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8.5X10.875”.
Engineering
Circuit Analysis
INTERNATIONAL ADAPTATION
Engineering Circuit Analysis_FM.indd 1 22-Oct-21 4:53:18 PM

8.5X10.875”.
Engineering
Circuit Analysis
Twelfth Edition
J. David Irwin
Auburn University
R. Mark Nelms
Auburn University

Engineering Circuit Analysis
Twelfth Edition
Copyright © 2022 e content provided in this textbook is based on Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis, by
J. David Irwin, R. Mark Nelms, 12th edition [2021]. John Wiley & Sons Singapore Pte. Ltd
Cover image: © Shutterstock
Contributing Subject Matter Experts: Dr Ashwin Dhabale, VNIT Nagpur, India; Mr Jayanth Bhargav, PhD
Candidate, Purdue University, USA; Dr Lalita Gupta, MANIT Bhopal, India; Dr Molay Roy, NIT Sikkim,
India; Dr Nirmala Soren, BIT Sindri, India; Dr Siva Kumar G, NIT Warangal, India; Dr Uma Rao, RVCE
Bangalore, India
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ISBN: 978-1-119-66796-4
ISBN: 978-1-119-67222-7 (ePub)
ISBN: 978-1-119-67223-4 (ePdf )
Printed at

In Loving Memory of My Grandson
Ryan Watson Frazier (1995–2015)
To my parents
Robert and Elizabeth Nelms

Preface
To the Student resources provide the instructor with the tools necessary to
modify the format of the presentation in the hope of enhancing
Circuit analysis is not only fundamental to the entire breadth of the student’s rapid understanding of the material.
electrical and computer engineering—the concepts studied here In accordance with the earlier editions, the book contains
extend far beyond those boundaries. For this reason, it remains a plethora of examples that are designed to help the student
the starting point for many future engineers who wish to work grasp the salient features of the material quickly. New exam-
in this field. This textbook and all the supplementary materials ples have been introduced, and MATLAB® has been employed,
associated with it will aid you in reaching this goal. We strongly where appropriate, to provide a quick and easy software solu-
recommend while you are here to read the Preface closely and tion as a means of comparison, as well as to check other
view all the resources available to you as a learner. One last piece solution techniques. Application and Design Examples have
of advice: Learning to analyze electric circuits is like learning to returned to this edition. These help students answer questions
play a musical instrument. Most people take music lessons as a such as, “Why is this important” or “How am I going to use
starting point. Then, they become proficient through practice, what I learn from this course?”
practice, and more practice. Lessons on circuit analysis are pro-
vided by your instructor and this textbook. Proficiency in circuit
analysis can only be obtained through practice. Take advantage Highlights of the International Adaptation
of the many opportunities throughout this textbook to practice,
practice, and practice. In the end, you’ll be thankful you did. • A crisp, clean new interior design aimed at enhancing,
clarifying, and unifying the text as well as increasing
accessibility for all.
To the Instructor • End-of-chapter homework problems have been substan-
tially revised and augmented. There are now approximately
This International Adaptation has been prepared based on 2400 problems in this edition, of which over 800 are new!
a careful examination of feedback received from instructors Multiple-choice Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Exam
and students. The revisions and changes made should appeal Problems are also available as an online supplement.
to a wide variety of instructors. We are aware of significant • This course offers Reserve Assessment Bank Problems,
changes taking place in the way this material is being taught which are not available to students unless they are as-
and learned. Consequently, the authors and the publisher have signed. This allows you, as the instructor, to regulate who
created a formidable array of traditional and nontraditional sees these questions and the solutions. Recognizing that
learning resources to meet the needs of students and teachers third-party solutions become readily available online as
of modern circuit analysis. soon as a new edition is published, we now offer whole
By design, this book contains a bank of reserve assessment sets of problems for every chapter that are visible only to
problems not available to students. As a time-saving measure, the the instructor, hindering cheating and allowing instruc-
instructor can use this bank of problems for exam questions, term tors to choose which problems to assign as homework,
after term, without repetition. These problems are organized by and when and whether to provide solutions.
chapter section and categorized as easy, medium, and hard. The • Problem-Solving Videos (PSVs) have been created,
end-of-chapter problems have been arranged in the same man- showing students step-by-step how to solve the Learn-
ner. Dedicated students will find these problems an excellent re- ing Assessment problems within each chapter. This is
source for testing their understanding on a range of problems. a special feature that should significantly enhance the
Flipping the classroom has risen recently as an alternative learning experience for each subsection in a chapter.
mode of instruction, which attempts to help the student grasp • In order to provide maximum flexibility, online supple-
the material quicker. Studies to date have shown that this mode ments contain solutions to examples in the book using
also tends to minimize instructor office time. This book, with MATLAB, PSpice®, and MultiSim®.
its combination of Learning Assessments and problem-solving • Problem-Solving Strategies have been retained. They are
videos, is an ideal vehicle for teaching in this format. These utilized as a guide for the solutions contained in the PSVs.

viii Preface
Organization begin?” Nearly every chapter has one or more of these strat-
egies, which are a kind of summation on problem solving for
This text is suitable for a one-semester, a two-semester, or a concepts presented.
three-quarter course sequence. The first six chapters are con-
cerned with the analysis of dc circuits. An introduction to oper- Problems have been greatly revised in this adaptation. This
ational amplifiers is presented in Chapter 4. This chapter may be edition has over 800 new problems of varying depth and lev-
omitted without any loss of continuity; a few examples and home- el. Any instructor will find numerous problems appropriate
work problems in later chapters must be skipped. Chapters 7–11 for any level class. There are approximately 2400 problems!
are focused on the analysis of ac circuits beginning with the anal- Included with the Problems are FE Exam Problems provided
ysis of single-frequency circuits (single-phase and three-phase) as an online supplement. If you plan on taking the FE Exam,
and ending with variable-frequency circuit operation. Calcula- these problems closely match problems you will typically find
tion of power in single-phase and three-phase ac circuits is also on the FE Exam. Reserve Assessment Bank Problems, not
presented. The important topics of the Laplace transform, Fourier available to students, have been added to this edition for the
transform, and two-port networks are covered in Chapters 12–15. instructor to utilize as exam questions.
Chapter 16 provides an overview of diodes and its applications.
The organization of the text provides instructors maxi- Circuit Simulation and Analysis Software represents a
mum flexibility in designing their courses. One instructor may fundamental part of engineering circuit design today. Software
choose to cover the first six chapters in a single semester, while such as PSpice, MultiSim, and MATLAB allow engineers
another may omit Chapter 4 and cover Chapters 1–3 and 5–7. to design and simulate circuits quickly and efficiently. As an
Other instructors may choose to cover Chapters 1–3, 5, and enhancement with enormous flexibility, all three of these soft-
Sections 6.1 and 6.2 and then cover Chapters 7 and 8. The re- ware packages can be employed in this adaptation. In each
maining chapters can be covered in a second semester course. case, online supplements are available that contain the solu-
tions to numerous examples in each of these software pro-
grams. Instructors can opt to make this material available on-
Text Pedagogy line, making this software an integral and effective part of the
The pedagogy of this text is rich and varied. It includes print and presentation of course material.
media, and much thought has been put into integrating its use. The rich collection of material that is provided for this edi-
To gain the most from this pedagogy, please review the following tion offers a distinctive and helpful way for exploring the book’s
elements commonly available in most chapters of this book. examples and exercises from a variety of simulation techniques.
Learning Objectives are provided at the outset of each chap-

ter. This tabular list tells the reader what is important and
what will be gained from studying the material in the chapter.
Supplements
The supplements list is extensive and provides instructors and
Examples are the mainstay of any circuit analysis text, and students with a wealth of traditional and modern resources to
numerous examples have always been a trademark of this match different learning needs. These supplements are avail-
textbook. These examples provide a more graduated level of able via the related resources link found on the product page
presentation with simple, medium, and challenging examples. (www.wiley.com).
Besides regular examples, numerous Application Examples
and Design Examples are found throughout the text. Problem-Solving Videos are offered again in an iOS-com-
patible format. The videos provide step-by-step solutions to
Hints can often be found in the page margins. They facilitate Learning Assessments. Videos for Learning Assessments will
understanding and serve as reminders of key issues. directly follow a chapter feature called Problem-Solving Strat-
egy. Students who have used these videos with past editions
Learning Assessments are a critical learning tool in this text. have found them to be very helpful.
These exercises test the cumulative concepts to that point in a
given section or sections. Not only is the answer provided, but The Solutions Manual has been completely redone, checked,
a problem-solving video accompanies many of these exercises, and double-checked for accuracy.
demonstrating the solution in step-by-step detail. The student
who masters these is ready to move forward. PowerPoint Lecture Slides are an especially valuable sup-
plementary aid for instructors. While most publishers make
Problem-Solving Strategies are step-by-step problem- only figures available, these slides are true lecture tools that
solving techniques that many students find particularly use- summarize the key learning points for each chapter and are
ful. They answer the frequently asked question, “Where do I easily editable in PowerPoint.

