon, Selye, Simeons, and oth-
ers to shed more light on the relationship of stress to body processes. With this
understanding has come a better appreciation of which illnesses and diseases are

1 What Is Stress? 5

relaxation response
A series of bodily changes that are the
opposite of the stress reaction.
autogenic training
A relaxation technique that involves a
sensation of heaviness, warmth, and
tingling in the limbs.
progressive relaxation
A relaxation technique that involves
contracting and relaxing muscle groups
throughout the body.
bracing
The contraction of muscles for no
obvious purpose.
neuromuscular relaxation
Another term for progressive relaxation.
6 Part 1 Scientific Foundations
associated with stress and how to prevent these conditions from developing. For
example, Dr. Harold Wolff became curious why only 1 in 100 prisoners of war
held by the Germans during World War II died before their release, while 33 in
100 held in Japanese camps died before their release. Keeping nutrition and length
of time held captive constant, Wolff found that emotional stress, much greater in
Japanese prisoner-of-war camps than in German ones, was the cause of much of
this difference.6
Others also helped clarify the effects of stress: Stewart Wolf demonstrated its
effects on digestive function7; Lawrence LeShan studied its effects on the develop-
ment of cancer8; George Engel studied stress and ulcerative colitis9; Meyer Friedman
and Ray Rosenman and more recent researchers10–17 identified the relationship
between stress and coronary heart disease; and Wolf and Wolff studied stress and
headaches.18
Others have found ways of successfully treating people with stress-related ill-
nesses. For example, Carl Simonton, believing personality to be related to cancer,
has added a component to the standard cancer therapy: It consists of visualizing
the beneficial effects of the therapy upon the malignancy.19 For some headache
sufferers, Thomas Budzynski has successfully employed biofeedback for relief.20
Herbert Benson, a cardiologist, first became interested in stress when he studied
transcendental meditation (TM) with Robert Keith Wallace.21 Benson then devel-
oped a relaxation technique similar to TM and has used it effectively to treat people
with high blood pressure.22–25
Relaxation techniques have also been studied in some detail. In addition to
Benson’s relaxation response (see p. 239), some of the more noteworthy methods
include autogenic training (see p. 249) and progressive relaxation (see p. 258).
Around 1900, a physiologist, Oskar Vogt, noted that people were capable of hyp-
notizing themselves. A German psychiatrist, Johannes Schultz, combined this
knowledge with specific exercises to bring about heaviness and warmth in the
limbs—that is, a state of relaxation.26 This autohypnotic relaxation method became
known as autogenic training and was developed and studied further by Schultz’s
student Wolfgang Luthe.27
Another effective and well-studied relaxation technique involves the tensing
and relaxing of muscles so as to recognize muscle tension and bring about
muscular relaxation when desired. This technique, progressive relaxation, was
developed by Dr. Edmund Jacobson when he noticed his bedridden patients
were still muscularly tense in spite of their restful appearance.28 Their muscular
tenseness (bracing), Jacobson reasoned, was a function of nerve impulses sent
to the muscles, and it was interfering with their recovery. Progressive relaxation
(see p. 262), sometimes termed neuromuscular relaxation, involves a struc-
tured set of exercises that trains people to eliminate unnecessary muscular
­tension.
Although Benson’s relaxation response, a form of meditation, became popu-
lar in the 1970s, meditation has been around for a long time. In fact, records
of meditation date back 2,000 years. Indian yogis and Zen monks were the first
meditators to be scientifically studied. The results of these studies demonstrated
the slowing-down effect (hypometabolic state) of meditation upon many body
processes: heart rate, breathing, and muscle tension, to name but a few. For
example, Therese Brosse reported Indian yogis able to control their heart rates29;
Anand and colleagues showed changes in brain waves during meditation30;
Kasamatsu and Hirai confirmed and expounded upon Anand’s findings31; and
Goleman and Schwartz found meditators more psychologically stable than
nonmeditators.32
Later, a whole area of study regarding life changes to which we must adapt and
their effect upon health has emerged. Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe showed
that the more significant the changes in one’s life, the greater the chance of the
onset of illness.33 Based on these conclusions, researchers are working toward a
better understanding of this relationship. For example, Lazarus,34 DeLongis,35 and
their colleagues have found that everyday hassles (see p. 140) are even more detri-
mental to one’s health than major life changes.
More recently, researchers have studied the effects of stress on the immunologi-
cal system. As a result, a whole new field of research has developed called psy-
choneuroimmunology. Robert Ader,36 J. K. Kiecolt-Glaser,37 Candice Pert,38 and
others found that stress diminished the effectiveness of the immune system thereby
subjecting one to a range of illnesses and diseases. In addition, Shelly Taylor’s
research39 identified differences in stress-coping techniques used by males and
females. Taylor found that females are more likely to use social connections to
cope with stressful events than are males. Other current researchers have de-
scribed a Type D personality (depressed, anxious, irritable). Johan Denollet’s
research40 demonstrated that Type D is related to coronary heart disease. In ad-
dition, E. L. Worthington41 showed that forgiveness can be a non-stressful, healthy
behavior.
This brief overview is painted with a broad brush. Subsequent chapters refer to
these pioneers and their work, providing you with an even better understanding of
the significance of managing stress and tension. When we discuss stress-related
illnesses and diseases, for example, you will once again read about Friedman and
Rosenman, Simonton, Wolff, and others. When we discuss life-situation stressors,
reference will be made to Lazarus and to Holmes and Rahe. When we discuss
relaxation techniques, we will elaborate upon the work of Benson, Schultz, Luthe,
Jacobson, and others.
For now, I hope you come away from this brief history of the stress field un-
derstanding that stress may be not just bothersome but downright unhealthy, and
that stress may lead to other negative consequences such as poor relationships with
loved ones or low academic achievement. There are, however, means of lessening
these unhealthy and negative effects. Stress management is serious business to
which some very fine minds have devoted their time and effort. As you’ll find out
in this book, this study has paid off and is continuing to do so.

Muscle Tension

As you begin to read this, FREEZE. Don’t move a bit! Now pay attention to your body
sensations and position.
Can you drop your shoulders? If so, your muscles were unnecessarily raising them.
Are your forearm muscles able to relax more? If so, you were unnecessarily tensing them.
Is your body seated in a position in which you appear ready to do something active? If
so, your muscles are probably unnecessarily contracted.
Can your forehead relax more? If so, you were tensing those muscles for no useful
purpose. Check your stomach, buttocks, thigh, and calf muscles. Are they, too,
contracted more than is needed?
Unnecessary muscular contraction is called bracing. Many of us are guilty of bracing
and suffer tension headaches, neck aches, or bad backs as a result.
Take a moment for yourself now. Place this book aside, and concentrate on just letting
as many of your muscles relax as possible. Notice how that feels.
When we discuss deep muscle relaxation, and progressive relaxation in particular, you’ll
learn skills enabling you to bring about this sensation more readily.

