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Food Across
Cultures
Linguistic Insights
in Transcultural Tastes
Edited by
Giuseppe Balirano · Siria Guzzo
 Food Across Cultures

“Exploring an area of research and an approach which is still, relatively speaking,

in its infancy this volume has clear interdisciplinary and international appeal.
Essential reading for the fields of both linguistic and cultural identity.”
—Paul Coggle, formerly University of Kent, UK
 Giuseppe Balirano · Siria Guzzo
Editors

Food Across Cultures

Linguistic Insights in Transcultural
Tastes
Editors
Giuseppe Balirano Siria Guzzo
Department of Literary, Linguistics and Department of Humanities
Comparative Studies University of Salerno
University of Naples “L’Orientale” Fisciano, SA, Italy
Naples, Italy

ISBN 978-3-030-11152-6 ISBN 978-3-030-11153-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11153-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018966694

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by
similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein
or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Maram_shutterstock.com

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Contents

1 Italian Food Perception as a Marker of the Spread

of Italian Identity in Germany 1
Amelia Bandini and Marcella Corduas

2 Food and Translation in Montalbano 23

Margherita Dore

3 Callaloo or Pelau? Food, Identity and Politics in Trinidad

and Tobago 43
Eleonora Esposito

4 Diasporic Identities in Social Practices: Language

and Food in the Loughborough Italian Community 71
Siria Guzzo and Anna Gallo

5 Stuff the Turkey! An Investigation of Food, Language

and Performative Identity Construction in Eat Pray Love 99
Bronwen Hughes

v
vi   Contents

6 Pancakes Stuffed with Sweet Bean Paste: Food-Related

Lexical Borrowings as Indicators of the Intensity of
Language Contact in the Pacific 127
Kazuko Matsumoto and David Britain

7 Pizza Chiena Between Two Worlds 169

Suzanne Romaine

Index 205
 Notes on Contributors

Giuseppe Balirano is Professor of English Linguistics and Translation

in the Department of Literary, Linguistic and Comparative Studies at
the University of Naples ‘L’Orientale’, Italy.
Amelia Bandini is Senior Lecturer and Adjunct Professor of German
Language and Linguistics, University of Naples Federico II, Naples,
Italy. Her main field of interest is applied linguistics with a focus on
foreign language teaching and learning, multilingualism and pluri-
lingualism, and language as a marker of cultural identity. She has
been developing “e-tandem” exchanges involving students of Italian
and German FL in collaborative learning activities. She has also been
involved in research projects on German immigration policies.
David Britain has been Professor of Modern English Linguistics at
the University of Bern in Switzerland since 2010, having previously
worked in New Zealand and the UK. His research interests embrace
language variation and change, varieties of English (especially in
Southern England, the Southern Hemisphere and the Pacific), dialect
contact and attrition, dialect ideologies, and the dialectology-human
geography interface, especially with respect to space/place, urban/rural

vii
viii   Notes on Contributors

and the role of mobilities. He is editor of Language in the British Isles

(Cambridge University Press, 2007), co-editor (with Jenny Cheshire) of
Social Dialectology (Benjamin, 2003), and co-author of Linguistics: An
Introduction (with Andrew Radford, Martin Atkinson, Harald Clahsen
and Andrew Spencer) (Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition 2009).
David was Associate Editor of the Journal of Sociolinguistics between
2008 and 2017.
Marcella Corduas is full Professor of Statistics at the University of
Naples Federico II. Her main research interest focuses on time series
analysis and statistical multivariate analysis. In particular, her research
concentrates on the development of methodologies for time series clas-
sification and forecasting. In recent years, she has been involved in the
development of innovative models for rating and preference data. She
has co-authored several articles where statistical techniques are applied
to linguistic problems, and that has appeared in “Discourse Processes”,
“Humor”, and “Language and Literature”.
Margherita Dore is Research Fellow and Adjunct Lecturer at the
Department of European, American and Intercultural Studies at the
University of Rome “La Sapienza”. She holds a Ph.D. in Linguistics
from Lancaster University, UK (2008), an M.Sc. in Translation and
Intercultural Studies from UMIST, UK (2002) and a B.A. in English
and Latin American Studies from the University of Sassari, Italy
(2001). In 2009–2010, she was Visiting Scholar at the University of
Athens (Greece). Her interests include: Humour Studies, Translation
Studies, Audiovisual Translation and Cognitive Stylistics. She has (co)
authored over fifteen papers and edited one essay collection on transla-
tion practice (Achieving Consilience. Translation Theories and Practice,
Cambridge Scholars Publisher, 2016). She has worked on the analysis
of humour in translated audiovisual texts (especially dubbing and subti-
tling) and in a range of other contexts, including stand-up comedy and
within intercultural communication.
Eleonora Esposito is Marie Skłodowska-Curie Research Fellow at
the University of Navarra (Spain). She holds a M.A. in Cultural and
Postcolonial Studies (University of Naples L’Orientale, 2010) and a
 Notes on Contributors   ix