Acknowledgments
Over the more than three decades that this text has been in ex- Natalie VanTyne, Colorado School of Mines
istence, we estimate that more than one thousand instructors Lale Yurttas, Texas A&M University
have used our book in teaching circuit analysis to hundreds of Tim Zeigler, Southern Polytechnic State University
thousands of students. As authors, there is no greater reward
The preparation of this book and the materials that sup-
than having your work used by so many. We are grateful for
port it have been handled with both enthusiasm and great
the confidence shown in our text and for the numerous evalu-
care. The combined wisdom and leadership of our colleagues
ations and suggestions from professors and their students over
at Wiley has resulted in a tremendous team effort that has ad-
the years. This feedback has helped us continuously improve
dressed every aspect of the presentation. This team included
the presentation. For this edition, we especially thank Eliz-
the following individuals:
abeth Devore, Tanner Grider, Markus Kreitzer, and Austin
Taylor with Auburn University for their assistance with the VP and Executive Publisher, Don Fowley
solutions manual. Senior Editor, Jennifer Brady
We were fortunate to have an outstanding group of faculty Senior Course Content Developer, Kimberly Eskin
who has participated in reviews, surveys, and focus groups for Marketing Manager, Christie Lieske
this edition: Senior Course Production Ops Specialist, Ashley Patterson
Creative Product Design Lead, Jon Boylan
Jorge Aravena, Louisiana State University Senior Content Manager, Valerie Zaborski
Cindy Barnicki, Milwaukee School of Engineering Editorial Assistant, Molly Geisinger
Kurt Becker, Utah State University
Yugal Behl, CNM Community College Each member of this team played a vital role in preparing
Christopher Bise, West Virginia University this edition. We are most appreciative of their many contribu-
April Bryan, Rose-Hulman tions.
James Conrad, University of North Carolina–Charlotte As in the past, we are most pleased to acknowledge the
Roy Craig, University of Texas–Austin support that has been provided by numerous individuals to
Janak Dave, University of Cincinnati earlier editions of this book. Our Auburn colleagues who have
Richard DuBroff, Missouri University of helped are:
Science & Technology Thomas A. Baginski Markus Kreitzer
Kim Fitzgerald, University of Illinois–Chicago Travis Blalock Matthew Langford
Manfred Hampe, TU Darmstadt Henry Cobb Aleck Leedy
Melinda Holtzman, Portland State University Elizabeth Devore George Lindsey
Bill Hornfeck, Lafayette College Bill Dillard Jo Ann Loden
Paul King, Vanderbilt University Zhi Ding James L. Lowry
Steve Krause, Arizona State University Kevin Driscoll David Mack
Gordon Lee, San Diego State University Brandon Eidson Paulo R. Marino
Janice Margle, Penn State University–Abington E. R. Graf M. S. Morse
Maditumi Mitra, University of Maryland Tanner Grider Sung-Won Park
Abhijit Nagchaudhuri, University of L. L. Grigsby John Parr
Maryland–Eastern Shore Charles A. Gross Monty Rickles
Bahram Nassersharif, University of Rhode Island Stephen Haddock C. L. Rogers
Tokunbo Ogunfunmi, Santa Clara University David C. Hill Tom Shumpert
Michael Polis, Oakland University M. A. Honnell Les Simonton
Kanti Prasad, University of Massachusetts–Lowell R. C. Jaeger Austin Taylor
Robert Steker, WCTC Keith Jones James Trivltayakhum
Yu Sun, University of Toronto Betty Kelley Susan Williamson
Nina Telang, University of Texas–Austin Ray Kirby Jacinda Woodward

x Acknowledgments
Many of our friends throughout the United States, some Darryl Morrell, Arizona State University
of whom are now retired, have also made numerous sugges- M. Paul Murray, Mississippi State University
tions for improving the book: Burks Oakley II, University of Illinois at Champaign–Urbana
John O’Malley, University of Florida
Said Abushamleh, University of Nebraska–Kearney
Arnost Neugroschel, University of Florida
David Anderson, University of Iowa
William R. Parkhurst, Wichita State University
Jorge Aravena, Louisiana State University
Peyton Peebles, University of Florida
Les Axelrod, Illinois Institute of Technology
Jian Peng, Southeast Missouri State University
Richard Baker, UCLA
Clifford Pollock, Cornell University
Charles F. Bunting, Oklahoma State University
George Prans, Manhattan College
John Choma, University of Southern California
Mark Rabalais, Louisiana State University
David Conner, University of Alabama at Birmingham
Tom Robbins, National Instruments
Alex da Rosa, University of Brasilia
Armando Rodriguez, Arizona State University
James L. Dodd, Mississippi State University
James Rowland, University of Kansas
Kevin Donahue, University of Kentucky
Robert N. Sackett, Normandale Community College
John Durkin, University of Akron
Richard Sanford, Clarkson University
Prasad Enjeti, Texas A&M University
Peddapullaiah Sannuti, Rutgers University
Earl D. Eyman, University of Iowa
Ronald Schulz, Cleveland State University
Arvin Grabel, Northeastern University
M. E. Shafeei, Penn State University at Harrisburg
Paul Gray, University of Wisconsin–Platteville
Martha Sloan, Michigan Technological University
Ashok Goel, Michigan Technological University
Scott F. Smith, Boise State University
Walter Green, University of Tennessee
Karen M. St. Germaine, University of Nebraska
Paul Greiling, UCLA
Janusz Strazyk, Ohio University
Mohammad Habli, University of New Orleans
Gene Stuffle, Idaho State University
John Hadjilogiou, Florida Institute of Technology
Thomas M. Sullivan, Carnegie Mellon University
Yasser Hegazy, University of Waterloo
Saad Tabet, Florida State University
Keith Holbert, Arizona State University
Val Tareski, North Dakota State University
Aileen Honka, The MOSIS Service–USC Information Sciences
Thomas Thomas, University of South Alabama
Institute
Leonard J. Tung, Florida A&M University/Florida State
Marty Kaliski, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo
University
Ralph Kinney, Louisiana State University
Marian Tzolov, Lock Haven University
Muhammad A. Khaliq, Minnesota State University
Vichate Ungvichian, Florida Atlantic University
Robert Krueger, University of Wisconsin
Darrell Vines, Texas Tech University
K. S. P. Kumar, University of Minnesota
Carl Wells, Washington State University
Jung Young Lee, UC Berkeley (student)
Seth Wolpert, University of Maine
Aleck Leedy, Murray State University
Hongbin Li, Stevens Institute of Technology Finally, Dave Irwin wishes to express his deep apprecia-
James Luster, Snow College tion to his wife, Edie, who has been most supportive of our ef-
Erik Luther, National Instruments forts in this book. Mark Nelms would like to thank his parents,
Ian McCausland, University of Toronto Robert and Elizabeth, for their support and encouragement.
Arthur C. Moeller, Marquette University J. DAVID IRWIN AND R. MARK NELMS

Brief Contents
1 Basic Concepts 1
2 Resistive Circuits 25
3 Network Theorems 99
4 Operational Amplifiers 209
5 Capacitance and Inductance 239
6 First- and Second-Order Transient Circuits 281
7 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis 343
8 Steady-State Power Analysis 397
9 Magnetically Coupled Networks 451
10 Three-Phase Circuits 495
11 Variable-Frequency Network Performance 531
12 The Laplace Transform 619
13 Application of the Laplace Transform to Circuit Analysis 643
14 Fourier Analysis Techniques 693
15 Two-Port Networks 741
16 Diodes 767
APPENDIX A Complex Numbers A-1
APPENDIX B Fundamental of Engineering (FE) Exam Problems (available online)
INDEX I-1

Contents
1 Basic Concepts 1 4 Operational Amplifiers 209
1.1 System of Units 1 4.1 Introduction 209

1.2 Basic Quantities 2 4.2 Op-Amp Models 209
1.3 Circuit Elements 8 4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits 216
Summary 18 4.4 Comparators 224
Problems 18 4.5 Application Examples 225
4.6 Design Examples 229
Summary 233
2 Resistive Circuits 25 Problems 233
2.1 Ohm’s Law 25

2.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws 30 5 Capacitance and Inductance 239
2.3 Single-Loop Circuits 39
2.4 Single-Node-Pair Circuits 46 5.1 Capacitors 239
2.5 Series and Parallel Resistor Combinations 51 5.2 Inductors 246
2.6 Circuits with Series-Parallel Combinations 5.3 Capacitor and Inductor Combinations 255
of Resistors 57 5.4 RC Operational Amplifier Circuits 263
2.7 Wye Delta Transformations 63 5.5 Application Examples 265
2.8 Circuits with Dependent Sources 67 5.6 Design Examples 270
2.9 Resistor Technologies for Electronic Summary 271
Manufacturing 73 Problems 272
2.10 Application Examples 76
Summary 84 6 First- and Second-Order
Problems 84 Transient Circuits 281
3 Network Theorems 99
6.1 Introduction 281
6.2 First-Order Circuits 283
6.3 Second-Order Circuits 303
3.1 Nodal Analysis 99 6.4 Application Examples 316
3.2 Loop Analysis 121 6.5 Design Examples 325
3.3 Equivalence and Linearity 138 Summary 332
3.4 Superposition 141 Problems 333
3.5 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorems 146
3.6 Maximum Power Transfer 164
3.7 Reciprocity Theorem 168 7 Sinusoidal Steady-State
3.8 Compensation Theorem 170
3.9 Millman’s Theorem 173
Analysis 343
7.1 Sinusoids 343
7.2 Sinusoidal and Complex Forcing Functions 346
Summary 184
7.3 Phasors 350
Problems 185
7.4 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements 352

xiv Contents
7.5 Impedance and Admittance 356

7.6 Phasor Diagrams 362
11 Variable-Frequency Network
7.7 Basic Analysis Using Kirchhoff’s Laws 365 Performance 531
7.8 Analysis Techniques 368
7.9 Application Examples 380 11.1 Variable Frequency-Response Analysis 531
7.10 Design Examples 382 11.2 Sinusoidal Frequency Analysis 539
Summary 385 11.3 Resonant Circuits 551
Problems 385 11.4 Scaling 571
11.5 Filter Networks 573
8 Steady-State Power Analysis 397 11.7 Design Examples 607
Summary 612
8.1 Instantaneous Power 397 Problems 613
8.2 Average Power 398
8.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer 404
8.4 Effective or RMS Values 408 12 The Laplace Transform 619
8.5 The Power Factor 411
8.6 Complex Power 413 12.1 Definition 619
8.7 Power Factor Correction 419 12.2 Step and Impulse Functions 620
8.8 Single-Phase Three-Wire Circuits 423 12.3 Transform Pairs 622
8.9 Safety Considerations 426 12.4 Properties of the Laplace Transform 624
8.10 Application Examples 434 12.5 Performing the Inverse Transform 626
8.11 Design Examples 438 12.6 Convolution Integral 632
Summary 440 12.7 Initial-Value and Final-Value Theorems 635
Problems 441 12.8 Solving Differential Equations Using Laplace
Transforms 637
Summary 639
9 Magnetically Coupled Problems 640
Networks 451
9.1 Mutual Inductance 451

13 Application of the Laplace
9.2 Energy Analysis 462 Transform to Circuit Analysis 643
9.3 The Ideal Transformer 465
9.4 Safety Considerations 474 13.1 Laplace Circuit Solutions 643
9.5 Application Examples 475 13.2 Circuit Element Models 645
9.6 Design Examples 480 13.3 Analysis Techniques 647
Summary 483 13.4 Transfer Function 658
Problems 484 13.5 Pole-Zero Plot / Bode Plot Connection 678
13.6 Steady-State Response 680
Summary 684
10 Three-Phase Circuits 495 Problems 685
10.1 Three-Phase Circuits 495

10.2 Three-Phase Connections 500 14 Fourier Analysis Techniques 693
10.3 Source/Load Connections 502
14.1 Fourier Series 693
10.4 Power Relationships 510
14.2 Fourier Transform 717
10.5 Unbalanced Load Connections 514
14.3 Application Example 728
10.6 Power Factor Correction 516 14.4 Design Examples 729
10.7 Application Examples 518 Summary 735
10.8 Design Examples 521 Problems 735
Summary 525
Problems 525