1 What Is Stress? 7

allostatic load
The cumulative biological wear and tear
that results from responses to stress that
seek to maintain body equilibrium.
8 Part 1 Scientific Foundations
Stress Theory
Now let’s get down to business. What causes stress? There are several different
theories about what causes stress and its effects on illness and disease.
Life-Events Theory
One theory developed by Holmes and Rahe42 proposes that stress occurs when a
situation requires more resources than are available. For example, if you are taking
a test for which you are unprepared, you might experience stress. To measure this
type of stress, some researchers have compiled lists of major stressful life events
such as the death of a loved one. The rationale is that the more of these events a
person experiences, the greater is his or her stress.
DeLongis and her colleagues43 are supporters of this general approach, but
they consider routine stressful life events more significant than major ones that
happen infrequently. They argue that daily hassles, though appearing less im-
portant by themselves, add up and therefore are more stressful than major
events. Furthermore, when computing the formula for stress, they consider
daily uplifts, such as someone saying something nice about you, as counteract-
ing some hassles.
Another theory of how life events affect health is allostatic load, first defined
by McEwen.44,45 Allostatic load is based on the hypothesis that there is a cumula-
tive physiological risk associated with exposure to psychosocial stressors over
one’s life. There is ample evidence for this view.46–48 Allostatic load proposes that
a key mediator of increasing risk for disease is the dysregulation of systems de-
signed to balance the organism’s responses to environmental demands. Exposure
to stress elicits adaptive physiological responses in regulatory systems, including
the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems and the cardiovascular and
immune systems. Allostasis (related to homeostasis) is the adaptive maintenance
of vitality in these systems in response to changing environmental circumstances.
Allostatic load refers to the cumulative biological wear and tear that can result
from excessive cycles of response in these systems as they seek to maintain allo-
stasis in the face of environmental challenge. According to the theory, as these
systems become taxed and dysregulated, they begin to exhibit imbalances in the
primary mediators of the stress response, such as glucocorticoids, catechol-
amines, and proinflammatory cytokines. Chronic dysregulation is believed to
confer cumulative physiological risk for disease and disability by causing damage
to tissues and major organ systems.49
Hardiness Theory
Other researchers conceive of stress somewhat differently. They focus not on how
many stressful events you experience but on your attitude toward those events. For
example, Kobasa and her colleagues50 argue that if you perceive potentially stressful
events as a challenge instead of as a threat, less stress will result. This buffering
effect—buffering between stress and the development of illness and disease—is
termed hardiness and is discussed in detail in Chapter 8.
Social Support Theory
Still other stress experts51 envision stress occurring when there is not enough
social support available to respond to the event effectively. Social support may
take many forms. For example, it could be emotional support to help you feel
better about yourself or about the event as you cope with it, or it could take the
form of financial assistance. In any case, social support helps you cope with the
event and therefore decreases your level of stress. Social support is discussed in
detail in Chapters 7 and 9.
There are many other ways to conceptualize stress and its effects. Each, though,
consists of at least two components: a stressor and stress reactivity.

The Stressor
A stressor is a stimulus with the potential for triggering the fight-or-flight response.
The stressors for which our bodies were evolutionarily trained were threats to
our safety. The caveman who saw a lion looking for its next meal needed to
react quickly. Cavemen who were not fast enough or strong enough to respond
to this threat didn’t have to worry about the next threat. They became meals
for the lions. The fight-or-flight response was necessary, and its rapidity was vital
for survival.
Modern men and women also find comfort and safety in the fight-or-flight re-
sponse. We periodically read of some superhuman feat of strength in response to
a stressor, such as a person lifting a heavy car off another person pinned under it.
We attribute this strength to an increase in adrenaline, and it is true that adrenaline
secretion does increase as part of the fight-or-flight response. However, there are
less dramatic examples of the use the fight-or-flight response has for us. When you
step off a curb not noticing an automobile coming down the street, and you hear
the auto’s horn, you quickly jump back onto the curb. Your heart beats fast, your
breathing changes, and you perspire. These are all manifestations of your response
to a stressor, the threat of being hit by a car. They indicate that your body has
been prepared to do something active and to do it immediately (jump back onto
the curb).
So far, these examples of stressors have all required immediate action to prevent
physical harm. Other stressors you encounter have the potential for eliciting this
same fight-or-flight response, even though it would be inappropriate to respond
immediately or with some action. These stressors are symbolic ones—for example,
loss of status, threats to self-esteem, work overload, or overcrowding. When the
boss overloads you with work, it is dysfunctional to fight with him or her and
equally ridiculous to run away and not tackle the work. When you encounter the
stressors associated with moving to a new town, either fighting with new people
you meet or shying away from meeting new people is an inappropriate means of
adjustment.

Stressors come in many forms.

Tom Merton/OJO Images/age fotostock

1 What Is Stress? 9
 We encounter many different types of stressors. Some are environmental (toxins,
heat, cold), some psychological (threats to self-esteem, depression), others socio-
logical (unemployment, death of a loved one), and still others philosophical (use
of time, purpose in life). One of the most severe stressors is guilt associated with
behaving in ways contrary to one’s belief system or moral framework, for example,
lying, cheating, or behaving sexually irresponsibly. In any case, as Selye discovered,
regardless of the stressor, the body’s reaction will be the same. The pituitary, thy-
roid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands, as well as the hypothalamus and other parts
of the brain, are activated by stressors.
The point is, our bodies have evolved to respond to stressors with an immediate
action by altering their physiology for greater speed and strength. When we encounter
symbolic stressors, our bodies are altered in the same manner, although we do not use
the changed physiology by responding with some action. Therefore, we build up stress
products, which include elevated blood pressure and increased muscular contractions,
serum cholesterol, and secretions of hydrochloric acid in the stomach. We do not use
these stress products but rather “grin and bear” the situation. The results are illness
and disease when the stress reaction is chronic, is prolonged, or goes unabated.

How Americans Experience Stress

Following are the most common causes of stress in our society along with the effects of
stressors. Which ones impact you the most?
What Causes Stress?
Money 75% Personal health concerns 53%
The economy 67% Family health problems 53%
Relationships 58% Housing costs 49%
Family responsibilities 57% Job stability 49%
Personal safety 32%
What Are the Effects of Stress?
General Effects:
Lying awake at night 44%
Irritability or anger 42%
Fatigue 37%
Physical Effects:
Headache 32% Tightness in chest 11%
Upset stomach 24% Feeling dizzy 10%
Muscular tension 24% Change in menstrual cycle 5%
Teeth grinding 15% Erectile dysfunction 3%
Change in sex drive 11%
Psychological Effects:
Feeling nervous or anxious 39% Lack of interest/motivation 35%
Feeling depressed or sad 37% Feeling like crying 30%
Source of data: Stress in America. (2011) American Psychological Association

10 Part 1 Scientific Foundations

 This need not be the case. We can learn to take control of ourselves and our
b­ odies to prevent the fight-or-flight response from developing when we encounter
symbolic threats.52 We can also learn how to use stress products once our physiology
has changed to prevent them from resulting in illness, disease, or other negative
consequences. Remember, stressors are stimuli with the potential for triggering the
fight-or-flight response; they need not lead to such a response. As our computer
programs sometimes need updating, so do our responses to stressors. Reprogramming
ourselves in this way means that we learn to perceive events as less stressful, and we
choose responses that are healthier and more life-enhancing. With this book and the
practice of the skills it describes, you can learn to manage stress better.