Ph.D./Doctor Europaeus in English Linguistics (University of Naples

Federico II, 2015). Her research interests are in the field of Language,
Politics, Gender and Society in the European Union and in the
Anglophone Caribbean, investigated in the light of Critical Discourse
Studies, Multimodal Studies and Translation Studies. Currently, she is
exploring new theoretical perspectives and integrated methodologies for
the critical investigation of Social Media Discourses.
Anna Gallo is currently a Ph.D. student in “Mind, Gender and
Language” at the “Federico II” University of Naples, Italy, with her
research being carried out jointly with the University of Bern. Her
project is focused on language and identity amongst Anglo-Italians in
Bristol, UK. She was a Visiting Research Student at the University of
the West of England, UK and she holds an M.A. and a B.A. in Foreign
Languages and Literatures from the University of Salerno, Italy. Her
main research interests include language and identity, particularly
within Italian communities in the UK, sociolinguistics, multilingual-
ism, code-switching, discourse and identity.
Siria Guzzo is Senior Lecturer of English Language and Linguistics at
the University of Salerno, Italy. She holds a Ph.D. in English for Special
Purposes and a M.A. in Sociolinguistics. Her research interests mainly lie
in the field of sociolinguistics and language variation and change. She has
conducted research and widely published in the fields of migration and
its effects on identity, new dialect/ethnolect formation, language contact
and its outcomes, and first and second language acquisition. Her publi-
cations include wide-ranging investigations on the Anglo-Italian commu-
nity in the UK, and a forthcoming volume on the newly-emerging Cook
Island variety of English.
Bronwen Hughes is temporary Research Fellow and Adjunct Professor
at the Università Suor Orsola Benincasa in Naples, Italy. She has
taught extensively in the fields of English for Tourism, English for
Law, Translation Studies and English for Professional Purposes at both
undergraduate and postgraduate level. She holds a Ph.D. in Linguistics
and Modern and Comparative Literature (European School for
Advanced Studies). Her research interests lie in the fields of translation
x   Notes on Contributors

as a tool for second language acquisition, cross-cultural media studies,

and forensic linguistics. She has published two monographic works and
numerous research articles which appear in collected volumes. Her cur-
rent research centers upon a comparative study of first-hand migrant
chronicles collected both in the UK and in Italy.
Kazuko Matsumoto is Associate Professor at the University of Tokyo,
Japan. Her main interests are language variation and change. Grounded
in the variationist sociolinguistic paradigm, she has been investigating
dialect contact and new dialect formation (e.g. the formation and obso-
lescence of a postcolonial Japanese koine in Palau, the emergence of a
Brazilian Portuguese variety in Japan as a migrant koine). Her interests
also include contact linguistics, such as language maintenance and shift
in postcolonial and migrant settings (in Palau and Japanese migrant
communities in Mexico), contact-induced borrowing (loanwords in
Palauan), and nativisation of postcolonial Englishes (Palauan English).
Suzanne Romaine is Professor Emerita, University of Oxford. She has
published numerous books and articles on linguistic diversity, multilin-
gualism, language death, language revitalization, language change and
contact. She has honorary doctorates from the University of Uppsala
and the University of Tromsø and is a Fellow of the Finnish Academy of
Science and Letters and the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
She has held a variety of scholarships and visiting fellowships at other
universities. In 2015–2016 she was Marie Curie Fellow of the European
Union and Senior Fellow at FRIAS (Freiburg Institute for Advanced
Studies), University of Freiburg.
 List of Figures

Chapter 1
Fig. 1 Collocates of Atmosphäre and Ambiente 6
Fig. 2 The lemma ‘pasta’ 9
Fig. 3 CUB models of the items: ‘table setting’ and ‘German translated
menu’; solid line = LK group, dashed line = HK group 15
Fig. 4 Estimated average score from fitted CUB models
(solid circle = LK group, solid square = HK group) 16
Fig. 5 CUB models of the items: ‘Product name’ and ‘Italian flag’;
solid line = LK group, dashed line = HK group 18
Chapter 4
Fig. 1 Restaurant menu included in L.I.Ms (extracts only) 89
Fig. 2 Trattoria menu included in L.I.Ms (extracts only) 89
Fig. 3 Sunday menu sample included in L.I.M.s 91
Fig. 4 Selection of dishes from a trattoria menu included in L.I.M.s 92
Chapter 6
Fig. 1 Palauan okama ‘iron pot’ (from Japanese okama ) and kerisil
‘kerosene stove’ (from German Kerosin or English kerosene ) 147

xi
xii   List of Figures

Fig. 2 Food served at a Palauan siukang ‘a traditional ceremony’

(from Japanese shūkan ) including susi and inarisusi
(from Japanese sushi and inarizushi ), and kiarots
(from English carrots ); siukang platters signposted
in a supermarket 152
Fig. 3 Clockwise from top left: Palauan boks, ‘a special table
for serving ceremonial food’ (from Japanese bokkusu referring
to ‘box’, but the concept comes from Japanese o-zen ‘a special
table for serving ceremonial food’); food on a boks, including
Palauan susi (from Japanese sushi ) and chosiruko, ‘rice cake
in sweet azuki bean soup’ (from Japanese oshiruko ) and mais
‘corn’ (Spanish maís ); food in a large siukang platter, including
susi, inarisusi, mais and finadene (from Guamanian Chamorro
fena’denne’ ); Palauan beroski, ‘a decorative cloth for covering
food for important guests at a siukang (from Japanese furoshiki ) 153
Fig. 4 Ingredients for Palauan chosiruko, including changko ‘(ready-
made) sweet bean paste’ (from Japanese anko ), chazuki mame
‘azuki beans (to cook changko )’ (from Japanese azuki mame ),
merikengko ‘rice cake flour’ (from Japanese merikenko—meriken
‘American’ + ko ‘flour’, referring to ‘wheat flour’) 154
Fig. 5 Top to bottom: items used for chewing betelnut, including
Palauan buuch ‘betelnut’, (ch)aus ‘limestone powder’, kebui
‘pepper leaf ’, tane ‘cardamom seeds’ (from Japanese tane,
meaning ‘seeds’ in general), and cheech ‘tobacco’; advertising
signs outside a small food store, including ice candy ‘ice pop’
(from Japanese aisu kyandē ), tama ‘small sweet ball-shaped
fritters’ (from Japanese tama, meaning ‘ball (shaped)’), bento
‘lunchbox’ (from Japanese bentō ), okoko ‘pickled papaya’
(from Japanese okōkō, meaning ‘pickled vegetable’ in general
or ‘pickled radish’), tet ‘bag for betelnut’, aus (in Standard
Palauan orthography chaus, see above), tane (see above),
ramen ‘noodle’ (from Japanese rāmen ) 156
Fig. 6 Clockwise from top left: tama ‘small sweet ball-shaped
fritters’ (from Japanese tama meaning ‘ball (shaped)’),
korokke ‘tempura’ (from Japanese korokke, ‘potato croquettes’);
a takeaway Refresher Island menu board, with tama, tama tuu
‘banana tama ’, abrabang ‘deep-fried bun filled with sweet
bean paste’ (from Japanese abura ‘oil’ + pan ‘bread’), bento, and
 List of Figures   xiii