Contents xv
15 Two-Port Networks 741

16.4 Diode Rectifiers 779
16.5 Zener Diodes 783
Summary 787
15.1 Admittance Parameters 741
Problems 787
15.2 Impedance Parameters 744
15.3 Hybrid Parameters 746
15.4 Transmission Parameters 748 APPENDIX A Complex Numbers A-1
15.5 Inverse Hybrid Parameters 750 APPENDIX B Fundamental of Engineering (FE)
15.6 Inverse Transmission Parameters 751
15.7 Parameter Conversions 753 Exam Problems (available online)
15.8 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 754
Summary 760 INDEX I-1
Problems 761
16 Diodes 767
16.1 Introduction 767

16.2 Modeling Techniques 770
16.3 Analysis Using the Diode Equation 775

CHAPTER
1
Basic Concepts
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The learning goals for this chapter are that students should be able to:
❯ Use appropriate SI units and standard prefixes when ❯ Calculate the value of the dependent sources when
calculating voltages, currents, resistances, and powers. analyzing a circuit that contain independent and
❯ Explain the relationships between basic electrical dependent sources.
quantities: voltage, current, and power. ❯ Calculate the power absorbed by a circuit element
❯ Use the appropriate symbols for independent and using the passive sign convention.
dependent voltage and current sources.
1.1 ❯ System of Units

The system of units we employ is the international system of units, the Système international
d'unités, which is normally referred to as the SI standard system. This system, which is com-
posed of the basic units meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), ampere (A), kelvin (K), and
candela (cd), is defined in all modern physics texts and therefore will not be defined here.
However, we will discuss the units in some detail as we encounter them in our subsequent
analyses.
The standard prefixes that are employed in SI are shown in Fig. 1.1. Note the decimal rela-
tionship between these prefixes. These standard prefixes are employed throughout our study
of electric circuits.
Circuit technology has changed drastically over the years. For example, in the early 1960s,
the space on a circuit board occupied by the base of a single vacuum tube was about the size
of a quarter (25-cent coin). Today that same space could be occupied by an Intel Core i7 inte-
grated circuit chip containing 1.75 billion transistors. These chips are the engine for a host of
electronic equipment.
10−12 10−9 10−6 10−3 1 103 106 109 1012
pico (p) nano (n) micro (μ) milli (m) kilo (k) mega (M) giga (G) tera (T)
FIGURE 1.1 Standard SI prefixes.
Engineering Circuit Analysis_CH01_V4.indd 1 22-Oct-21 4:53:55 PM

2 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts
1.2 ❯ Basic Quantities

Before we begin our analysis of electric circuits, we must define terms that we will employ.
However, in this chapter and throughout the book, our definitions and explanations will be
as simple as possible to foster an understanding of the use of the material. No attempt will be
made to give complete definitions of many of the quantities because such definitions are not
only unnecessary at this level but are often confusing. Although most of us have an intuitive
concept of what is meant by a circuit, we will simply refer to an electric circuit as an intercon-
nection of electrical components, each of which we will describe with a mathematical model.
The most elementary quantity in an analysis of electric circuits is the electric charge. Our
interest in electric charge is centered around its motion, since charge in motion results in an
energy transfer. Of particular interest to us are those situations in which the motion is confined
to a definite closed path.
An electric circuit is essentially a pipeline that facilitates the transfer of charge from one
point to another. The time rate of change of charge constitutes an electric current. Mathe-
matically, the relationship is expressed as
t
dq(t)
i(t) = —
dt
or q(t) = −∞ i(x) dx (1.1)
where i and q represent current and charge, respectively (lowercase letters represent time
dependency, and capital letters are reserved for constant quantities). The basic unit of current
is the ampere (A), and 1 ampere is 1 coulomb (C) per second.
Although we know that current flow in metallic conductors results from electron motion,
the conventional current flow, which is universally adopted, represents the movement of positive
charges. It is important that the reader think of current flow as the movement of positive
charge regardless of the physical phenomena that take place. The symbolism that will be used
to represent current flow is shown in Fig. 1.2. In Fig. 1.2a, I1 = 2 A indicates that at any point
in the wire shown, 2 C of charge pass from left to right each second. In Fig. 1.2b, I2 = −3 A
indicates that at any point in the wire shown, 3 C of charge pass from right to left each second.
Therefore, it is important to specify not only the magnitude of the variable representing the
current but also its direction.
The two types of current that we encounter often in our daily lives, alternating current (ac)
and direct current (dc), are shown as a function of time in Fig. 1.3. Alternating current is the
common current found in every household and is used to run the refrigerator, stove, washing
machine, and so on. Batteries, which are used in automobiles and flashlights, are one source
of direct current. In addition to these two types of currents, which have a wide variety of uses,
we can generate many other types of currents. We will examine some of these other types
later in the book. In the meantime, it is interesting to note that the magnitude of currents in
elements familiar to us ranges from soup to nuts, as shown in Fig. 1.4.
I1 = 2 A
Circuit 1
i(t) i(t)
(a)
I2 = −3 A
t t
Circuit 2
(b) (a) (b)
FIGURE 1.2 Conventional current flow: FIGURE 1.3 Two common types of current: (a) alternating cur-
(a) positive current flow; (b) negative current flow. rent (ac); (b) direct current (dc).

1.2 Basic Quantities 3
106
Lightning bolt
104
Large industrial motor current
102
Typical household appliance current
100
Current in amperes (A)

Ventricular fibrillation in humans
10−2
Human threshold of sensation
10−4
10−6
Integrated circuit (IC) memory cell current
10−8
10−10
10−12
Synaptic current (brain cell)
10−14
FIGURE 1.4 Typical current magnitudes.
We have indicated that charges in motion yield an energy transfer. Now we define the
voltage (also called the electromotive force, or potential) between two points in a circuit as the
difference in energy level of a unit charge located at each of the two points. Voltage is very
similar to a gravitational force. Think about a bowling ball being dropped from a ladder into
a tank of water. As soon as the ball is released, the force of gravity pulls it toward the bottom
of the tank. The potential energy of the bowling ball decreases as it approaches the bottom.
The gravitational force is pushing the bowling ball through the water. Think of the bowling
ball as a charge and the voltage as the force pushing the charge through a circuit. Charges in
motion represent a current, so the motion of the bowling ball could be thought of as a current.
The water in the tank will resist the motion of the bowling ball. The motion of charges in an
electric circuit will be impeded or resisted as well. We will introduce the concept of resistance
in Chapter 2 to describe this effect.
Work or energy, w(t) or W, is measured in joules (J); 1 joule is 1 newton meter (N . m).
Hence, voltage [υ (t) or V] is measured in volts (V), and 1 volt is 1 joule per coulomb; that is,
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb = 1 newton meter per coulomb. If a unit positive charge is moved
between two points, the energy required to move it is the difference in energy level between
the two points and is the defined voltage. It is extremely important that the variables used to
represent voltage between two points be defined in such a way that the solution will let us
interpret which point is at the higher potential with respect to the other.
In Fig. 1.5a, the variable that represents the voltage between points A and B has been de-
fined as V1, and it is assumed that point A is at a higher potential than point B, as indicated by
the + and − signs associated with the variable and defined in the figure. The + and − signs
define a reference direction for V1. If V1 = 2 V, then the difference in potential of points A and
B is 2 V, and point A is at the higher potential. If a unit positive charge is moved from point A
through the circuit to point B, it will give up energy to the circuit and have 2 J less energy when
it reaches point B. If a unit positive charge is moved from point B to point A, extra energy must
be added to the charge by the circuit, and hence the charge will end up with 2 J more energy
at point A than it started with at point B.
A A A
+ C + C − C
i i i
r r r
V1 = 2 V c1 V2 = −5 V c2 V2 = 5 V c3
u u u
i i i
− t − t + t
B B B
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 1.5 Voltage representations.

For the circuit in Fig. 1.5b, V2 = −5 V means that the potential between points A and B is
5 V and point B is at the higher potential. The voltage in Fig. 1.5b can be expressed as shown
in Fig. 1.5c. In this equivalent case, the difference in potential between points A and B is
V2 = 5 V, and point B is at the higher potential.
Note that it is important to define a variable with a reference direction so that the answer
can be interpreted to give the physical condition in the circuit. We will find that it is not
possible in many cases to define the variable so that the answer is positive, and we will also
find that it is not necessary to do so.
As demonstrated in Figs. 1.5b and c, a negative number for a given variable, for exam-
ple, V2 in Fig. 1.5b, gives exactly the same information as a positive number; that is, V2 in
Fig. 1.5c, except that it has an opposite reference direction. Hence, when we define either
current or voltage, it is absolutely necessary that we specify both magnitude and direction.
Therefore, it is incomplete to say that the voltage between two points is 10 V or the current
in a line is 2 A, since only the magnitude and not the direction for the variables has been
defined.
The range of magnitudes for voltage, equivalent to that for currents in Fig. 1.4, is shown in
Fig. 1.6. Once again, note that this range spans many orders of magnitude.
At this point, we have presented the conventions that we employ in our discussions of
current and voltage. Energy is yet another important term of basic significance. Let’s investigate
the voltage–current relationships for energy transfer using the flashlight shown in Fig. 1.7.
The basic elements of a flashlight are a battery, a switch, a light bulb, and connecting wires.
Assuming a good battery, we all know that the light bulb will glow when the switch is closed.
A current now flows in this closed circuit as charges flow out of the positive terminal of the
108
Lightning bolt
106 High-voltage transmission lines

Voltage on a TV picture tube
104
Large industrial motors
ac outlet plug in U.S. households
102
Voltage in volts (V)
Car battery
Voltage on integrated circuits
100 Flashlight battery
10−2
Voltage across human chest produced by the
heart (EKG)
10−4
Voltage between two points on human scalp (EEG)
10−6
Antenna of a radio receiver
10−8
10−10
FIGURE 1.6 Typical voltage magnitudes.
Switch
− Battery +
Light bulb
FIGURE 1.7 Flashlight circuit.