Stress Reactivity
The fight-or-flight response is termed stress reactivity. This reaction, described in more
detail in the next chapter, includes increased muscle tension; increased heart rate,
stroke volume, and output; elevated blood pressure; increased neural excitability; less
saliva in the mouth; increased sodium retention; increased perspiration; change in
respiratory rate; increased serum glucose; increased release of hydrochloric acid in
the stomach; changes in brain waves; and increased urination. This reaction prepares
us for swift action when such a response is warranted. When we build up stress
products that we don’t use, this stress reaction becomes unhealthy.
The longer our physiology varies from its baseline measures (duration) and the
greater the variance from that baseline (degree), the more likely we are to experience
ill effects from this stress reactivity. Of the two, duration and degree, duration is the
more important. For example, if you awaken to realize your alarm clock didn’t go off
and you’ll be late for work, you become physiologically aroused from that stressor. If
in your haste you accidentally pour too much milk into your cereal, that stressor will
result in further physiological arousal. Next, you get into the car, only to learn you’re
out of gas. Ever have a day like that? Although each of those stressors will probably
result in less arousal than having to jump back from a car bearing down on you, it is
the length of time that these stressors are with you that makes them more harmful.
People who have learned stress management skills often respond to a greater
degree to a stressor but return to their resting rate sooner than those not trained
in stress management. An analogy can be made to joggers, whose heart rate may
increase tremendously when they exercise but returns to normal sooner than that
of out-of-shape exercisers. Try the exercise in Figure 1.2 to demonstrate the effects
of a stressor upon your physiology.

Strain
Strains are the outcomes of stress reactivity and may be physical, psychological, or strain
behavioral. For example, tension headaches and backache are physical strains that The physical, psychological, and behavioral
result from excess muscle tension. Agoraphobia, the fear of being in crowds, is an outcomes of stress reactivity.
example of a psychological strain that stems from stress reactivity occurring when
contemplating that experience. And strains such as alcohol abuse and getting into
fights are examples of behavioral strains in an attempt to cope with stressors.

Gender Differences in Reactivity

Interestingly, there are some differences between the way males and females cope
with stress. Shelly Taylor and her colleagues53 have found that females tend to
exhibit nurturing activities designed to protect themselves and others in coping
with stress. These activities are termed “tend-and-befriend.” The authors argue that
females use social groups more than do males as a response to stress, and that
males, in contrast, tend to exhibit more of a flight-or-fight response to stress. This
and other gender differences are discussed in detail later in Chapter 16.

1 What Is Stress? 11
Figure 1.2
While seated in a comfortable position, determine how fast your heart beats at rest
Stress reactivity. using one of the following methods. (Use a watch that has a second hand.)
1. Place the first two fingers (pointer and middle finger) of one hand on the underside of
your other wrist, on the thumb side. Feel for your pulse and count the number of pulses
for 30 seconds. (See the drawing.)
2. Place the first two fingers of one hand on your lower neck, just above the collarbone;
move your fingers toward your shoulder until you find your pulse. Count the pulses for
30 seconds.
3. Place the first two fingers of one hand in front of your ear near your sideburn, moving
your fingers until you find your pulse. Count the pulses for 30 seconds. Multiply your
30-second pulse count by two to determine how many times your heart beats each
minute while at rest.
Now close your eyes and think of either someone you really dislike or some situation
you experienced that really frightened you. If you are recalling a person, think of how
that person looks, smells, and what he or she does to incur your dislike. Really feel the
dislike, don’t just think about it. If you recall a frightening situation, try to place yourself
back in that situation. Sense the fright, be scared, vividly recall the situation in all its
detail. Think of the person or situation for one minute, and then count your pulse rate
for 30 seconds, as you did earlier. Multiply the rate by two, and compare your first total
with the second.
Most people find that their heart rate increases when experiencing the stressful
memory. This increase occurs despite a lack of any physical activity; just thoughts
increase heart rate. This fact demonstrates two things: the nature of stressors and the
nature of stress reactivity. The stressor is a stimulus with the potential of eliciting a
stress reaction (physiological arousal).

1.

2. 3.

A Definition of Stress
Now that you know what a stressor is and what stress reactivity is, it is time to
define stress itself.
Although Lazarus offered a definition of stress that encompasses a whole spec-
trum of factors (stimulus, response, cognitive appraisal of threat, coping styles, psy-
chological defenses, and the social milieu),54 for our purposes that may be too
encompassing. Defining stress becomes a problem even for the experts. Mason aptly
described this problem by citing several different ways the term stress is used55:
1. The stimulus. This is our definition of stressor.
2. The response. This is our definition of stress reactivity and strain.
3. The whole spectrum of interacting factors. This is Lazarus’s definition.
4. The stimulus-response interaction.