so on; musubi ‘rice ball in nori ’ (from Japanese o-musubi );

singere ‘thinly sliced and dried radish cooked with tuna’
(from Japanese sengiri daikon ); ningiri(mesi) ‘rice ball without
seaweed sheet’ (from Japanese o-ningiri ) with takuang
‘radish pickled with salt and sugar’ (from Japanese takuan );
mini pancakes filled with changko ‘sweet bean paste’ (right)
and with cream cheese (left) 157
Fig. 7 Clockwise from top left: takuang ‘radish pickled with salt
and sugar’ (from Japanese takuan ); huksinske ‘radish,
aubergine, lotus root, cucumber, perilla, shitake mushroom
and sesame seeds pickled with soy sauce and sugar’
(from Japanese fukujinzuke ); papaya okoko ‘pickled papaya’
(from Japanese okōkō ‘pickled vegetable’); skemono ‘pickled
vegetable’ (from Japanese tsukemono ) 159
Fig. 8 Top to bottom: local coconut nectar syrup, once the
ingredient (together with wheat gluten) for chameiu as both
a soft and alcoholic drink; Japanese original ameyu ‘sweet
syrup with wheat gluten and ginger’ 160
Chapter 7
Fig. 1 Pizza Chiena 170
Fig. 2 Aunt Louise’s recipe for Easter Meat Pie 177
Fig. 3 Results from newspaper survey 179
Fig. 4 The grammar of food: names 180
Fig. 5 The grammar of food: ingredients 181
Fig. 6 Sagra della Pizza Chiena, Torre Le Nocelle, 2017 184
Fig. 7 Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1559). The Fight Between Carnival
and Lent 192
 List of Tables

Chapter 4
Table 1 Examples of code-mixing in three different menu typologies 81
Table 2 Percentages of languages used in naming dishes 81
Table 3 Naming dishes: brief synthesis of examples 84
Chapter 6
Table 1 Language contact history in Palau (updated from
Matsumoto 2001) 131
Table 2 Contact-induced borrowing scale (Thomason 2001,
pp. 70–71) 142
Table 3 Number and proportion of borrowings in Palauan
by source language (updated from Matsumoto 2016) 144
Table 4 Number and proportion of food-related borrowing
in Palauan by source language 146
Table 5 The distribution of food-related borrowing by category
and source language 149

xv
 Introduction

Dis-moi ce que tu manges, je te dirai ce que tu es.

(Brillat-Savarin 1825, p. 3)

One of the earliest modern writers on food, Jean Anthelme Brillat-

Savarin, unintentionally advanced that food tastes, just like language
choices, would be profoundly shaped by cultural practices. Foods that
are uncommon, or unfamiliar to a culture, for instance, may be seen as
inappropriate for consumption to another. In fact, flavors that are par-
ticularly liked by a given community, can be deemed as unpleasant, or
even banned, by others. Some foods are considered taboos by some reli-
gions, while they may be the main dish in others. Food is always heavily
dependent on context; thus, cultural and social practices will determine
whether some food can be accepted or not. While the notion of cultur-
ally specific flavor principles has often been proposed as a way of clas-
sifying cultural differences in cuisines, contemporary food industries,
which operate on the global market, hybridize our tastes and dishes
regardless of any categorizing cultural principle.
Although food is obviously vital to community identifications, being
it a core element in everyday practices communally used to create and
maintain a shared sense of cultural identity, the linguistic interest in food
xvii
xviii   Introduction

discourses is still, too often, an underexplored theme. Food and culinary

practices in migration contexts, in particular, call for a broader investi-
gation from both linguistic and cultural viewpoints. Indeed, food, and
its related practices of production, preparation, and consumption, seem
to play a fundamental role in diasporic communities when connecting
and altering peoples, places, tastes, and cultural awareness around the
world. Ethnic food, for instance, through its culture-bound names and
forms, and their conservation or adaptive changes through contact with
other cultures and over time, can be seen as a key element in contem-
porary social, cultural and linguistic practices since its consumption and
production work to create and maintain cultural and linguistic identi-
ties alive. Both food and linguistic practices stand as a constant re-pro-
duction of those ties that bind people, place, and customs across space
and time. Indeed, they are human features directly entrenched in cul-
tural values and historic customs; consequently, just as languages, and/
or language use, vary according to different geographic, socio-economic,
and cultural circumstances, so does food. If we consider food and lan-
guage preferences as culturally determined activities, we must also accept
the fact that they may be both subjected to change according to differ-
ent social variables such as age, gender, situational context, or lifestyle.
However, since food as well as language are already acknowledged as
both fundamental cultural icons, the editors of this volume intend to
introduce a novel cross-cultural and transcultural take on the issue. One
which might help shed light—in line with trends and current inter-
ests in contact migration and diaspora—not only on what happens to
languages and cultures in contact, but also to food, food naming, and
food practices in contact. Our main idea is to investigate food discourses
across cultures by looking at food as a powerful vehicle for positive inter-
cultural exchange, whether through conservation or hybridization of the
original forms. Indeed, food, like language, embodies a form of resist-
ance and abrogation through which cultural continuity is maintained, or
conversely, it may be the focal point through which migrant communi-
ties find compromise, or even consent, within the host community.
Against this backdrop, the present volume explores a variety of takes
from linguistic and cultural points of view addressing food and food
practices in cross-cultural contact, more specifically looking at changes
 Introduction   xix

brought about by diasporic circumstances. All contributions in the

volume approach food and its discourse realization indeed as a way to
investigate an understudied area of linguistics, that is, the relationship
between language and migration, or diaspora, specifically through dis-
courses on food. Taking as a given the significance of food practices,
their psychologically and socially fundamental role in shaping one’s cul-
tural and/or individual identities, just as that of one’s first language, the
volume presents various linguistic and cultural readings of food as an
instrument to explore diasporic identities.
From a methodological viewpoint, Food Across Cultures: Linguistic
Insights in Transcultural Tastes promotes different integrated approaches
relating to socio-linguistic investigation, to translation and multimodal
semiotic analysis. In particular, the authors in the volume investigate
how socio-linguistic approaches applied to food practices can help
identify (self- and/or other-) social and cultural constructions in diverse
transnational and diasporic contexts. The main two questions the vol-
ume addresses are:

1. If food has the symbolic power to transform transnational identities

from a conceptual idea into a concrete reality, is it also possible for
diasporic communities to maintain their cultural authenticity when
encountering the Other?
2. What role does language play in helping migrants to maintain and/or
creolize their traditional tastes in their new homes?

Each chapter in the volume presents a fascinating range of data and

refreshing perspectives on cultures and languages in contact: from
English (and some of its varieties) to Italian, German, Spanish, and to
Japanese and Palauan, as well as an exemplary range of types of contact,
in colonial, multicultural, and diasporic situations. The authors, through
diverse and often linguistic integrated methodologies, aim to examine
how socio-linguistic food practices can, and do, contribute to iden-
tity construction in diverse transnational and diasporic contexts. They
mainly focus their analyses on food as the glue that binds communities
of practice (Eckert and Wenger 2005) together while shaping transna-
tional identities in different language contact situations. All the chapters
xx   Introduction

in the volume focus on the manifold discourses emerging as the bear-

ers of alterity and/or identity through food. The hub of our investiga-
tion centers upon the relationship between ‘ethnic’ or ‘diasporic’ food
and transnational identities. The general consideration which seems to
be emerging from the different contributions is that in migrant and dias-
poric communities, a number of ethnic food practices serve to craft both
group and individual identities as well as multiple social positioning.
Moreover, food practices are necessarily vehiculated by/through the lan-
guage(s) employed by specific communities when referring to three main
food-related procedures: production, preparation, and consumption
(Montanari 2006); three significant activities which can he linguistically
investigated in as much the same way as any other act of performance
and culture-bound positioning. The editors sought the contribution of
expert linguists who interpreted food as performance and culture, an
item able to forge a cross-boundary identity that traverses linguistic, cul-
tural, and post-national borders. Therefore, our aim is to share stimu-
lating, innovative research while building up a community of scholars
active in the linguistic and cultural field of food and migration.
The present volume includes seven chapters aimed at the investiga-
tion of the multifaceted identity-construction process through food as
a performative act and marker of identity. The present studies deal with
how cultural, ethnic and, social identities are maintained or challenged
through language, from different critical perspectives and by applying
different methodologies. This different constellation of approaches and
themes guided the editors’ choice to arrange the order of chapters alpha-
betically according to the contributors’ names.
In Chapter 1, Amelia Bandini and Marcella Corduas examine the
complex issue of Italian food perception and identity in Germany. As
they claim, food consumption has become a strong identity marker
being related to the domains of linguistic and cultural identification and
representation. Food and the language of food unavoidably travel across
cultures and transnational food migration becomes a key element in the
(re)definition of ethnic identities (Möhring 2007). This guided their
investigation of the perceptions of Italian food in Germany as regards
cultural and societal representation, image and/or integration of Italian
(culinary) identity into the German society. Chapter 2 draws attention
 Introduction   xxi

on the relationship between Food and Translation exploring how food

has been dealt with in both British English (TT1) and American English
(TT2) subtitled versions the Italian TV series Inspector Montalbano,
which has been adapted from Andrea Camilleri’s short stories and nov-
els. In her contribution, Margherita Dore shows that Montalbano’s
attitudes to food and Italian–Sicilian traditional cuisine are expressed
differently in the British and American versions. While the former
tends to be more source-oriented in its attempt to convey the peculi-
arities of Italian and Sicilian food, the latter appears generally more
target-oriented. Most importantly, when the American version does
­
retain the Italian and Sicilian culinary terms, they are not always trans-
ferred as accurately as it should be. Moving to the Caribbean, Chapter 3
by Eleonora Esposito uncovers the process of identity negotiation,
food and politics in Trinidad and Tobago, investigating the major role
played by food in the current identity narratives of both the single Afro-
and Indo- communities, as well as that of the nation as a whole. Two
food metaphors (‘Callaloo’ and ‘Pelau’) seem to epitomize the tension
between ethnic groups in the cultural and political discursive construc-
tion of national identity in Trinidad and Tobago and entail different
degrees of heterogeneity and homogeneity. Focusing on Italian diaspori-
cidentities in the UK, Siria Guzzo and Anna Gallo’s work offers a com-
parative analysis of the speech of Loughborough Italians in Chapter 4 of
this volume. Taking into account three language varieties (Italian dialect,
Standard Italian, and English), and adopting a variationist approach,
they discuss how the LIC’s transnational identity emerges via language
devices in social/food practices. Analysing a corpus of menus, Guzzo and
Gallo investigate borrowings and code-mixing, and focus on naming
dishes and explanatory notes. Menus acting as identity markers and/or
cultural adaptations, the authors suggest that Anglo-Italians convey their
Italianness and Englishness by means of mixed language, contact English
features alongside culture- and emotion-loaded images. In Chapter 5,
Bronwen Hughes interestingly provides an investigation of food, lan-
guage and performative identity construction in the original (American)
and dubbed (Italian) versions of the film Eat Pray Love, with the main
focus on the first part of the film Eat, which takes place in Italy. Closely
analyzing the markers of identity discourse such as culture-bound terms,
xxii   Introduction