I
− Battery +
− Vbattery + + Vbulb −
FIGURE 1.8 Flashlight circuit with voltages and current.
battery through the switch and light bulb and back into the negative terminal of the battery.
The current heats up the filament in the bulb, causing it to glow and emit light. The light bulb
converts electrical energy to thermal energy; as a result, charges passing through the bulb lose
energy. These charges acquire energy as they pass through the battery as chemical energy
is converted to electrical energy. An energy conversion process is occurring in the flashlight as
the chemical energy in the battery is converted to electrical energy, which is then converted to
thermal energy in the light bulb.
Let’s redraw the flashlight as shown in Fig. 1.8. There is a current I flowing in this dia-
gram. Since we know that the light bulb uses energy, the charges coming out of the bulb have
less energy than those entering the light bulb. In other words, the charges expend energy A I=2A
as they move through the bulb. This is indicated by the voltage shown across the bulb. The
+
charges gain energy as they pass through the battery, which is indicated by the voltage across
the battery. Note the voltage–current relationships for the battery and bulb. We know that the 3V
bulb is absorbing energy; the current is entering the positive terminal of the voltage. For −
the battery, the current is leaving the positive terminal, which indicates that energy is being
B I=2A
supplied.
(a)
This is further illustrated in Fig. 1.9, where a circuit element has been extracted from
a larger circuit for examination. In Fig. 1.9a, energy is being supplied to the element by
whatever is attached to the terminals. Note that 2 A—that is, 2 C of charge—are moving A I=2A
from point A to point B through the element each second. Each coulomb loses 3 J of energy +
as it passes through the element from point A to point B. Therefore, the element is absorbing
3V
6 J of energy per second. Note that when the element is absorbing energy, a positive current
enters the positive terminal. In Fig. 1.9b, energy is being supplied by the element to what- −
ever is connected to terminals A-B. In this case, note that when the element is supplying B I=2A
energy, a positive current enters the negative terminal and leaves via the positive terminal. In
(b)
this convention, a negative current in one direction is equivalent to a positive current in the
opposite direction, and vice versa. Similarly, a negative voltage in one direction is equivalent FIGURE 1.9 Voltage–current
relationships for (a) energy
to a positive voltage in the opposite direction.
absorbed and (b) energy supplied.
EXAMPLE 1.1
Suppose that your car will not start. To determine whether the battery is faulty, you turn on
the light switch and find that the lights are very dim, indicating a weak battery. You borrow
a friend’s car and a set of jumper cables. However, how do you connect his car’s battery to
yours? What do you want his battery to do?
Solution Essentially, his car’s battery must supply energy to yours, and therefore
it should be connected in the manner shown in Fig. 1.10. Note that the positive cur-
rent leaves the positive terminal of the good battery (supplying energy) and enters the
positive terminal of the weak battery (absorbing energy). Note that the same connections
are used when charging a battery.

+ − + −
Good Weak
battery battery
FIGURE 1.10 Diagram for Example 1.1.
In practical applications, there are often considerations other than simply the electri-
cal relations (e.g., safety). Such is the case with jump-starting an automobile. Automobile
batteries produce explosive gases that can be ignited accidentally, causing severe physical
injury. Be safe—follow the procedure described in your auto owner’s manual.
We have defined voltage in joules per coulomb as the energy required to move a positive
charge of 1 C through an element. If we assume that we are dealing with a differential amount
of charge and energy, then
dw
υ=— (1.2)
dq
Multiplying this quantity by the current in the element yields
( )
dw dq dw
υi = — — = — = p
dq dt dt
(1.3)
i(t)
which is the time rate of change of energy or power measured in joules per second, or watts (W).
+
Since, in general, both υ and i are functions of time, p is also a time-varying quantity. Therefore,
υ(t) the change in energy from time t1 to time t2 can be found by integrating Eq. (1.3); that is,
t2 t2
−
∆w =  p dt =  υ i dt
t1 t1
(1.4)
FIGURE 1.11 Sign convention At this point, let us summarize our sign convention for power. To determine the sign of
for power. any of the quantities involved, the variables for the current and voltage should be arranged as
shown in Fig. 1.11. The variable for the voltage υ (t) is defined as the voltage across the element
HINT 1.1 with the positive reference at the same terminal that the current variable i(t) is entering. This
The passive sign convention convention is called the passive sign convention and will be so noted in the remainder of this
is used to determine whether book. The product of υ and i, with their attendant signs, will determine the magnitude and
power is being absorbed or sign of the power (see HINT 1.1). If the sign of the power is positive, power is being absorbed
supplied. by the element; if the sign is negative, power is being supplied by the element.
EXAMPLE 1.2
Given the two diagrams shown in Fig. 1.12, determine whether the element is absorbing or
supplying power and how much.
6A −3 A
− +
− +
3V 3V 3V 3V
+ −
+ −
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.12 Elements for Example 1.2.

Solution In Fig. 1.12a, the power is P = (3 V)(– 6 A) = –18 W. Therefore, the element is supply-
ing power. In Fig. 1.12b, the power is P = (3 V)(–3 A) = –9 W. Therefore, the element is supplying
power.
LEARNING ASSESSMENT
E1.1 Determine the amount of power absorbed or supplied by the elements in Fig. E1.1. Answer:
(a) P = −48 W;
(b) P = 8 W.
+ + I=2A
+ +
V1 = 12 V 12 V V1 = 4 V 4V
− −
− I =4A −
(a) (b)
FIGURE E1.1
EXAMPLE 1.3
We wish to determine the unknown voltage or current in Fig. 1.13.
6A I=?
A −A
−
V1 = ? P = −30 W 5V P = 20 W 5V
+
B +B
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.13 Elements for Example 1.3.
Solution In Fig. 1.13a, a power of –30 W indicates that the element is delivering power.
Therefore, the current enters the negative terminal (terminal A), and from Eq. (1.3) the voltage
is 5 V. Thus, B is the positive terminal, A is the negative terminal, and the voltage between them
is 5 V.
In Fig. 1.13b, a power of +20 W indicates that the element is absorbing power and, there-
fore, the current should enter the positive terminal B. The current thus has a value of −4 A,
as shown in the figure.
LEARNING ASSESSMENT
E1.2 Determine the unknown variables in Fig. E1.2. Answer:
I=2A (a) V1 = −20 V;
(b) I = −5 A.
− P = 40 W + P = −50 W +
V1 = ? V1 = 10 V 10 V
−
+ −
I=?
(a) (b)
FIGURE E1.2

Finally, it is important to note that our electrical networks satisfy the principle of conserva-
tion of energy. Because of the relationship between energy and power, it can be implied that
power is also conserved in an electrical network. This result was formally stated in 1952 by
B. D. H. Tellegen and is known as Tellegen’s theorem—the sum of the powers absorbed by
all elements in an electrical network is zero. Another statement of this theorem is that the
power supplied in a network is exactly equal to the power absorbed. Checking to verify that
Tellegen’s theorem is satisfied for a particular network is one way to check our calculations
when analyzing electrical networks.
1.3 ❯ Circuit Elements

Thus far, we have defined voltage, current, and power. In the remainder of this chapter we
will define both independent and dependent current and voltage sources. Although we will
assume ideal elements, we will try to indicate the shortcomings of these assumptions as we
proceed with the discussion.
In general, the elements we will define are terminal devices that are completely character-
ized by the current through the element and/or the voltage across it. These elements, which
we will employ in constructing electric circuits, will be broadly classified as being either ac-
tive or passive. The distinction between these two classifications depends essentially on one
thing—whether they supply or absorb energy. As the words themselves imply, an active ele-
ment is capable of generating energy and a passive element cannot generate energy.
However, later we will show that some passive elements are capable of storing energy.
Typical active elements are batteries and generators. The three common passive elements are
resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
In Chapter 2, we will launch an examination of passive elements by discussing the resistor
in detail. Before proceeding with that element, we first present some very important active
elements.
1. Independent voltage source 3. Two dependent voltage sources
2. Independent current source 4. Two dependent current sources
Independent Sources
An independent voltage source is a two-terminal element that maintains a specified voltage
between its terminals regardless of the current through it, as shown by the υ-i plot in Fig. 1.14a.
The general symbol for an independent source, a circle, is also shown in Fig. 1.14a. As the
figure indicates, terminal A is υ(t) volts positive with respect to terminal B.
In contrast to the independent voltage source, the independent current source is a two-
terminal element that maintains a specified current regardless of the voltage across its terminals,
as illustrated by the υ-i plot in Fig. 1.14b. The general symbol for an independent current
source is also shown in Fig. 1.14b, where i(t) is the specified current and the arrow indicates
the positive direction of current flow.
In their normal mode of operation, independent sources supply power to the remainder of
the circuit. However, they may also be connected into a circuit in such a way that they absorb
power. A simple example of this latter case is a battery-charging circuit, such as that shown
in Example 1.1.
It is important that we pause here to interject a comment concerning a shortcoming
of the models. In general, mathematical models approximate actual physical systems only
under a certain range of conditions. Rarely does a model accurately represent a physical
system under every set of conditions. To illustrate this point, consider the model for the
voltage source in Fig. 1.14a. We assume that the voltage source delivers υ volts regardless of
what is connected to its terminals. Theoretically, we could adjust the external circuit so that
an infinite amount of current would flow, and therefore the voltage source would deliver
an infinite amount of power. This is, of course, physically impossible. A similar argument
could be made for the independent current source. Hence, the reader is cautioned to keep

1.3 Circuit Elements 9
υ υ
i i
A A
υ(t) + i(t)
–
B B
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.14 Symbols for (a) independent voltage source and (b) independent
current source.
in mind that models have limitations and thus are valid representations of physical systems
only under certain conditions.
For example, can the independent voltage source be utilized to model the battery in an
automobile under all operating conditions? With the headlights on, turn on the radio. Do
the headlights dim with the radio on? They probably won’t if the sound system in your
automobile was installed at the factory. If you try to crank your car with the headlights on,
you will notice that the lights dim. The starter in your car draws considerable current, thus
causing the voltage at the battery terminals to drop and dimming the headlights. The inde-
pendent voltage source is a good model for the battery with the radio turned on; however,
an improved model is needed for your battery to predict its performance under cranking
conditions.
EXAMPLE 1.4
Determine the power absorbed or supplied by the elements in the network in Fig. 1.15.
9V
I=3A + −
1 I=3A
+
36 V + 2 27 V
− −
I=3A
FIGURE 1.15 Network for Example 1.4.
Solution The current flow is out of the positive terminal of the 36-V source, and there-
fore this element is supplying (3)(36) = 108 W of power. The current is into the positive
terminals of elements 1 and 2, and therefore elements 1 and 2 are absorbing (3)(9) = 27 W HINT 1.2
and (3)(27) = 81 W, respectively. Note that the power supplied is equal to the power ab- Elements that are connected
sorbed. Also note that the same 3 A current flows through all elements in this circuit in series have the same
(see HINT 1.2). current.