12 Part 1 Scientific Foundations

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Appearance and Reality, chap. 7, or the introduction of a peculiar
“consciousness of activity” as an unanalysable datum into
Psychology. The antithesis between the actualities of life and the
data of Psychology maintained by Prof. Münsterberg in his
Psychology and Life, and Grundzüge der Psychologie, if untenable
in the extreme form in which he states it, is important as a corrective
of the opposite tendency to treat as ultimate for psychological
analysis whatever is of supreme importance for life.
43. Thing-in-itself, i.e. not affected by the—according to this
doctrine—extraneous conditions imposed upon it by relation to an
experiencing mind.
44. The inconsistencies of both Kant and Spencer will illustrate the
reluctance of the human mind to acquiesce in a genuine
Agnosticism. In the Critique of Pure Reason itself Kant so far
contradicts himself as to treat the Thing-in-itself as the cause of
sensation, though it is a fundamental doctrine of his system that the
concept of causal relation can only be legitimately applied to connect
facts inside experience; and in a later work, the Critique of
Judgment, he tentatively suggests its identity with Will. Of Mr.
Spencer it has been truly said (I believe by Mr. F. C. S. Schiller in
Riddles of the Sphinx) that in the course of his ten volumes of
Synthetic Philosophy he speaks much more positively about the
nature of the Unknowable than dogmatic theology ventures to speak
about the nature of God.
45. The sceptics of antiquity, who were more alive to this
contradiction than most of our modern Agnostics, tried to evade the
difficulty by saying that they maintained the unknowability of things
not as a demonstrated certainty, but as a “probable opinion.” But this
distinction is itself illogical, for unless some propositions are certain
there is no ground for considering any one proposition more
probable than another. E.g. if I know that a die with six faces has four
pips on each of two faces, and five pips on only one, I can logically
say “it is probable that with this die four will be thrown oftener than
five.” If I am totally uncertain what number of pips is marked on the
various faces, I cannot regard one throw as more probable than
another.
 46. E.g., peculiarities of the individual’s colour-spectrum, total and
partial colour-blindness, variations in sensibility to musical pitch, etc.,
etc.
47. The best known and most popular version of the theory is that
of Locke and of a great deal of our popular science, according to
which the “primary” qualities of matter, i.e. those which have to be
treated as fundamental in the physical sciences, are independently
real, while the rest are mere effects produced by their action on our
sense-organs. The more thorough-going metaphysical doctrines of
realists like Leibnitz and Herbart, being much further removed from
the “naïve realism” of unreflective common sense, have never
enjoyed the same currency.
48. Compare Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, vol. ii. p. 178 ff.,
and Royce, World and Individual, First Series, Lect. 3. Prof. Royce’s
treatment of Realism, though interesting and suggestive, is perhaps
a little too much of a “short and easy way” with the antagonist to be
quite convincing. Mr. Hobhouse’s anti-idealistic argument (Theory of
Knowledge, 517-539) seems to me only to hold good against the
“Subjectivism” discussed in our next section, but the reader will do
well to examine it thoroughly for himself.
49. We might also suitably call it Presentationism, if the name
were not already appropriated in a different sense as distinctive of
certain psychological theories. The English reader will find a
confused but typical exposition of Subjectivism in the opening
chapters of Prof. Karl Pearson’s Grammar of Science. Subjectivist
writers usually call themselves “idealists,” and regard themselves as
disciples of Berkeley and Hume. Berkeley was, however, a
subjectivist, if at all, only in respect to the physical world, while
Hume’s conclusions are purely sceptical. The reader of Prof.
Pearson must carefully observe that the “descriptive” theory of
physical science has no special connection with Subjectivism, and is,
in fact, held by philosophers like Profs. Ward and Royce, who are not
subjectivists.
50. On the existence of my fellow-men as the one real proof of the
objective existence of the physical world, see Royce, Studies in
Good and Evil, essay on “Nature, Consciousness, and Self-
Consciousness,” and “Mind and Nature,” by the present writer, in
International Journal of Ethics for October 1902. In the latter essay I
have, I think, sufficiently exposed the flimsy reasoning by which
subjectivists attempt to justify belief in the existence of other human
beings from the subjectivist point of view.
51. The self-knowledge which is a fact in real life, as distinguished
from the fictitious self-consciousness of some psychologists, is quite
a different thing and involves two distinct acts of cognition: (1) the
awareness of certain objects of cognition, and (2) the recognition of
those objects as in some way qualifying my “self.” And the “self”
which I recognise as thus qualified is again no immediate datum of
experience, but a largely hypothetical intellectual construction, as we
shall have opportunity to see later on.
This is perhaps the place to add the further remark, that if we
would be rigidly accurate in psychological terminology, we ought to
banish the very expression “consciousness” or “state of
consciousness” from our language. What are really given in
experience are attentive processes with a certain common character.
We abstract this character and give it the name of “consciousness,”
and then fall into the blunder of calling the concrete processes
“states” or “modifications” of this abstraction, just as in dealing with
physical things we first make abstraction of their common properties,
under the name of “matter,” and then talk as if the things themselves
were “forms” of “matter”. Properly speaking, there are physical things
and there are minds, but there are no such things in the actual world
as “matter” and “consciousness,” and we do well to avoid using the
words where we can help it.
52. See Der Menschliche Weltbegriff, pp. 21-62; and, for the
merely English reader, Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, vol. ii p.
168 ff.
53. This is true even in what seems at first the the exceptional
case of advance in mere theoretical insight. The more clearly you
realise the character of the problems which your own intellectual
pursuits lead up to and the nature of their solution, the clearer
becomes your insight into the problems and purposes of other
workers in the same field.
 CHAPTER II

THE SYSTEMATIC UNITY OF REALITY

§ 1. The problem whether Reality is ultimately One or Many is inevitably
suggested to us by the diverse aspects of our own direct experience of the
world. The different theories may be classed, according to their solution of this
problem, as Monistic, Pluralistic, and Monadistic. § 2. Pluralism starts from the
presumed fact of the mutual independence of human selves, and teaches that
this independence of each other belongs to all real beings. But (a) the
independence with which experience presents us is never complete, nor the
unity of the “selves” perfect. (b) The theory is inconsistent with the systematic
character of all reality as presupposed in both knowledge and action. § 3.
Monadism again makes the systematic unity of the real either an illusion or an
inexplicable accident. § 4. Reality, because systematic, must be the
expression of a single principle in and through a multiplicity. The unity and
multiplicity must both be real, and each must necessarily involve the other. §
5. If both are to be equally real, the whole system must be a single
experience, and its constituents must also be experiences. A perfect
systematic whole can be neither an aggregate, nor a mechanical whole of
parts, nor an organism. The whole must exist for the parts, and they for it. § 6.
This may also be expressed by saying that Reality is a subject which is the
unity of subordinate subjects, or an individual of which the constituents are
lesser individuals. § 7. The nearest familiar analogue to such a systematic
whole would be the relation between our whole “self” and the partial mental
systems or lesser “selves.” § 8. The nearest historic parallel to this view is to
be found in Spinoza’s theory of the relation of the human mind to the “infinite
intellect of God.”