specialized lexis, code-mixing, code-switching, and phonetic variation,

the author investigates the manner in which food, and culinary prow-
ess, can serve to bring together individuals belonging to different nations
and cultures within a community of practice (Eckert and Wenger 2005).
Shifting to language contact in the Pacific, in Chapter 6, Kazuko
Matsumoto and David Britain examine the distribution and integra-
tion of food-related loanwords to provide insight into the cultural inten-
sity of the contact between indigenous and colonial languages arguing
that a strict correlation between the adoption and indigenization of a
foreign food culture and intense contact do exist. They examine food-
related borrowings from four colonial languages—Spanish, German,
Japanese, and English—that have come into contact with the Palauan
language of Western Micronesia over the past 125 years. Last but defi-
nitely not least, in Chapter 7, Suzanne Romaine traces the history of
an Italian dish known as pizza chiena ‘filled pizza’ and by various other
names, brought to North America by Southern Italian immigrants.
Exploring the process of translation and adaptation of pizza chiena, the
author introduces a number of dimensions of variability in both the
Italian and English name practices and elicits some of the methodologi-
cal problems involved in translating culinary traditions across communi-
ties and time periods and between oral and print cultures.

Giuseppe Balirano
Siria Guzzo

References
Brillat-Savarin, J. A. (1825). La Physiologie du Goût, ou Méditations de
Gastronomie Transcendante. Paris: Sautelet.
Eckert, P., & Wenger, E. (2005). Communities of Practice in Sociolinguistics:
What Is the Role of Power in Sociolinguistics Variations? Journal of
Sociolinguistics, 9, 582–589.
Möhring, M. (2007). Foreign Cuisine in West Germany. GHI Bulletin, 41,
79–88.
Montanari, M. (2006). Food Is Culture. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
 1
Italian Food Perception as a Marker
of the Spread of Italian Identity
in Germany
Amelia Bandini and Marcella Corduas

1 Introduction
Food can be considered a means of communicating and symbolising
cultural peculiarities (Wilson 2006; Wierlacher 2008). In this sense, it
is comparable to language as a marker of cultural and ethnic identity and
as a tool that ‘lends form’ to the world (Barker and Galazińsky 2001,
p. 30). Both language and food “are used to maintain and create human
relationships. The dinner table is a rich site for socialisation and lan-
guage acquisition. Moreover, eating and talking are used to construct

Research for this paper has been carried out jointly by the two authors. Amelia Bandini, in
particular, is responsible for Sects. 1, 2 and 3 while Marcella Corduas for Sects. 4, 4.1 and 4.2.
Section 5 have been elaborated together.

A. Bandini (*) · M. Corduas

Department of Political Sciences,
University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
e-mail: amelia.bandini@unina.it
M. Corduas
e-mail: marcella.corduas@unina.it
© The Author(s) 2019 1
G. Balirano and S. Guzzo (eds.), Food Across Cultures,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11153-3_1
2    
A. Bandini and M. Corduas

social hierarchies” (Gerhardt 2013, p. 4). Consequently, culinary ­habits

and ways of consuming food, such as the sequence of courses in a meal,
the ingredients in a dish and the subdivision of meals during the day
disclose cultural identity (Möhring 2011). Thus, food consumption
can be seen as a real identity marker since it is related to the domains of
both linguistic and cultural identification and/or representation. Finally,
food and the language of food unavoidably travel across cultures and
transnational food migration becomes a key element in the (re)definition
of ethnic identities (Möhring 2007).
Moving on from such considerations, in this study, we investigate
some features of perceptions of Italian food in Germany as regards cul-
tural and societal representation, image and/or integration of Italian
(culinary) identity into that society.

2 The Spread of Italian Food

in the Federal Republic
During the twentieth century, Italian food acted as forerunner of other
foreign cuisines in Germany. According to Möhring (2007), in 1992,
about 18,000 out of the 55,000 foreign restaurateurs in Germany were
Italian whereas the second largest group consisted of Turkish restaura-
teurs. Twenty years later, in 2003,1 a survey by the Allensbach Institute
showed that 77% of German people preferred to eat in ethnic restau-
rants and that 65% of them judged Italian cuisine second to none.
Ulrike Thoms (2011) provides an interesting analysis of the factors
that have driven the diffusion of Italian cooking in Germany and in
other European countries. In particular, she shows that a knowledge of
Italian cuisine already existed long before the 1950s. As a matter of fact,
since the time of ‘Grand Tour’, Italy has been considered an earthly par-
adise because of its pleasant climate and the multi-faceted beauties of
the country, including the abundance of fresh fruit, vegetables, spices
and the ways of cooking them. Later on, the development of modern

1See http://www.ifd-allensbach.de/uploads/tx_reportsndocs/prd_0313.pdf.
 1 Italian Food Perception as a Marker …    
3

tourism gave rise to the increase in travel literature illustrating the artis-
tic heritage of Italy and the country’s culinary life, the unforgettable
experience of which was highly recommended.
This has contributed significantly to the perception of culinary pecu-
liarities as fundamental traits of ‘Italianness’.
According to Thoms, labour migrants played an important role in the
diffusion of Italian food in the Federal Republic too. When they ini-
tially arrived in Germany, they rejected local food entirely and employ-
ers had to hire their own chefs that used only foodstuff imported from
Italy. When migrants left Italy in the nineteenth century, since their
nation was relatively young, they did not have strong national symbols,
so, for this reason, “food became the focal point for what it meant to
be Italian [and] began to serve as boundary markers of what was Italian
and what was not” (Castellanos and Bergstresser 2006, p. 189).
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Italian greengrocer-
ies began to appear in German cities where large Italian communities
had established themselves. Those shops often developed into tav-
erns or restaurants and, although, initially, they had been supposed to
serve Italians, they were very soon sought out by German people too.
These events changed the food market and introduced Italian food into
Germany. In this regard, Bernhardt (2006) points out that when, in the
60s and 70s, an Italianisation of German culinary habits took place,
pre-cooked Italian foodstuffs very similar to the original Italian products
but manufactured by German producers such as ‘Dr. Oetker’ were com-
monly found in German supermarkets. At that time, Italian restaurants
began to spread in large cities such as, for example, in Munich where
there were well over 200 of them by the beginning of the 80s.
The rising number of Italian restaurants led to the introduction of
a large number of Italian dishes or ingredients into the home, and this
caused changes in German cooking habits. Over recent decades, Italian
food has been consumed at ‘ausländische Spezialitätenrestaurants’, but,
at as a matter of fact, it has also become part of everyday home menus.
Therefore, we can assume that an ‘Italianisation’ of food consumption
has taken place in Germany.
These changes in eating habits affected the foodstuffs market and,
as a result, culinary terms such as Pasta, Tortellini, Spaghetti and many
4    
A. Bandini and M. Corduas