LEARNING ASSESSMENT
E1.3 Find the power that is absorbed or supplied by the elements in Fig. E1.3. Answer:
18 V Current source
I=3A + −
supplies 36 W, element 1
1
I=3A absorbs 54 W, and element 2
+ −
supplies 18 W.
12 V 3A 2 6V
− +
FIGURE E1.3
Dependent Sources
In contrast to the independent sources, which produce a particular voltage or current
completely unaffected by what is happening in the remainder of the circuit, dependent
sources generate a voltage or current that is determined by a voltage or current at a speci-
fied location in the circuit. These sources are very important because they are an integral
part of the mathematical models used to describe the behavior of many electronic circuit
elements.
For example, metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) and bipolar
transistors, both of which are commonly found in a host of electronic equipment, are modeled
with dependent sources, and therefore the analysis of electronic circuits involves the use of
these controlled elements.
In contrast to the circle used to represent independent sources, a diamond is used to
represent a dependent or controlled source. Figure 1.16 illustrates the four types of depend-
ent sources. The input terminals on the left represent the voltage or current that controls
the dependent source, and the output terminals on the right represent the output current or
voltage of the controlled source. Note that in Figs. 1.16a and d, the quantities μ and β are di-
mensionless constants because we are transforming voltage to voltage and current to current.
This is not the case in Figs. 1.16b and c; hence, when we employ these elements a short time
later, we must describe the units of the factors r and g.
iS
+
υS + υ = μυS + υ = riS
− −
−
(a) (b)
iS
+
υS i = gυS i = βiS
(c) (d)
FIGURE 1.16 Four different types of dependent sources.

EXAMPLE 1.5
Given the two networks shown in Fig. 1.17, we wish to determine the outputs.
Solution In Fig. 1.17a, the output voltage is Vo = μVS or Vo = 10 VS = (10)(3 V) = 30 V. Note

that the output voltage has been amplified from 3 V at the input terminals to 30 V at the output
terminals; that is, the circuit is a voltage amplifier with an amplification factor of 10.
IS = 2 mA Io
+ +
VS = 3 V + 10VS = Vo Vo 30IS = Io
−
− −
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.17 Circuits for Example 1.5.
In Fig. 1.17b, the output current is Io = βIS = (30)(2 mA) = 60 mA; that is, the circuit has a
current gain of 30, meaning that the output current is 30 times greater than the input current.
LEARNING ASSESSMENT
E1.4 Determine the power supplied by the dependent sources in Fig. E1.4. Answer:
Io = 2 A IS = 4 A (a) Power supplied = 80 W;
(b) Power supplied = 160 W.
+ +
VS = 4 V + 10 VS 1 10 V 4 IS 1
−
−
−
(a) (b)
FIGURE E1.4
EXAMPLE 1.6
Calculate the power absorbed by each element in the network of Fig. 1.18. Also verify that
Tellegen’s theorem is satisfied by this network.
15 V
1A + −
3
10 V 5V
+ − + −
4 2
2A 1A
+
30 V +
− 20 V 1 15 V +
−
−
3A 1A 2A
FIGURE 1.18 Circuit used in Example 1.6.

Solution Let’s calculate the power absorbed by each element using the sign convention for
power.
P1 = (20)(1) = 20 W
P2 = (5)(1) = 5 W
P3 = (15)(1) = 15 W
P4 = (10)(2) = 20 W
P15 V = (15)(2) = 30 W
P30 V = (30)(−3) = −90 W
Note that to calculate the power absorbed by the 30-V source, the current of 3 A flowing up
through the source was changed to a current −3 A flowing down through the 30-V source.
Let’s sum up the power absorbed by all elements: 20 + 5 + 15 + 20 + 30 − 90 = 0
This sum is zero, which verifies that Tellegen’s theorem is satisfied.
EXAMPLE 1.7
Use Tellegen’s theorem to find the current Io in the network in Fig. 1.19.
6V
− + Ix = 2 A
2A
6V 12 V
+ − − +
1 2
Io 9A
11 A
+
3 10 V + 4V + 8Ix
− −
−
3A 8A
FIGURE 1.19 Circuit used in Example 1.7.
Solution First, we must determine the power absorbed by each element in the network.
Using the sign convention for power, we find
P2 A = (6)(−2) = −12 W
P1 = (6)(Io) = 6Io W
P2 = (12)(−9) = −108 W
P3 = (10)(−3) = −30 W
P4 V = (4)(−8) = −32 W
PDS = (8Ix)(11) = (16)(11) = 176 W
Applying Tellegen’s theorem yields
−12 + 6Io − 108 − 30 − 32 + 176 = 0
or
6Io + 176 = 12 + 108 + 30 + 32
Hence,
Io = 1 A

LEARNING ASSESSMENTS
E1.5 Find the power that is absorbed or supplied by the circuit elements in the network in Fig. E1.5.
8V Answer:
+ − P24 V = 96 W supplied;
1
P1 = 32 W absorbed;
24 V + + 4Ix P4I = 64 W absorbed.
− − x
Ix = 4 A
FIGURE E1.5
E1.6 Find the power that is absorbed or supplied by the network elements in Fig. E1.6. Answer:
P24 V = 36 W supplied;
2Ix
P12 V = 18 W absorbed;
−+ 1
+ − P2I = 4.5 W supplied;
x
6V
P1 = 9 W absorbed;
24 V + + 12 V P2 = 13.5 W absorbed.
− −
9V Ix = 1.5 A
− +
2
FIGURE E1.6
E1.7 Find Ix in Fig. E1.7 using Tellegen’s theorem. Answer:

Ix = −2 A.
1A 2A
+ +
10 V Ix 3 15 V
− −
+
1 25 V 5A
−
+
2 15 V + 10 V
−
−
FIGURE E1.7

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commercial intercourse were about to commence, as it was
supposed the Chinese, as of old, would soon begin to form pepper-
plantations, and the expectation was partly fulfilled. A rich
shopkeeper obtained permission from the sultan, and a grant of land
having been made, he set to work to form a garden. He planted
fruits, vegetables, and pepper, the last grew luxuriantly, though the
soil appeared unpromising; but no sooner was it known to be
yielding, than crowds of idlers from the capital flocked there, and
soon stripped it of everything eatable. In despair, he gave up his
project, and no one has had the courage to try again; in fact, it would
be useless as long as the present system of government holds.
Since our colony of Labuan was established in 1848, a few
Chinese have left it to spread along the coast. As yet they have had
little effect, since most of them have married into native families, and
done little else than carry on a petty trade, or manufacture arrack.
Lately, however, a few have commenced pepper-gardens, but the
districts are too unsettled to promise much, yet it is a movement to
be encouraged. When I have asked the Chinese why they did not
emigrate there, the invariable answer has been, “Will you afford us
protection? if not, as soon as our plantations are productive, the
nobles will force the produce from us.”
The sultan, in a moment of enlightenment, determined to
encourage planters, and actually sent for a dozen from Singapore,
paid their expenses to Brunei, and promised a monthly allowance till
the produce of their vegetable-gardens enabled the Chinese to
support themselves. These regular payments, however, soon
became very distasteful to him, and every month be gave them less,
till at last from want of food they all dispersed, and the experiment
has not been tried again.
The Brunei government makes every effort to prevent the Chinese
mixing with the aborigines, as it tends to destroy the monopoly of
trade they seek to establish, and they fear also the teaching of the
Chinese, who would never counsel submission to oppressive rulers,
though when employed by the nobles as agents, they can be more
systematically grinding than the Malays.
It is evident that the intercourse between Borneo and China,
which undoubtedly was once very active, has been decreasing for
above a hundred years, and the cause was doubtless the anarchy
into which the country fell and the consequent want of protection.
Fifty years ago, the junk trade appears entirely to have ceased; and
even in 1775 it had been reduced to about seven a year, although
they continued to build vessels at Brunei.
With regard to the accounts of old travellers, that the north of
Borneo was formerly peopled from Cochin China, I have heard
nothing to support the theory, beyond the tradition that in ancient
days a great trade was carried on between Annam and the north-
west coast, when many Cochin Chinese settled in Borneo. In fact, in
the Champa country, in the southern portion of the Kambodian
peninsula, there is a people whose language contains a
considerable number of Malay words; so that the effect on these two
countries may have been mutual, though Champa, doubtless, was
more influenced by settlers from the Malay peninsula.
I have before alluded to the Chinese wandering from our colony of
Labuan to settle in small numbers in the districts on the coast to the
north of that island. A favourite place was Papar, as the Dusuns
there were wealthy, and, being numerous, cared little for their
nominal ruler, pañgeran Omar; and among the Chinese settlers were
two men, who lived in a small house on the banks of the river. One
day, early in the year 1859, the wife of the chief of a neighbouring
village was passing that way, when one of these men attempted to
pull off her petticoat, which constituted her only covering. Her
screams bringing some friends to the spot, the man let her go and
ran into his house. In the evening, the chief came to demand
satisfaction for this very gross insult, but said, as the offender was a
stranger, and perhaps did not know the customs of the country, he
should only fine him the value of a goat. The two Chinese ordered
him to leave their house, and, to enforce it, took up their carrying-
sticks, with which the one who had insulted the woman struck him.
The Dusun chief, who had his spear in his hand, stabbed the
offender and wounded his companion, who came up to join in the
attack. This affair caused great commotion in the district, and all the
Chinese clamoured for vengeance.
Pañgeran Omar inquired into the case, fined the Dusun, and
ordered the amount to be paid over to the dead man’s friends. They
were not, however, satisfied with the amount of the fine, and
determined to revenge themselves. Collecting a body of about
twenty of their countrymen, on the pretence of a pig hunt, they
marched to attack the chief’s village; upon which the Dusuns,
beating the alarm gong, soon apprised their neighbours that they
were in danger; and the Chinese, as usual, arrogant when there was
no opposition, but cowards in circumstances of peril, immediately on
finding their first volley did not frighten their enemies, fled with
precipitation, and were pursued by the Dusuns, and the larger
portion of them killed.
The case was misrepresented in Labuan, and some demands
were made for satisfaction; but it was evident the Chinese had
brought this disaster on themselves; and I know of no worse policy
than to consider all those, whether British subjects or not, who leave
our colony to settle on the coast as entitled to our protection. If we
can be of service to them, it is as well to use our influence to insure
them the best treatment, but we should never let the Chinese
imagine we intend to give them the protection of the British flag on all
occasions. Yet it is a subject which requires delicate handling, for, if
we entirely abandoned their interests, they would be plundered and
massacred; and without them there will never be any progress on
the coast, or developement of trade and agriculture on a large scale;
and if we claim them as British subjects, which a few are in reality,
their insolence to the natives is often unbearable.
I have generally found that those Chinese who come direct from
their own country are better adapted to succeed with the native
chiefs than those who have resided long in our own settlements,
where they acquired an independence almost amounting to
lawlessness. I once nearly lost my life through the reckless conduct
of one of these Singapore Chinese, who had been accustomed to
treat the Malays there with great contumely. When he arrived in
Brunei, he did the same thing with a crazy man belonging to the
Pablat section of the town, and the Chinese quarter was thrown into
confusion. I sent both men to the sultan, but in the meantime the
report spread among the Malay’s relatives that the Chinese had ill
used him, and 150 men immediately came down, shouting that they
would run amuck among the Chinese. A respectable Bornean trader
came hastily into my room, saying, if I did not immediately go down
to the scene, there would be a massacre. I caught up my sword and
hurried to the Chinese village, to find the Pablat men in the act of
assaulting the strangers; and had one wound been given, there
would have been no stopping the mischief.
I need not dwell on all the particulars, but it was with the greatest
difficulty I turned the Malays back from their purpose. To me they
behaved with great civility, after the first excitement was over; but the
glare their chief gave me, when I put the hilt of my sword to his
breast to prevent him using his spear on an unfortunate Chinese
trader, who had nothing to do with the quarrel, was a very savage
one. His hand in a moment sought his kris; but on my saying, in a
very quiet tone, “Don’t draw your kris on me,” he dropped his
intention at once, and although his followers drew their weapons and
urged him to the attack, he began to explain to me the reason of his
coming with that force at his back. I knew if I could check the rush for
five minutes, things would be safe, as by that time some friends, who
were staying at the house, would be down with all my armed
followers; and so it proved. But the insolence of the Chinese was
effectually checked by this demonstration, and I had no further
trouble with them, as they thought I might not always be there to
stand between them and death.
This is but a meagre account of the results of that extensive
Chinese intercourse with the northern portion of Borneo, which was
carried on for so many hundred years; but in a country so uncivilized
there are no antiquities; and although the tradition exists among the
people that formerly numerous immigrants arrived and settled, still
they can relate few facts concerning them. There can be little doubt,
judging from the character of the two people, that the nobles would
endeavour to squeeze out of the foreign planters as much as
possible; that they would fine them heavily for very slight faults, till
they would drive the Chinese to resistance, and insurrections would
as surely follow among a people who always unite against other
races. They are no match for the Malays and Dayaks in wild warfare;
and it is only their organization which enables them to offer any
resistance to the desultory attacks of their enemies.
It has been said that in the great insurrection of the Chinese the
Muruts joined them, and that the Borneans were compelled to seek
the assistance of the Sulus to repress it, but I did not hear any
mention of the latter statement, and it appears improbable. Internal
dissention is the more likely cause of the failure of the attempt to
throw off the yoke of the Malays, the Muruts being bribed to leave
their allies. At all events, the Bisaya tribes were engaged in its
suppression, as the grandfather of the orang kaya of Blimbing
assisted in taking the fort at the entrance of the Madalam river. The
Chinese insurgents, driven from the lower country, attempted to
make a stand on a rounded hill there, but lost their fort, either by a
panic or by treachery, my informant did not appear certain which.
Between Brunei and Sarawak the Chinese do not appear to have
established themselves; but to the latter country the gold-workers of
Sambas occasionally sent parties of men to try the soil, as auriferous
ore was reported to be plentiful. But during the distractions
consequent on the civil war, they found it impossible to pursue their
peaceful industry, and those who were successful in obtaining gold
were exposed to the attacks of lawless Malays.
One man, who is now a very respected member of society, a haji
of mark, who has for the last twenty years conducted himself in the
most exemplary manner, was once tempted to commit a crime by the
report that a party of Chinese was returning to Sambas with sixty
ounces of gold. He and a few of his relations waylaid the travellers,
and, surprising them in the dark forest, murdered them and obtained
the treasure.
This naturally aroused the anger of their countrymen, and an
expedition was fitted out at Sambas to revenge the deed. They
marched into the Sarawak territory, and advanced nearly as far as
the town of Siniawan, then occupied by Malays, but found a strong
stockade built across the path. The Chinese numbered about seven
hundred men, while their opponents were at first scarcely twenty, but
protected by their position and numerous guns. Confident in their
numbers, the assailants rushed to the attack, almost reaching the
foot of the defences, but receiving a severe fire from the guns in
position, loaded with nails, bits of old iron and shot, they were beaten
back. The Malays acknowledge the Chinese kept up the attacks all
day; but, after their first repulse, they principally confined themselves
to a distant fire, though they occasionally made attempts to turn the
position, but were repulsed by the ever-increasing numbers of the
Malays.
Towards evening the Chinese withdrew to the banks of the river,
and made preparations to pass the night; while the Malays, who had
been reinforced by many of their friends, determined to try the effect
of a surprise. They were commanded by the gallant patinggi Ali,
whose exploits and death are recorded in the Voyage of the Dido;
and just at sunset they started in their light boats with a gun in each,
and pulled with an almost silent stroke towards the Chinese
encampment, where they found their enemies cooking rice, smoking
opium, or shouting or talking, in fact, making so great a noise as to
prevent the possibility of hearing the sound of paddles, cautiously
pulled.
When all were ready, patinggi Ali gave the signal to fire, and the
next moment they yelled and sprang ashore. The startled Chinese
fled, and were pursued relentlessly by the Dayaks, who had come
down from the hills to share in the struggle. It is said half the
invading force was destroyed, and that the old, dried skulls I had
noticed in the Dayak villages were the trophies of the fight.
Being thus exposed to every kind of ill-treatment, it is not
surprising that the Chinese did not care to settle in the country; but,
after Sir James Brooke was established in Sarawak, they began to
increase in numbers, though always inclined to be troublesome.
When I arrived, in the year 1848, it was considered there were about
six hundred living there, mostly engaged in gold-working, and even
these were much inclined to have an imperium in imperio, though too
weak to carry out their views. They had formed themselves into an
association called the Santei Kiu kunsi, or company.
I must notice that these Chinese are not the pure emigrants from
China, but the half-breeds, descendants of the early settlers, who
obtained Malay and Dayak wives, and are more warlike in their
habits than the pure Chinese, and many have much of the activity of
the aborigines. Settled in Sambas before the arrival of the
Europeans in those seas, they gradually formed self-governing
communities among the weak Malay States around, and by
intermarriage with the women of the Dayak tribes in their
neighbourhood, formed both political and social alliances with them.
It was not to be expected that this state of things could long exist
without serious disputes arising with the Malay chiefs; however, they
generally managed to prevent a total estrangement; but when
backed by the Dutch officials, the Sultan of Sambas endeavoured to
coerce them into submission, the Chinese gold-working communities
refused to obey, attacked the small force sent against them,
captured the forts, and drove the Dutch troops to their steamers, and
left in their possession little more than the town of Sambas. This, of
course, roused the officials, and a strong expedition was sent from
Java, which within a year subdued the refractory Chinese, who, in
fact, submitted with very little opposition. But during their success
they managed to give Sarawak a considerable lift.
At the mouth of the Sambas river there is a place called
Pamañgkat, where several thousand Chinese agriculturists were
engaged in raising fine crops of rice. These men had not joined their
countrymen in their resistance to the Sambas Government, and were
therefore marked out for punishment during their brief success. In
their alarm, the Pamañgkat Chinese fled to Sarawak, arriving in
great numbers during the year 1850, whilst I was absent with Sir
James Brooke on his mission to Siam; some came by sea, others
fled overland to Lundu and to the interior.
I found on my return in October, after nearly a year’s absence,
that a great change had taken place in the appearance of the town of
Kuching: dozens of fresh houses were built and building, while the
surrounding forest was falling rapidly before the axes of the fugitives.
Many of them had arrived destitute of all property, and I learnt that
three hundred and ten families were entirely supported by the food
and money furnished by the Sarawak government, besides hundreds
of others having received presents of tools and temporary
assistance. It was calculated at the time that about three thousand
had arrived, many of whom immediately joined the gold-workers in
the interior. We found also that the mission school had received a
great addition in the form of about twenty remarkably intelligent-
looking little boys and girls, whose destitute parents had gladly
handed them over to the care of the clergy.
Sir James Brooke, hearing that there was much confusion in the
interior, from the numerous freshly-arrived Chinese, and from the
Dayaks being alarmed by this sudden influx into their
neighbourhood, started with a party to visit it. We soon reached
Siniawan, the little Chinese trading town I have previously described,
which was but now advancing to importance. We continued our
course up the river to Tundong, where there is a ghàt used by the
gold-working company to land their supplies. Nearly all the gold that
is worked in Borneo is done by kunsis, or companies, which
sometimes numbered several thousand men; in fact, they say that at
Montrado nearly the whole of its Chinese population and that of the
neighbourhood, estimated at 50,000 men, were included in one
kunsi. Generally, however, they consisted, as at Sarawak, of a few
hundred members, though they might still be in connexion with the
parent company. The great influx of Chinese had now, however,
swelled the Santei Kiu kunsi to inconvenient dimensions.
At Tundong we found a few store-houses and a very tolerable
path leading over to Bau, the principal Chinese settlement. The
views on either side of us, as we advanced, were sometimes
exceedingly picturesque; for, as we reached the summits of low hills,
a fine undulating country was spread out beneath us. The path led
through shady forests, then open Dayak clearings, along the sides of
hills, and over pretty streams spanned by very primitive bridges.
As we approached the town of Bau we met a band of Chinese
musicians who had come forth to greet us, and gun after gun was
discharged in honour of the rajah’s visit. Our procession was a very
motley one, half a dozen Englishmen, followed by a long line of
Malays, Chinese, and Dayaks, marching in Indian procession, some
carrying spears, others muskets, or flags.
At last we reached the kunsi’s house, prettily situated in the valley
of Bau, which was on two sides flanked by black-looking
perpendicular hills. The house itself was a substantial one, built of
ironwood posts and good planks, and roofed with excellent ironwood
shingles.
I will describe one of their gold-workings. They dammed up the
end of the valley at the back of the kunsi’s house, thus forming a
large reservoir of water, perhaps a quarter of a mile in length. The
dam was very neatly constructed, being completely faced with wood
towards the water, and partially on the outside, to enable it to resist
the very heavy rains which fall in this country. A ditch, about four feet
broad, was cut from the reservoir towards the ground which the
overlooker of the company had selected as a spot likely to produce a
good yield of gold, and a well-made sluice-gate was constructed in
the dam to supply the ditch with as much water as might be required;
minor sluice-gates to the main ditch enabled the smaller ones also to
receive supplies of water. When this was all prepared, the sluice-
gates were opened, and the earth in its neighbourhood thrown into
the ditch, and the rushing water carried off the mud and sand and
allowed the particles of gold to sink to the bottom. After three or four
months they cleaned out the ditch and carefully washed the residue,
which generally yielded them sufficient to make a tolerable division
among the workmen after all the expenses had been paid.
It is a very wasteful system of working gold; in fact, when we were
there, all the women and girls, lately arrived from Sambas, had the
privilege given them of washing the earth which had been swept
away by the rushing water, and I believe they obtained as much in
proportion to the number working as was divided among the men,
who had had all the labour of constructing these extensive works. No
one has yet taught them deep sinking; in fact, it is to be regretted
that none of their countrymen accustomed to the method of
procuring this precious metal in our Australian colonies have yet
visited Sarawak.
That there is an abundance of gold to be found there I verily
believe, and, as an instance, I may notice that in November, 1848, a
great landslip took place, and the face of the Trian mountain was laid
bare. Some Malays, observing small pieces of gold mixed with the
clay, began a strict search, and having great success, the news soon
spread, and several thousand people flocked to the spot, where they
worked till the heap of earth and stone was cleared away. All had fair
success, and we heard of none who got less than an ounce and a
half per month. The work lasted above six weeks. I saw one nugget
picked up, which weighed about seven ounces.
The influx of the Pamangkat Chinese gave great impetus to the
search for the auriferous ore, and new reservoirs, dams, and ditches,
were appearing in every direction; but yet the new-comers, being
only accustomed to agriculture, did not take very kindly to gold
digging. Sir James Brooke was anxious to remove a large body to
some district which they could cultivate; but they were too poor to be
able to support themselves while waiting for their crops. The gold
company was not willing to part with these people, and promised
them every assistance if they would stay at Bau.
Nearly all the early efforts to assist these immigrants in developing
the agricultural resources of the country had but little success. They
commenced rice farms at Si Jinkat on the Muaratabas, and also at
the foot of the Santubong hill; but though they were supplied with
food and tools by the Sarawak government, they abandoned both
attempts, and scattered themselves either among the gold-workers
in the interior, or removed to the district of Lundu, where, as I have
already mentioned, they made beautiful gardens. It was a matter of
regret that they should have abandoned Santubong, as the soil is of
a very fine description. I believe the non-success, however, arose
from defective management and inefficient superintendence.
Everything appeared to go on very quietly till January 1852, when
a fortnight’s continued rain rather injured their reservoirs, and laid the
country under water. Such a flood, they say, never before or since
came upon them. At Kuching it was necessary in the Chinese town
to move from house to house in boats. At Siniawan it rose to so
great a height that the inhabitants had to abandon their houses, and
an unfortunate Chinese, seeking safety in his garret, was drowned,
being unable to force his way through the roof; and up the country
we saw afterwards the dried grass left by the stream at least forty
feet above the usual level of the river.
In 1853, the gold company gave the government considerable
trouble, and had to be curbed by a great display of armed force; but
they submitted without any necessity of proceeding to extremities.
The case was this: the government had issued an order to the
company that they should not make any fresh reservoirs or gold-
workings among the Dayak lands without obtaining permission from
the authorities, as on several occasions quarrels had arisen between
them and the neighbouring tribes, on account of their taking
possession of the best farming ground in the country.
The Pamangkat Chinese were never quite satisfied with their
position as gold-workers, and constantly made applications to the
government for assistance in order to recommence their old style of
living as rice cultivators. At last they fixed on a good spot, and food
and rice were supplied to several hundreds. This well-managed
movement might have been increased to any extent, as all the late
immigrants preferred a quiet rural life; and by the commencement of
1856 nearly five hundred were established at a place called Sungei
Tañgah, about six miles above the town.
I may observe that during the four previous years the Dutch had
kept the Chinese within the boundary of their settlements in very
strict order; but, in 1856, some dispute taking place, a Dutch officer
and a party of troops were cut off by the workmen of the Lumar
kunsi, one of the large gold companies, about three hundred of
whom escaped over the borders into the Sarawak territories, while
the rest were captured, and many suffered condign punishment for
their crime.
I will notice here a regulation which obtains in the Dutch territories
of Sambas and the other border states, which is so illiberal that I can
scarcely believe it to be authorized by any of the superior authorities,
but must be the work of a very narrow-minded local official. No
Chinese, whether man, woman, or child, can leave the Dutch
territories without first paying a fine of 6l.; so that as very few
workmen can save that amount they are practically condemned to
remain there all their lives, unless they can evade the blockade kept
upon them, thus running the risk of the cat-o’nine-tails, a fine, and
imprisonment. The reason for this regulation is that no Chinese in
Borneo would willingly remain under Dutch rule who could possibly
escape from it; and if liberty were given to them to leave the country,
nearly every man would abandon it. Therefore, gunboats watch the
coast, and on the frontiers soldiers, Malays, and Dayaks, are
ordered to stop any Chinese who may attempt to escape from the
Dutch territories.
In the spring of 1856, I made a tour through the Chinese
settlements established in Sarawak, commencing with the rice
plantations and vegetable gardens established at Sungei Tañgah. I
have never seen in Borneo anything more pleasing to my eye than
the extensive cultivated fields which spread out around the scattered
Chinese houses, each closely surrounded by beds of esculent plants
growing in a most luxuriant manner.
Every day appeared to be adding to the area of cultivation;
because, as the agriculturists became more wealthy, they invited the
poorer gold-workers to join them, and were thus enabled to employ
many labourers. Already the effect of this increase of produce was
perceptible on prices, so that vegetables, fowls, and ducks, were
beginning to be bought at reasonable rates. On the other side, the
right-hand bank of the river, near the little mount of Stapok, about
forty Chinese had commenced gardens without any assistance from
Government, and appeared to be very prosperous. To this spot a
road had been cut through the forest from the town, which
afterwards became memorable in Sarawak annals. Altogether, as I
have before observed, there were about five hundred people
assembled here engaged in a war against the jungle.
Continuing our course towards the interior, we met with no
Chinese houses until we reached the village of Siniawan, at that time
governed by the guns of the little fort of Biledah, admirably situated
on a high point jutting into the river, and on the same spot where the
Sarawak Malays during the civil wars had their strongest stockade.
The town was remarkably flourishing, and we here heard a
confirmation of the reports that a great many Chinese were arriving
from Sambas. As we were anxious to be thoroughly acquainted with
the actual condition of the gold-working population, we determined to
walk across from Siniawan to the head-quarters of the gold company
at Bau. The paths were in very good condition, quite suited for riding
over, except when we reached the bridges thrown across the deep
gullies which intersect the country.
From Siniawan all the way to Bau, a distance of ten miles, there
was a constant succession of reservoirs and gold-workings; and
judging from the new houses springing up in every direction, we felt
sure the population was increasing. About a third of the way along
the road, a branch path led to a place called by the Chinese
“Shaksan,” where there was an excellent hot spring, over which Mr.
Ruppell had built a little house. We diverged to this spot to indulge in
the unusual sensation of a hot bath, and found the temperature of
the water so warm that it was almost unbearable; but for any one
suffering from rheumatism it would be excellent. We noticed in the
neighbourhood many limestone rocks water-worn into fantastic
shapes, exactly similar to those I subsequently observed near the
base of the mountain of Molu.
There are near the main path some large reservoirs in which very
fine fish are found, and the road being led along the banks, or over
the broad dams, it was very picturesque, particularly near the
limestone hills of Piat, where we found a large party of Malays
seeking gold in the quartz which lines the crevices and the caves of
these hills. A very pretty specimen was shown us with the particles
of gold sparkling as if imbedded in crystal.
As it was my companion’s duty to inspect all the stations, we
diverged to the right to visit the antimony mines of Busu. We found
there upwards of fifty Chinese apparently working at the rock on the
steep face of a hill, burrowing here and there in the limestone. The
rocks were very much like those of the mountain of Molu, and
climbing over their sharp surface into little out-of-the-way corners, we
found two or three Chinese scattered here and there, picking out
lumps of antimony from the crevices of the limestone, or perfectly
imbedded in it, and requiring much labour to procure.
These are not really mines—no vein is found, but merely lumps of
ore scattered in every direction.
Just at the foot of the hill in the forest we came upon two Malays
who had just discovered a lump of antimony weighing several tons
which was but a few feet below the surface, and having cleared
away the superincumbent earth, were now covering it over with dry
wood, in order to split the metal, by first raising the temperature by
fire, and then suddenly reducing it by water.
Near Bau the reservoirs increased in number and extent, while
the population became more numerous, and as at each Chinese
house there were several ferocious dogs kept, it was necessary to
be perpetually on one’s guard. The town of Bau was much more
extensive than I could have supposed; I counted above one hundred
shops, and there were many houses besides.
Our attention was particularly drawn to one long, enclosed shed,
filled with Chinese, who evidently, from their appearance and
conduct, were strangers. On arriving at the gold company’s house,
we made inquiries respecting these late arrivals, and the principal
people positively denied any had reached Bau, which was evidently
untrue. These kunsis are regular republics, governed by officers
selected by the multitude: a common workman may suddenly be
elevated to be their leader. They generally choose well, and look
chiefly to the business character of the man put up for their selection.
Though, perhaps, gold-working pays on the whole more than
other labour, the men are kept so very hard at work that the ranks
are not easily filled; yet they are allowed five meals a day, with as
much rice as they can eat, a good supply of salt fish and pork, and
tea always ready. At their meals the Chinese are very fond of
drinking their weak arrack, or samshu, raw, but as nearly
approaching a boiling state as the lips can endure.
Our tour then led us to the neighbourhood of the antimony mines
of Bidi, where the Bornean company are at present working that
metal with success.
The country here is very picturesque: fine open valleys bordered
by almost perpendicular limestone hills, and with an admirable soil.
Occasionally the whole length of a precipice is undermined, forming
extensive open caves, with huge stalactites hanging down at the
extreme edge, giving a beautiful yet fantastic appearance to these
natural dwellings.
We spent a night at a village of the Sau Dayaks, whose long
dwelling was built on a steep hill on the banks of the Sarawak river;
and from thence on nearly to the borders of the Sarawak territory,
was an admirable path constructed by the Chinese to facilitate their
intercourse with Sambas, but unfortunately for travellers, they had
not completed it to Bau.
A four hours’ walk brought us to the last Chinese station, which
was evidently more intended as a resting place for wayfarers than
because its inhabitants were actually much engaged in gold-working
there. We ascended the hills to the village of the Gombang Dayaks,
and heard that a continual stream of small parties of Chinese was
constantly passing within sight of their village. So there was little
doubt that the Chinese population was increasing.
From all the inquiries we made as to the numbers engaged
directly and indirectly in gold-working, we considered there were
nearly three thousand living between the town of Siniawan and the
border. There were about five hundred agriculturists in Suñgei
Tuñgah and its neighbourhood, and perhaps eight hundred in the
town of Kuching, the sago manufactories, and the surrounding
gardens; but these were soon after recruited by the three hundred
fugitives from Sambas, to whom I have before referred; so that the
Chinese population of Sarawak amounted to above four thousand
five hundred before they rose in insurrection, and while seeking to
overthrow the government, ruined themselves.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE CHINESE INSURRECTION.
Secret Societies—Extensive Intercourse—Smuggling—The Gold