§ 1. The problem of the One and the Many is as old as Philosophy

itself, and inevitably arises from the earliest and simplest attempts to
think in a consistent way about the nature of the world in which we
play our part. On the one hand, our experience, in the piecemeal
shape in which it first appears as we begin to reflect on it, seems to
exhibit an indefinite plurality of more or less independent things,
each pursuing its own course and behaving in its own way, and
connected at best with only a few of the other members of our
environment. There is, for instance, no obvious connection between
one man’s career and those of most of his contemporaries, to say
nothing of the innumerable host of his predecessors and successors
in the race of life. And, similarly, the behaviour of one inanimate thing
seems at first sight to be unaffected by that of most of the other
things around it. The world seems to us at times to be made up of an
indefinite multiplicity of beings who merely happen to be actors on
the same stage, but have, in the majority of cases, no influence upon
each other’s parts.
Yet, on the other hand, there are equally strong primâ facie
reasons for regarding the world as a single unity. Every addition to
our theoretical insight into the structure of things adds to our
recognition of the intimate connection between things and processes
which previously seemed merely disconnected. Physical science, as
it grows, learns more and more to look upon nature as a realm of
interconnected events where no one fact is ultimately entirely
independent of any other fact; political experience and social science
alike reveal the intimate interdependence of human lives and
purposes. And, over and above the ascertained empirical facts which
point to the ultimate unity of the world, there is another potent
influence which we might call the “instinctive” basis for the belief in
unity. However discontinuous my environment may appear, it is
never a mere disconnected multiplicity. The very circumstance that it
is throughout my environment, and thus relative to the ends by which
my attention is determined, gives it to a certain degree the character
of a coherent system. At the lowest level of philosophic reflection, we
cannot permanently fail to apprehend our world as in principle one,
precisely because it is our world, and we ourselves are all in some
degree beings of steady systematic purpose, not mere bundles of
disconnected and conflicting impulses. While yet again, it is the very
limitation of our own interests and our lack of clear insight into their
full import which leads us at other times to find apparent
disconnected multiplicity and lack of cohesion in our world.
The problem of Philosophy in dealing with these rival aspects of
the world of experience then becomes that of deciding whether
either of them can be adopted as the truth in isolation from the other.
Or if neither is the whole truth, we must ask ourselves in what way
the world can be at once One and Many, how the characters of
systematic unity and of indefinite variety can be consistently thought
of as belonging to the same Reality. Is Reality, we have to ask, One
or is it Many, and if it is both, how are the unity and multiplicity
connected?
The answers which different philosophical systems have given to
this question may conveniently be classified under three general
denominations. There are (1) the Monistic views, which lay the
principal stress upon the unity of the real, and tend to treat the
aspect of plurality and variety as illusory, or at least as of secondary
importance; (2) the various forms of Pluralism, according to which
the variety and multiplicity of real beings is the primary fact, and their
systematic unity either an illusion, or at any rate a subordinate
aspect of their nature; (3) Monadism, which aims at harmonising the
positions of the monist and pluralist, by treating the world as a
multiplicity of really independent things or “monads,” which are
somehow combined from without into a system. From this last point
of view the plurality and the systematic unity are alike real and alike
important for the understanding of the world, but are of different
origin, the plurality being inherent in the things themselves, the unity
external to them and coming from a foreign source. Within each of
the three main types of theory there is, of course, room for the
greatest divergence of view as to the special nature of the real. A
monistic system may be purely materialistic, like that of Parmenides,
who taught that the world is a single homogeneous solid sphere, or
idealistic like that, e.g., of Schopenhauer; or again, it may treat mind
and “matter” as “aspects” of a common reality. A pluralist or
monadist, again, may conceive of each of his independent real
things as a physical atom, as a soul of any degree of organisation, or
even, in the fashion of some contemporary thought, as a person.
With regard to the relation between this classification of
philosophical theories and that of the last chapter, I may just observe
that, while a monist is not necessarily an idealist, a consistent
pluralist or monadist ought logically to be a realist. For the mutual
independence of the various real things cannot exist without
involving in itself their independence of experience. If A and B are
two completely independent things, then the existence and character
of A must be independent of presence to the experience of B, and
similarly A must be equally independent of presence to the
experience of C, or of anything in the world but itself. And we have
already seen that there is always more in the nature of any finite
percipient than can be present to his own experience. Thus
ultimately the existence and qualities of A must be independent of all
experience, including A’s own.[54] For this reason I cannot but think
that the various attempts to combine Pluralism with Idealism by
maintaining that the universe consists of a number of independent
“souls” or “persons,” rest on confusion of thought. These doctrines
appear to be essentially realist in their spirit.
§ 2. We may conveniently attempt to construct our own theory of
the One and the Many by first excluding views which appear
mistaken in principle, and thus gradually narrowing the issues.
Among these mistaken views I am forced to reckon all forms of
consistent and thorough-going Pluralism. Pluralism, so far at least as
I am able to see, begins by misapprehending the facts upon which it
professes to base itself, and ends by giving an interpretation of them
which is essentially irrational. The fundamental fact from which
Pluralism starts as an ultimate datum of all experiences is the
familiar one that there are other men in the world besides myself. My
world is not simply a theatre for the execution of my own aims and
the satisfaction of my own wants. There are interests in it which are
not mine, and to which I must adapt myself if I mean to achieve my
own purposes. The world thus contains minds other than my own,
and what makes them other is that the interests and purposes by
which their lives are determined are, like my own, unique and
incommunicable. Now, Pluralism bids us take the facts, as thus
stated, as the model for our conception of the universe. The pattern
upon which the pluralist views of Reality are constructed is that of a
community consisting of a great number of selves or persons, each
with its own unique interests, and each therefore at once internally
simple and indivisible and exclusive of all the rest. In whatever
special form the pluralist thinks of his ultimate realities, whether as
physically indivisible particles, as mathematical points, or as sentient
beings, it is always from the facts of human social life conceived in
this ultra-individualist way that he in the last resort derives his
concept of their simplicity and mutual repulsion.
 But (a) the facts themselves are not correctly stated. The human
experiences upon which the pluralist relies for his conclusion present
at once too much and too little unity for the purposes of his theory.
On the one hand, the selves or persons composing society are not
themselves simple, undifferentiated unities. Just as your interests
and mine may often collide, so within what the pluralist assumes as
the indivisible unit of my own personality there may be a similar
collision. What I call my “own interests” or my own “apperceptive
systems” or “trains of thought” may exhibit the same kind of
incompatibility and the same sort of conflict for superiority as is found
where your ideas and mine clash. Thus Ethics and Psychology are
led to distinguish between my “true” self and the false selves by
which it may on occasion be dominated, between my “higher” self
and the “lower” selves which, in morality, have to be repressed by
the higher, my “permanent” self, and the temporary interests by
which it is often overpowered, to say nothing of “subliminal”
consciousness and “dual” or “alternating personality.” The “self” is so
far from being a mere unit, that the variety and, what is more, the
incompatibility of its contents is a matter of everyday experience.[55]
Pluralism may, of course, and often does, verbally admit this. The
units of the pluralist, we are often told, are not mere units devoid of
variety, but wholes which are the union of differences. But to
concede this is to cut away the ground from under the pluralist’s feet.
If the variety and the mutual struggle between the elements of the
self are not enough to destroy its unity, by parity of reasoning the
multiplicity of selves in the world and their mutual repulsions are not
enough to prove that the whole of Reality is not, in spite of its
multiplicity of detail, a unity more complete than any of the partial
unities to be met with in our experience. In fact, the pluralist has to