others began to enter the German vocabulary. This phenomenon was

amplified by the increasing attention paid to the Mediterranean diet
and to the healthiness of such a way of eating.
Today, Italian food terms, such as Gnocchi, are well known by
German people and Cappuccino and Latte macchiato are on their tables
every day.

3 Italian Food as Discourse

The diffusion of Italian food consumption at home and outside home
has given rise to the spread of Italian food as discourse in blogs, inter-
net sites and web-reviews. In our opinion, an analysis of the language
occurrences in these kinds of texts can lead to a better understanding of
the German perception of ‘Italianness’ and to the identification of the
peculiarities of ‘being Italian’ where food is considered.
Several aspects of the phenomenon can be analysed. First of all, by
browsing food-related on-line newspapers and websites, it clearly shows
that, nowadays, Italian food plays a prominent role in German cook-
ing and that its consumption is mainly perceived as essential for better
health and well-being. For example, in ‘bella-cucina.de’ the Italian way
of eating is described as the expression of joie de vivre and of ‘a relaxed
lifestyle’ that helps ‘Italians not to suffer from cardiovascular disease’ to
the same extent Germans do.2
From a historical point of view, restaurants and pizzerias have facili-
tated the diffusion of Italian food in Germany. In the post-war period,
the foundation of Italian restaurants was still related to the attempt to
supply migrants. However, in contrast to other migrant cuisines, Italian
cuisine has improved its position in the German society and restaurants
have shared the same success. At present, Italian restaurants occupy

2Beim Essen geht es den Italienern nicht nur ums Sattwerden, vielmehr ist Essen für sie ein kom-

munikatives Erlebnis - ein Ausdruck von Lebensfreude. Die entspannte Lebensweise ist sicher
ein Grund dafür, dass die Bewohner der Mittelmeerregion nicht so häufig an Herz-Kreislauf-
Erkrankungen leiden wie wir. Die mediterrane Küche ist traditionell leicht, bekömmlich und
abwechslungsreich. See http://www.bella-cucina.de/italienische-kueche.php.
 1 Italian Food Perception as a Marker …    
5

the best sites in German cities and operate in the high-end segment, as
attested, for example, in ‘Trip-advisor’ which reports that 8 out of the
best 20 restaurants in Berlin are Italian.3
Since they are perceived as ethnic restaurants,4 they need to bring the
idea of Italy to their customers’ minds, and in order to achieve this, they
display typical traits in terms of atmosphere, food and beverage. The
set of these traits has been defined by Möhring (2012) as ‘Inszenierung
der Italianità ’ (staging of Italianness); a very clear and transparent
expression.
In order to identify the items of the set and, in this way, describe some
common features of ‘Italianness’, i.e. of the ‘Inszenierung der Italianità’,
we have scrolled through German reviews of the best Italian restaurants
in Berlin. First of all, we have noticed that restaurants’ names are mostly
Italian and clearly refer to Italian traditional patterns such as the names
of Italian regions (Osteria Emilia), typical locations for outdoor eating
(La Terrazza), or names of typical Italian foods (Peperoncino, Focaccino ).
In addition, the atmosphere of the restaurants must re-create a piece
of Italy in Germany, and this is achieved not only by means of interior
design, but also by means of the welcoming feel that the place projects,
i.e. the Athmosphäere. In German reviews from Trip-Advisor, the word
Atmosphäre together with its Italian synonym Ambiente has a very high
number of occurrences often collocated with ‘very pleasant’, ‘authentic’,
‘familiar’, ‘comfortable’, ‘good’, ‘beautiful’, ‘super’, ‘private’ (Fig. 1).
According to German reviewers, the ability to create a friendly,
­welcoming Ambiente in which people feel comfortable is a marker of
‘Italianness’.
The relationship between food and atmosphere can also be recog-
nised in texts published by German websites specialising in Italian
cuisine. For example, in ‘bella-cucina.de’, Italian food consumption is
closely related to a typical Italian environment characterised by the pres-
ence of classical music and by a precise table setting with lit candles,
wine glasses and the cutlery for the various courses. As a matter of fact,

3Last visit November 2015.

4Cfr footnote 1: Allensbach report 2003.
6    
A. Bandini and M. Corduas

Fig. 1 Collocates of Atmosphäre and Ambiente

Italian meals generally consist of three or more courses, and the dura-
tion of the meal assumes a distinctive and emblematic value which is
linked to the general Italian/Mediterranean atmosphere:

“Ein Traum von Sardinien

Bewertet am 2. August 2015
Bei Marco nimmt man sich 2-3 Stunden Zeit für eine Reise durch die
sardische Küche. Er nimmt sich Zeit für jeden Gast, es ist wie in einer
Familie.”5
“Klein, aber richtig fein. Ein Kurztripp nach Sardinien
Bewertet am 28. Juli 2015
Man sollte Zeit mitbringen. Hier geht es mediterran zu.”6

5At Marco’s you take 2–3 hours for a journey through the Sardinian cuisine. He takes time for

each guest, it’s like being a member of the family.