Company fined—Punishment of three of its Members—Arrogance
of the Kunsi—A Police Case—Real Causes of the Insurrection—
An Emissary from the Tien Ti Secret Society—Reported
Encouragement given by the Sultan of Sambas—Sambas Nobles
speak Chinese—Their Nurses—The Nobles conspiring—An
Emissary arrives in Brunei—Proposal—Knowledge of the
intended Insurrection—Proposed Attack on the Consulate—The
Tumanggong’s Threat—The Emissary before the Court—Letter
from the Tien Ti Hué—Rumours of intended Insurrection—
Preparations and Inquiries—Commencement of the Revolt—
Useless Warnings—Surprise of the Government House—Danger
of the Rajah—Cowardice of the Chinese—Escape—Swims the
River—Death of Mr. Nicholets—Attacks on the other Houses—On
the Stockade—Gallant Conduct of Mr. Crymble and the Malay
Fortmen—Warm Reception of the Rebels—Death of a Madman—
A Brave Corporal—Escape of Mr. Crymble—His last Blow—
Fortmen again behave well—Confusion in the Town—Peaceful
Assurances—Attempt to organize a Defence—Panic-stricken—
Departure—Conduct of the People—Next Morning—Killed and
Wounded—The Chinese in Power—The Court House—A Check
to Joy—Oath of Fidelity—Courage shown by Abang Fatah—A
Blow struck—Second Descent of the Chinese—A Boat Action—
Gallant Attack—Deaths—Anecdote—The Second Retreat—The
Town in Flames—The Steamer—The Capital recovered—Pursuit
of the Chinese—They retire to the Interior—Attacks of the Land
Dayaks—Foray of the Chinese—Their Fort taken by the Datu
Bandhar—Pursuit—Disorderly Retreat—Critical Position—Brave
Girls—Pass the Frontier—The Men of the Kunsi—A Quarrel—
Stripped of Plunder—Results of the Insurrection—Forces at the
Disposal of the Sarawak Government—Conduct of the People—
Disastrous to the Chinese—New System—Arrival of armed
Chinese from Sambas—Dutch and English Assistance—Revisit
Sarawak—Change—Conduct of the Rajah—Its Effect on the
People—Secret Society at Labuan—Dangers from the Secret
Societies and their Defenders—Curious Incident—Thoughtful
Care of the Rajah.
I shall endeavour to tell the story of the Chinese insurrection
which suddenly broke out in Sarawak in the year 1857, as it appears
to me to be fraught with instruction to us, and if carefully studied,
may be of infinite service to those who have to govern colonies
where the Chinese form a considerable portion of the population.
For many years the Chinese had attempted to form secret
societies in Sarawak; but every effort was made to check their
spread among the people, and it appeared as if success had
attended that policy. To a considerable extent it was the case: but up
in the interior, among the gold workers, the kunsi or company stood
in the place of a secret society, and its members carried on an
extensive intercourse with their fellow-countrymen in Sambas and
Pontianak, and with the Tien Ti secret society in Singapore. I have
described in the last chapter a tour which Mr. Fox and I made among
the settlements of the Chinese in the interior of Sarawak, during
which we became convinced that smuggling was carried on to a
great extent, for, however numerous might be the new immigrants,
the opium revenue did not increase.
At last it was discovered that opium was sent from Singapore to
the Natuna islands, and from thence smuggled into Sarawak and the
Dutch territories; it was traced to the kunsi, which was thereupon
fined 150l.: a very trifling amount, considering the thousands they
had gained by defrauding the revenue, and measures were
immediately taken to suppress the traffic, which, together with the
punishment of three of its members for a gross assault on another
Chinese, were the only grounds of complaint they had against the
Sarawak government.
To show their arrogance, I will enter into the details of this case. A
Chinese woman ran away from her husband, a member of the kunsi,
who followed her to Kuching, and obtained an order from the police
magistrate that she should return with him, but on her refusal, she
was ordered to remain within the stockade. As the case was
peculiar, she was not confined to a cell, but suffered to move about
in the inner court; and some of her friends supplying her with men’s
clothes, she managed to slip out unperceived by the sentry, and
obtained a passage on board a Chinese boat bound for one of the
villages on the coast. Her husband hearing of the place to which she
had removed, followed her with a strong party of the members of the
kunsi, and recovered her. Not satisfied with this, they seized all the
boatmen, and flogged them in the most unmerciful manner, and then
placed them in irons. When let go, they of course brought their
complaint before the police magistrate, and three of the party were
punished for taking the law into their own hands.
These trivial cases were not the real cause of the insurrection, as
the Chinese before that date were greatly excited by the news that
the English had retired from before Canton; and it was of course
added, we had been utterly defeated, and their preparations were
made before the smuggling was discovered, or the members of their
company punished. The secret societies were everywhere in great
excitement, and the Tien Ti sent an emissary over from Malacca and
Singapore, to excite the gold workers to rebellion, and used the
subtle, but false argument, that not only were the English crushed
before Canton, but that the British Government were so discontented
with Sir James Brooke, that they would not interfere if the kunsi only
destroyed him and his officers, and did not meddle with the other
Europeans, or obstruct the trade.
It is also currently reported that the Sambas sultan and his nobles
offered every encouragement to the undertaking, and the Chinese
listened much to their advice, as these nobles can speak to them in
their own language, and are imbued greatly with Chinese ideas. To
explain this state of things, I may mention that they are always
nursed by girls chosen from among the healthiest of the daughters of
the gold workers; and I may add, that about that time there was a
very active intercourse carried on between the Malay nobles of
Sambas and Makota, and that the latter was constantly closeted with
an emissary of the Tien Ti Hué, or secret society, to whom I am
about to refer. It behoves the Dutch authorities to look well to the
proceedings of the native governments within their own territories, as
there is very great discontent, and there is not the slightest doubt
that the nobles are conspiring.
To show that it is not a mere imagination that the Tien Ti secret
society sent emissaries around at that time, I may state that on the
14th of February, four days before the insurrection, a Chinese
named Achang, who had arrived in Brunei from Singapore a few
days previously, and had the year before been expelled from
Sarawak for joining that Hué, came to my house to try and induce
my four Chinese servants to enter it; and added as a sufficient
reason that the kunsi of Sarawak would by that time have killed all
the white men in that country. He also said that he was very
successful in enlisting members among the sago washers and other
labourers in the capital, and that they had made up their minds to
attack my house, and destroy me within a few weeks, and if my
servants did not join the society they would share my fate.
I did not believe what was said about Sarawak, and any warning
of mine would not have reached there for a month, but I did not
altogether neglect this information, which was secretly given me by
my butler, a Chinese, who had lived several years in England, and
whose death by cholera in 1859 I much regretted; but sent to the
sultan and ministers intimation of what I had heard, and the stern
remark of the tumanggong, that if such an attack were made, not a
Chinese should, by the following night, be left alive in the whole
country, effectually curbed them. This Achang, though a very
quarrelsome fellow, had soon a case of just complaint against a
British subject, which he brought before my court; when it was over, I
asked him how he would have obtained a settlement of his claims, if
his intention to murder me had been carried out. I never saw a man’s
countenance change more, and thinking he was about to fall on the
ground, and to clasp my knees, either to beg for pardon, or, what is
more probable, to entreat that I would not believe the story, I told my
writer to lead him out of the court.
At Bau the letter from the Tien Ti Hué was shown to nakodah
Jeludin by the writers of the kunsi, whilst he was detained a prisoner
there, and this was not invented by him as a startling incident, but
mentioned casually in the course of conversation; this Malay
afterwards died fighting bravely in the last charge to break the ranks
of the Chinese.
During the month of November, 1856, rumours were abroad that
the Chinese gold company intended to surprise the stockades, which