meet the following dilemma. Either his units are mere units without
internal variety, and then it is easy to show that they are the merest
nothings, or they have internal variety of their own, and therefore
simply repeat within themselves the problem they are supposed to
solve.
On the other hand, just as the facts of experience show us internal
struggle and repulsion within the supposed units, so they also exhibit
other relations than that of mutual exclusion between the different
units. Human personal interests, for instance, are never merely
mutually exclusive. No society consists of individuals whose
purposes and interests are simply reciprocally repellent. My aims
and purposes may never completely coincide with those of other
members of the same community, yet they have no meaning and
could get no realisation but for the fact that they are, partially at any
rate, comprised in the wider whole of social interests and purposes
which makes up the life of the social organisations to which I belong.
As the very etymology of such words as “society” and “community”
shows—to say nothing of the results of psychological inquiry into the
process of learning by imitation—the conception of human selves as
independent units which somehow happen to stand in merely
accidental or external relations is in flagrant conflict with the most
fundamental facts of our social experience. It is only by the
systematic suppression of fact that personal and social life can be
made to support the hypothesis of Pluralism.
(b) Again, even if we could accept the pluralist account of the
facts, the theory which Pluralism puts forward to account for them is
in the end unintelligible. What Pluralism does, consciously or
unconsciously, is to separate the unity of the world from its
multiplicity. The multiplicity is supposed to be grounded in the
ultimate nature of the real things themselves, their unity as a system,
if they really are a system, to be imposed upon them from without.
We are, in fact, left to choose between two alternatives. Either the
world is not a systematic whole at all, but a mere chaos of purely
independent atoms, in which case the whole of our thought, with its
indispensable presupposition of the systematic unity of the object of
knowledge, is an illusion, or else the world really is a system, but a
system, so to say, by accident. The things of which the system is
composed are real as detached separate units, but by a fortunate
chance they happen all to possess some common relation to an
external tertium quid (for instance, to God), by which they are
combined into a system and thus become knowable as a connected
whole.
Now we cannot, if we are intellectually conscientious, rest finally
content with a statement of this kind, which leaves the plurality and
the systematic unity of the real world side by side as two
independent unconnected facts. If the contents of the world really
form a system at all, in any way whatever, that is itself one fact
among others which a sound metaphysical theory must recognise,
and of which it must offer some intelligible account. E.g., suppose
you say, with some recent pluralists, that the world consists of a
number of independent persons or spirits, who nevertheless form a
connected system or “moral kingdom,” in virtue of the fact that they
all find their moral ideal in God, the most perfect among them. You
have now not one ultimate fact before you, the multiplicity of
independent selves, but two, this multiplicity and the relation of each
element in it to God. Unless you are going to treat this second fact
as an “ultimate inexplicability,” i.e. a fortunate accident, you are now
bound to treat the systematic relation of the selves to God and
through God to each other as no less a part of their ultimate nature
than their distinction from each other. Their separateness and
independence is thus no longer for you the ultimate truth; they are
just as truly one by your account as they are many. Their union in a
system is no longer an external relation foreign to their own nature,
but the deepest truth about that nature itself.
I will repeat the essence of this argument in another form. Any
genuine Pluralism must be resolute enough to dismiss the idea of a
systematic interconnection between its independent realities as an
illusion of the human mind. But in doing so it must, to be consistent,
deny the possibility of their mutual knowledge of each other’s states.
Each real thing must be a little world to itself, shut up within the
closed circle of its own internal content. And thus, supposing
Pluralism to be true, and supposing myself to be one of the real
things of the pluralist scheme, I should have no means of knowing it
to be true. Pluralism is unable to stand the question propounded by
Mr. Bradley as the test of a philosophical doctrine, “Is the truth of this
theory consistent with the fact that I know it to be true?”
The persistent popularity of Pluralism in many quarters is in fact
due to the intrusion into Metaphysics of other than genuinely
philosophical interests. It is maintained, not on its philosophical
merits as a consistent theory, but because it is believed by its
adherents to safeguard certain interests of morality and religion. It
gives us, we are told, a “real God” and “real moral freedom.” But,
apart from the question whether these claims are justified by candid
examination of the doctrine,[56] we must protest against their being
allowed any place at all in a metaphysical discussion. Metaphysics
is, from first to last, a purely speculative activity; its one concern is to
think logically about the constitution of Reality, and the only interests
it has a right to consider are those of consistent logical thought. If
consistent logical thought about ethical and religious problems
involves the recognition of a “real God” and “real freedom,” and if
these again are only possible on the pluralistic theory, then the mere
process of consistent thought is bound in the end to lead us to a
pluralistic result, and it is superfluous to appeal to extra-logical
interests in the matter. But if those who defend Pluralism on the
ground that it gives us a “real God” and “real freedom” mean that,
apart from the question of their intellectual justification, these beliefs
ought to be maintained in Metaphysics because certain persons will
be less moral or less happy without them, we must answer that
Metaphysics has nothing to do with making us moral or happy. It is
no proof of the truth of a belief that it increases my personal virtue or
happiness, nor of its falsity that it diminishes them. And if the study
of Metaphysics could be shown to make certain persons less
virtuous or less happy, Metaphysics would still be in no worse case
than Ethics or Medicine. There may be persons for whom it is
undesirable, on grounds of happiness or morality, to devote
themselves to the pursuit of speculative truth, but it is none the less
a lapse from intellectual single-mindedness for the man who has
elected to play the game of speculation to violate its rules by
indulging in constant appeals to speculatively irrelevant issues.[57]
§ 3. The Monadism of Leibnitz was an attempt to effect a
compromise between Pluralism and Monism. According to this view,
the universe consists of an infinite plurality of fundamentally separate
beings. These beings are at once simple and indivisible, and at the
same time each of them contains an infinite variety of internal states.
Being mutually independent, the monads have no genuine relations
with each other; each is conscious only of the succession of its own
states. As Leibnitz expressed it in a metaphor which has become
classic, the monad has no windows. So far the system is pure
Pluralism. But at the same time the unity of the whole system of
monads, though “ideal” and not “real,” is to be genuine. They form a
system “ideally,”—i.e. for the understanding of an omniscient
spectator,—inasmuch as the internal states of each monad are
adjusted to those of all the rest, or, as Leibnitz also puts it, inasmuch
as each monad “represents” the same systematic structure from its
own special point of view. Hence, though no monad really perceives
or acts upon any other, every monad behaves as it would if there
were mutual perception and interaction between all. When we ask
after the source of this “pre-established harmony,” we meet with a
double answer. On the one hand, its actual existence as a fact is due
to the creative will of God. On the other, it was precisely the
complete adjustment of the internal states of its various monads
which determined God to will the existence of the actual world-order
in preference to that of any other of the indefinitely numerous
logically possible arrangements which He foresaw and might have
chosen. This relation between God and the world-order is further
complicated by the fact that on occasion Leibnitz treats God as
simply one, though the supreme one, among the monads.
Now a system of this kind seems to exhibit all the defects of
Pluralism with certain superadded difficulties of its own. We might
reasonably object that experience presents us with no example of a
genuine system in which all the elements are actually independent.
The nearest approach to such a case seems to be found in the
classes of an “artificial classification,” in which things standing in no
relation of interaction among themselves are put together by us
because it is convenient for some extraneous purpose of our own to
comprehend them under a single point of view. But, apart from the
impossibility of constructing a classification which shall be more than
relatively artificial, such a mere aggregate or collection is not a real
system. In a true system, as distinct from a mere collection, the
principle of unity has always some sort of significance for the
members of the system themselves. It represents, at the least, the