6You should have time. This is Mediterranean.
 1 Italian Food Perception as a Marker …    
7

Thus, “zelebrieren die Italiener La Dolce Vita […] laut und ausgiebig
gerne auch mit stundenlangen Essgelagen 7”.
In Trip-advisor reviews, we find a lot of statements that reveal the
high value that Germans give to the atmosphere of Italian restaurants.8
Another distinctive feature of the Italian Athmosphäre is that restau-
rants are family run. The owners are Italian and work in the restaurant,9
the staff usually has Italian origins too. They contribute to creating
the welcoming and friendly atmosphere that is considered a marker of
Italian restaurants.

“Gastfreundschaft und Genuss

Bewertet am 17. Oktober 2015
Warme Begrüßung, aufmerksame Bedienung und hervorragendes
Essen - wenn italienisches Essen in Berlin, dann im Focaccino! Der
Chef ist persönlich anwesend, kümmert sich um alle Belange […]. Die
Mitarbeitenden sind aufmerksam und freundlich.”10

The owner, referred to with the Italian word Padrone,11 is described as

one who loves talking to his customers in order to suggest dishes and
to explain how they are prepared.12 The owners’ names are often men-
tioned by reviewers and this underlines the close relationship between
the Padrone and his ‘friends’, the costumers. It is worth noticing that
this happens more frequently in the reviews about Italian restaurants
compared to those of non-Italian ones. The particular ‘way of being the

7Italians celebrate “La Dolce Vita” […] loud and thoroughly happy with hours of banquets according
to traditional recipes. See http://www.lecker.de/rezepte/rezeptregister/artikel-22856-rezeptregis-
ter-detail/Rezepte-aus-Italien.html.
8Wie in Italien, Italien in Berlin, so ist man nur in Italien. “As in Italy, Italy in Berlin, so it is only

in Italy”.
9Hier findet man ein italienische Paar, das zwar etwas Probleme mit der deutschen Sprache hat,

aber sich sehr viel Mühe gibt einem die Speisekarte zu erklären.
10Hospitality and enjoyment. Warm welcome, attentive service and excellent food—if Italian

food in Berlin, then in Focaccino! The boss is present, taking care of all aspects […]. Employees
are attentive and friendly.
11Der Patron ist selbst an Dienst, Herzlicher Padrone di casa.

12Der Service war sehr nett und aufmerksam, Sehr freundlicher Service, Der Service war perfekt

und das Personal sehr freundlich, Marco und Daniela sind sehr freundlich.
8    
A. Bandini and M. Corduas

owner’ in an Italian restaurant can be identified thus as another marker

of ‘Italianness’ (Möhring 2012). In the past, the Italian quality of being
considered friendly has helped Italian workers to gain admission into
the German society more easily compared to other foreign communi-
ties (Haug 2011), although they have often been less integrated given
that they have often failed to fulfil the educational objectives established
by the Federal Republic educational system. This acceptance has been
facilitated by the fact of common membership of the European Union
and by a common religion i.e. Christianity and increasingly by the way
German people perceive Italy: a country renowned for its attractive life-
style, its culture, art and nature and, overall, for its gastronomy.
The aforementioned tokens, Padrone and Ambiente, are not the only
Italian words found in the reviews. The use of Italian terminology gen-
erally involves the names of the dishes that are almost always spelled
correctly. Moreover, Italian culinary terms have entered the everyday
language as is evident from German dictionaries. This demonstrates that
Italian food is well-known and widespread in Germany.
The digital dictionary of the German language (Digitales Wörterbuch
der deutschen Sprache)—a research-project carried out by The Berlin-
Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities—includes numer-
ous words referring to Italian food. For instance, the word Pasta is
significantly attested in the corpus of the Digital Dictionary which
consists of a selection from German daily and weekly newspapers. The
term has both Italian and German collocates such as ‘Prosecco, Risotto,
Pizza ’, ‘Reis, Wein, Fish ’ as well as ‘Germanised Italian words’ as
‘Parmaschinken, Parmesan ’ (Fig. 2).
Among the attributes, ‘homemade’, ‘fresh’ and ‘good’ have consider-
ably high frequency values as is also evident from the reviews in Trip
Advisor where ‘homemade pasta’ is described in detail and is mostly
‘fresh, hand-made, filled’:

“Lecker!!
Bewertet am 23. Mai 2015
Alles frisch und sehr lecker! Die Pasta ist auch selbstgemacht”.13

13Everything was fresh and delicious! The pasta is also homemade.

 1 Italian Food Perception as a Marker …    
9

Fig. 2 The lemma ‘pasta’

Moreover, the reviews contain also ‘Germanised Italian items’ such

as Pastagänge or Pastagerichte that are terms in which pasta is joined
with ‘course’ and ‘dish’ to generate German compounds, as in following
example:

“Sehr sehr empfehlenswert!

Bewertet am 29. August 2015
[…]dann zwei Pastagänge und noch Nachtisch, alles frisch und in einer
freundlichen und familiären Atmosphäre”14

Since ‘pasta’ is nowadays a word commonly recognised all over the

world, we have investigated other issues related to ‘pasta’ using the
Digital Dictionary. In particular, we have considered some hyponyms
such as Spaghetti, being an example of a widely known word which
identifies different types of Italian Pasta, and Gnocchi, since this hypo-
nym frequently appears in Trip-advisor reviews and denotes one of the
most appreciated Italian dishes.