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Engineering Circuit Analysis 12th

Edition J. David Irwin

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Cover image: © Shutterstock

ISBN: 978-1-119-67222-7 (ePub)

ISBN: 978-1-119-67223-4 (ePdf )

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Learning Objectives are provided at the outset of each chap-

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4 Operational Amplifiers 209

5 Capacitance and Inductance 239

6 First- and Second-Order Transient Circuits 281

7 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis 343

8 Steady-State Power Analysis 397

9 Magnetically Coupled Networks 451

10 Three-Phase Circuits 495

11 Variable-Frequency Network Performance 531

12 The Laplace Transform 619

13 Application of the Laplace Transform to Circuit Analysis 643

14 Fourier Analysis Techniques 693

15 Two-Port Networks 741

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1.1 System of Units 1 4.1 Introduction 209

2.1 Ohm’s Law 25

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7.5 Impedance and Admittance 356

9.1 Mutual Inductance 451

10.1 Three-Phase Circuits 495

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15 Two-Port Networks 741

16.1 Introduction 767

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1.1 ❯ System of Units

10−12 10−9 10−6 10−3 1 103 106 109 1012

FIGURE 1.1 Standard SI prefixes.

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1.2 ❯ Basic Quantities

(b) (a) (b)

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Current in amperes (A)

FIGURE 1.4 Typical current magnitudes.

FIGURE 1.5 Voltage representations.

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106 High-voltage transmission lines

FIGURE 1.7 Flashlight circuit.

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FIGURE 1.8 Flashlight circuit with voltages and current.

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FIGURE 1.10 Diagram for Example 1.1.

FIGURE 1.12 Elements for Example 1.2.