way in which the members interact with each other. (Thus, to take an
extreme case, the serial arrangement of cutting implements in a
museum, from the flaked stone of the Palæolithic age to the latest
specimen of Sheffield cutlery, is more than a merely “artificial”
classification, precisely because it is more than a mere grouping of
separate objects according to their likeness and unlikeness; it
represents the stages of a continuous historical evolution.) Now, it is
essential to Monadism that the monads, because ultimately
independent, shall only seem to interact. They appear to form a
single world with a history in which each distinct state of each monad
is a stage. But really, while the successive states of the individual
monad are, what they seem to be, a connected process of
development, the various processes do not make up a single-world
history at all. They only seem to do so by an inevitable illusion.
Hence the unity of the whole system must after all be not only ideal,
but, strictly speaking, imaginary.
Similar difficulties arise from the ambiguous position accorded to
God in the scheme. If the “pre-established harmony” between the
states of the individual monads were simply due to a creative fiat of
God, we should be thrown back upon mere arbitrary chance as the
reason, if it can be called a reason, why existence is not a chaos.
But if God’s choice to create this scheme of things rather than
another was due to the superior attraction which a world with at least
the appearance of connected system had for the divine intellect, then
it is ultimately in the constitution of the divine mind that we have to
find the reason why the alternative possibilities before creation were
what they were;[58] and again, why just this one was preferred to all
the rest. And thus the monads cease to be any longer ultimate and
independent, and the nature of God becomes the single determinate
ground of all reality.
It is scarcely necessary to add that Monadism suffers besides from
all the defects which we found in Pluralism. If the monad be made
into a mere unit without internal variety, it ceases to be a thing with a
definite nature at all; and if its unity is compatible with the variety of
its states, there seems to be no special reason why the wealth of
varied existence in the world should lead us to assume a plurality of
independent principles as its ground. It has been pointed out that
Leibnitz was apparently determined in favour of Monadism against
Monism by the assumption that individual human selves are
internally simple units and externally entirely exclusive of each other,
an assumption we have already seen reason to reject.
 § 4. We seem driven, then, to reject the view that the ordered
world of experience can be the expression of a plurality of ultimately
distinct and heterogeneous principles. Because the world as known,
or again as providing for the coherent realisation of practical
purposes, is an orderly system, and on any other supposition
coherent knowledge and consistent action are alike impossible, the
world must for Metaphysics be regarded as the complete
embodiment and expression of a single ultimate principle. We are
thus committed to some form of theory of the type generally known
as Monism. The name Monism we may perhaps be allowed to avoid,
as it has gathered about it associations which are apt to mislead.
Among the doctrines most frequently spoken of as monistic are
some which treat the apparent variety and multiplicity of existence as
purely illusory. Again, the name has of late been widely used as the
self-chosen designation of the doctrine according to which “mind”
and “matter” are alike “aspects” or “manifestations” of a third
principle which is neither material nor mental. It should already be
clear that the doctrine indicated by our previous discussions differs
widely from both these types of Monism. We have insisted that the
source of fallacy in Pluralism and Monadism was one-sided
emphasis upon one term in the antithesis of the Many and the One
to neglect of the other, and we have no intention of repeating the
mistake for ourselves. Also, we have already come to the conclusion
that Reality, whatever its detailed structure, is mental in its general
character; we can have nothing therefore to do with a “neutral” or
“agnostic” Monism. Our detailed theory of the relation between the
unity of the world and its multiplicity must do equal justice to both,
and it must be consistent with our previous recognition of the
experiential nature of the real.
We may perhaps work out our theory in detail as follows. The
world for knowledge must, we have seen, be an orderly whole or
system. To be a system at all, it must be the development or
expression in detail of a single principle. Therefore it must most
certainly be one; it cannot be a medley of independent elements
which somehow luckily happen to form a coherent collection. But
again, because it is a system, it cannot be a mere unit; it must be the
expression of a single principle in and through a multiplicity of terms
or constituents. Not only must it be both one and many, but it must
be many precisely because it is truly one, and one because it is truly
many.[59] Further, we must add that because the world-system is a
perfectly systematic whole, not only is multiplicity in general
necessary to its unity, but each particular element in the multiplicity is
necessitated or logically implied by the character of the unity. In a
complete system no single member can be missing or be other than
it is without the fundamental law of construction of the whole being
changed. Also, we may incidentally observe that in a complete
system the number of distinct terms may be actually endless, while
the law of construction is perfectly determinate. To think of the world
as a single systematic unity, then, means to think of it as the
manifestation in a possibly infinite multiplicity of detail of one
perfectly determinate principle. And, of course, what we have called
the individual elements of the multiplicity may on inspection
themselves turn out to be systems of infinite complexity determined
by a law of construction derived in a determinate way from that of the
complete system, and so on literally ad infinitum. Thus the unity of
ultimate principle we demand for Reality in no way excludes its
possession of a wealth of detail infinitely infinite.
§ 5. We may take a further most important step forward. In the all-
embracing systematic whole the unity and the multiplicity must be
equally real and each must be real through the other. How is this
possible? Only on condition that the whole system forms a single
experience, and that the constituent factors again are single
experiences. This will perhaps be best brought out by examining
some typical case of the kind of unity in multiplicity which is
insufficient for our purpose. (a) The unity of the world cannot be that
of a mere collection or aggregate. In a mere aggregate the elements
are real independently of their relation to one another as elements in
this aggregate. So long as we keep strictly to the case of what is no
more than an aggregate, the quality of the elements is entirely
unaffected by their inclusion in the aggregate. The aggregate has no
unitary character of its own which reveals itself in and through the
behaviour of its elements. Its unity consists in nothing more than the
fact that we have found it convenient to think of its elements
together. An aggregate of ten bricks, for instance, has no character
as a whole beyond the mere fact of being thought of in one mental
act. It has not even a collective weight until you put your ten bricks
into the same cart, or on the same scale-pan, and then they have
ceased to be a mere aggregate in the very moment of exerting
pressure upon the same surface, and have become a true material
system.
(b) Nor can the world of Reality be satisfactorily thought of as a
mere whole of parts. A whole of parts approaches indeed more
nearly to the ideal of a true systematic unity than a mere aggregate,
inasmuch as it has a determinate single character as a whole, which
manifests itself in the structure of the various parts. For this reason a
geometrical figure or a machine is much more than a mere
aggregate; it has a character as a whole, and this character is
differently expressed by the construction of the different parts. The
figure or machine is thus a true unity of differences. Yet in this case
we cannot really say that the unity and the variety are equally real.
For the whole cannot exist without the parts, whereas the parts may
continue to exist, though not, of course, as parts of this whole,
without the whole. The whole is constituted by the successive
generation or construction of the parts, and thus may be said to be
formed out of pre-existing parts, and the parts again may survive the
destruction of the whole. There is not that equal reality and complete
mutual implication of the two sides which we have deemed
necessary to a genuine systematic unity.
(c) An organism is in some respects a truer systematic unity than a
mere whole of parts. It has a systematic character of its own which
manifests itself in and through the difference of its various members.
And here, the whole is not historically subsequent to and generated
by the members. It is not their resultant but their living unity. The
members only come into being along with the whole, and in the
course of its growth as a whole; and though they may, in a sense,
continue to exist after severance from the whole, it is not with the
same kind of existence which belonged to them as members.[60] But
an organism, like a machine, fails to exhibit the perfect systematic
unity of the One and the Many of which we are in quest. In the
machine the aspect of multiplicity was relatively more real than that
of unity; in the fully evolved organism the unity seems more
completely real than the multiplicity. For the unity is a conscious one;
in some degree at least it exists for itself, and its members again for
it. Whereas it must be very doubtful whether the member exists for
itself, and still more doubtful whether the whole exists in any sense
for the members. And though the member cannot retain its peculiar
form of existence except as a member in the whole, yet in even the
highest organism the unity is so far relatively independent that it is
unaffected by the removal of some of the members.
Not every member is of vital significance for the life of the whole.
But in a complete systematic unity, as we saw, the unity and the
multiplicity of the system must be equally real and equally
interdependent. This can only be the case if the whole is for its
members as well as the members for the whole. And that this may
be so, just as the all-embracing whole of reality must, as we have
learned, be an experience, so each of its members must be itself an
experience. And because the members form a single system, just as
there can be nothing in the experience of any member which is not
contained in the experience which is the whole, so, on the other side,
there can be nothing in the whole which does not in some way affect
the experience of every member. Only in this way can we conceive
of a systematic Reality in which the unity and the multiplicity of the
system are alike real and equally real. Such a view is, strictly
speaking, hardly to be called either Pluralism or Monism. It is not
Pluralism, for it does not make the unity of the system an illusion or
an inexplicable accident; it is not Monism, in the current sense of the
word, because it does not make the multiplicity deceptive. If a name
is wanted, we might perhaps agree to call it Systematic Idealism.
§ 6. We may say, then, that Reality is a systematic Experience of
which the components are likewise experiences. It would be much
the same thing if we called it a subject which is the unity of
subordinate subjects. It is tempting again, at first sight, to say it is a
self of selves. But the extreme ambiguity of the term “self” as used in
contemporary Psychology makes it desirable to avoid an expression
which is capable of the gravest misuse.[61] It is scarcely possible to
say with any precision what we mean by one “self,” whereas it is
possible in a general way to say what we mean by one experience.
An experience may be called one and the same in so far as it is the
systematised expression of a single coherent purpose or interest, in
so far, in fact, as it has a teleological unity. In practice it may be
impossible to say precisely when this condition is fulfilled, but the
slightest acquaintance with the psychological facts of the struggle
between competing systems of ideas in normal, and of “dual” and
“multiple” personality in abnormal, mental life is sufficient to show
that the limits thus set by our definition to the single experience do
not coincide with those ascribed to my “self” or “personality” in any of
the shifting senses of the terms. The limits within which experience
remains one experience according to our definition are, as the facts
just alluded to show, often narrower, but again, the definition
suggests that they may also be wider, than any which would
currently be given to the “self.”
Moreover, what we have already said as to the possibility of each
“member” of our system being itself a system of lesser systems,
forbids us to identify our view with any doctrine which asserts merely
atomic and simple “selves” as the elements of Reality.
Another way of expressing the same thought would be to say that
Reality is an Individual of which the elements are lesser individuals.
The advantage of this form of expression is that it emphasises the
fundamentally teleological character of the unity of the real, and also
of each and all of its constituents. A thing, as we have already seen,
is individual just so far as it is unique, and only that which is the
embodiment of a single purpose or interest can be unique. A single
whole of experience, owing its unity as a whole precisely to the
completeness and harmony with which it expresses a single purpose
or interest, is necessarily an individual. The all-embracing
experience which constitutes Reality is thus in its inmost nature a
complete individual. And the lesser experiences which form the
elements or material content of Reality are each, just so far as each
is truly one experience, individual in the same sense as the whole.
We may thus call Reality a complete or perfect individual of minor or
incomplete individuals.
What the fundamental distinction between the supreme individual
whole and the lesser individuals must be taken to consist in we shall
discuss in our next chapter. Meanwhile we may note two points:—(1)
The important thing about an individual is not its mere numerical
unity, but its qualitative uniqueness. Any experience which we can
pronounce to be individual must be called so, not merely because it
is numerically one and not many, but because it is the consistent and
harmonious embodiment of a coherent purpose. Numerically
considered, every such individual is necessarily many as well as
one, precisely because it is a system. This applies especially to the
supreme or absolute individual, the complete system of experience.
It is individual primarily not because it is numerically one, but
because it is the complete expression of a coherent idea or purpose.
It has been the defect of too many monistic theories to overlook this,
and to lay the main stress on the numerical oneness of the real.
(2) An experience individual in the sense already explained is what
we mean by a “spirit.” Spirit cannot be properly defined by
contradistinction from a supposed non-spiritual reality, such as
“matter,” for such a definition would only amount to the assertion that
spirit is what is not other than spirit; and would tell us nothing of the
term to be defined. Nor, again, is spirit properly defined as a series of
states or modifications of the abstraction “consciousness.” The
positive characteristic by which spiritual existence may be
recognised is that in it the what and the that are combined in the
unity of immediate feeling. And immediate feeling, as we have seen,
is essentially teleological. Where you have a connected system of
factors which can only be understood as a whole by reference to an
explicit or implicit end, which constitutes their unity, you have spirit,
and where you have spirit you have such a system. So that to call
reality an individual of individuals is the same thing as to say that it is
a spiritual system of which the elements, constituents, or terms, are
in their turn spiritual systems.[62] Our doctrine may thus be seen to be
fairly entitled to the name Idealism, which current usage has
appropriated to the view that all existence is ultimately mental.
§ 7. Such a relation as we have asserted between the individual
whole of Reality and the elements or terms within the whole is
necessarily unique, and cannot be adequately illustrated from any
less perfect type of systematic unity recognised by everyday or by
scientific thought. In particular, we must carefully avoid the mistake
of conceiving the relation of the elements to the totality in a
mechanical way as that of “parts” to a “whole of parts”; or, again, in a
merely biological way, as that of “members” to an organism. All such
analogies lose sight of the intimate character of a union in which the
elements and the totality exist not merely in and through, but also for
each other.
The individual experiences which compose the supreme
experience have a genuine, if an imperfect and partial, individuality
of their own. They are not in it merely “ideally” or implicitly, as the
points on a curve may be said to be in the periphery. And the whole,
again, is a real individual, not a mere aggregate in which the parts
are real but their unity merely imaginary. We may, if we like, say that
it is made up of experiences or minds, but we must not say that it is
a collection of minds. For a mere collection, as we have seen, in so
far as it is a collection and nothing more, cannot be said to have any
genuine individuality, precisely because it has no teleological unity of
structure beyond that which we arbitrarily, and with reference to ends
lying outside its own nature, impose upon it in the very act of
counting its members, i.e. arranging them in serial order. Whether
we could properly speak of the absolute whole as a society of minds
is a further and a more difficult question. A society is much more
than a mere collection: it has a purposive unity of structure which
exists not merely for the sociological observer from without, but for
its own members as active in assigning to each of them his own
special place in relation to all the rest. How far society can be said to
have such a unity for itself is a question which we cannot answer
until we have dealt more fully with the problem of the relation
between selfhood and individuality. And until we have answered it,
we must defer the decision as to whether the systematic individuality
of the Absolute would be adequately recognised if we thought of it as
a society. (See infra, Bk. IV. chap. 3.)
If we are to look at this stage for some analogue within our partial
experience for the kind of unity of individuals in a single supreme
individual which we have demanded for the system of Reality, we
shall probably do best to turn to what is after all the most familiar
thing in the world,—our own personal experience. If we consider the
nature of any coherent purpose or “mental system,” we shall find
that, as the coherent embodiment of a purpose, it possesses a
degree of individuality of its own. In proportion to the