14Very highly recommended! […] then two pasta courses and even desserts, all fresh and in a
friendly and familiar atmosphere.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Y venido el día señalado, que á
entrambos nos puso casi
deffuntos en la sepoltura, no fué
poco poder en él sustentar la vida
que no se acabase del todo ó no
mostrar tan claramente que todo
el mundo lo conociera cuán
difficultosamente podía sufrirse
una prueba tan áspera como el
Amor en nosotros ambos hacía.
Yo traía mis ojos hinchados por
arreventar con las lágrimas; un
nudo hecho en mi garganta que
apenas hablar me dexaba; tenía
las fuerzas tan perdidas, que con
difficultad moverme podía, y en
fin, andaba tal, que no tenía otro
remedio sino mostrarme muy
enfermo, para que nadie podiesse
conocer mi verdadera dolencia.
Ya cierto en este tiempo lo que
Belisia hacía no parecía fingido,
que las señales y muestras que
daba eran de verdadero amor y
agradecimiento.
Y así aquella noche antes que
nos partiésemos se dió tan buena
maña y la ventura nos favoresció
á entrambos de manera, que nos
dió lugar para pasar mucha parte
della juntos, y puesto yo en su
presencia le decía: «No sé,
señora mía, cómo podrá este
cuerpo vivir ausente de ti, que
eres más ánima suya que la que
consigo trae; de una cosa podrás
estar cierta, que la que yo tengo
queda contigo, y que conmigo va
sólo mi cuerpo con el deseo de
que siempre andará acompañado,
no teniendo otra vida sino la
esperanza de tornar á verte y
servirte, pues yo no puedo
emplearme en otra cosa ninguna
que fuera desto pueda darme
contentamiento».
Diciendo estas palabras, mis
lágrimas eran tantas, mis sollozos
y sospiros eran tan grandes, que
no me dexaron pasar adelante. Y
Belisia, viéndome casi sin aliento,
ayudándome con la mesma
congoxa que yo tenía, mezclaba
sus lágrimas con las mías, porque
los ojos de entrambos estaban
hechos manantiales fuentes, y
dando un profundo sospiro me
respondió:
«Nunca pensé, Torcato, que á tal
extremo me traxera la affición y
verdadero amor que para contigo
dexé aposentar en mis entrañas,
el cual me tiene tal que no sé
cuándo podré tener una hora de
alegría viéndome ausente de ti,
aunque nunca te apartaré de mi
pensamiento porque ya no soy
parte para hacerlo si quisiese, ni
tengo la libertad pasada con que
hacerlo en otro tiempo pudiera. Y
así el tiempo que no te viere,
estaré desamparada y sola, como
viuda y triste y desconsolada, sin
esperanza de bien ninguno, hasta
que mis ojos puedan tornar á ver
la luz que agora pierden en
perder de poder mirarte para su
descanso, como hasta agora
hacían».
Con esto, juntando una boca con
otra, llorando la cercana partida,
pudo tanto el dolor en el tierno
corazón de Belisia, que no
pudiendo socorrerle con sus
flacas fuerzas, le tomó en mis
brazos un desmayo que sin
sentido ninguno la dexó, y
pareciéndome que la muerte le
ponía asechanzas, rodeando por
todas partes para hallar manera
cómo sin vida la dexasse, á mí
me tenía casi sin ella, estando
con una pasión tan crecida y un
dolor tan áspero y fiero, que
agora en pensarlo me espanto
cómo pude sufrir una experiencia
tan fuerte y poderosa, la cual me
puso en tal extremo, que por más
muerto me contaba que la mi
Belisia; y no hallando otro
remedio con que socorrerla
pudiesse, la abundancia de mis
lágrimas socorrieron á la falta de
la agua para echarle en su
hermoso gesto, las cuales,
despidiéndolas mis ojos por mis
mejillas y cayendo en él, fueron
causa para que más presto en sí
volviese diciendo:
«No fuera pequeño descanso,
Torcato, si en tus brazos se
feneciera la vida que de aquí
adelante se pasará con tanta
tristeza y tan desventurada
muerte; mejor fuera que me
dexaras morir que buscarme
remedio que tan caro me costará
todo el tiempo que viviere».
«No quiera Dios, mi señora, le
respondí yo, que tu muerte sea
primero que la mía, ni á mí me
venga tan gran mal que yo ver ni
saberla pueda. No me pesa de
que sientas el tormento de
nuestra partida, porque por el
tuyo conozcas el que yo siento, y
acordándote dél hayas lástima de
mí, como de tu verdadero siervo,
aunque no querría que tu
sentimiento fuesse tanto que no
pudiesse encubrirlo y pasarlo sin
que con señales de tanto dolor lo
manifiestes. Y pues ningún otro
remedio nos puede valer en esta
adversidad sino la paciencia,
suplícote, ánima mía, y por el
verdadero amor que me tienes y
yo te tengo te conjuro que tú la
tengas hasta que yo busque y
procure cómo los tiempos se
muden y truequen, para hallar
otro descanso del que agora
tenemos, que yo no pienso perder
la esperanza estando tan
conformes las voluntades».
«Yo lo haré, me respondió, como
lo dices, ó á lo menos procuraré
hacerlo, y pues la noche se nos
acaba y el día se nos muestra en
enemigo para apartarnos
forzosamente, forzado será que tú
te vayas. Y porque no tengo
prenda mía que pueda darte para
que de mí te acuerdes, con este
cordón de mi camisa quiero ligar
tu mano derecha, con la cual me
diste tu fe, porque no puedas
mudarte ni trazarla sin que te
venga á la memoria la injuria que
haces á quien tan verdadera la
tiene y tendrá siempre contigo,
que jamás hallarás en ella
mudanza».
«Ya poca necesidad hay, le dixe
yo, de prendarme con ninguna
cosa más que con aquel amor
que tan gran fuerza tiene que
ninguna prosperidad ni
adversidad bastará para quebrar
su firmeza. Y pues yo voy tan
prendado, queda, señora, segura
que yo el mayor consuelo que
llevo es pensar que voy seguro de
que nuestras voluntades es una
mesma voluntad, sin haber entre
ellas differencia».
Con estas palabras nos
abrazamos, y acompañados el
uno y el otro de lágrimas y
sospiros nos apartamos, yendo yo
tan cargado de cuidados y fatigas,
que no me acordaba de otra cosa,
y así entre dos luces me torné al
ganado, sin que de ninguno de
los pastores que cerca estaban
fuesse sentido. Y venido el día,
puestos todos á punto, nos
partimos; pero antes en lo público
estando todos juntos, Belisia y yo
con los ojos nos dábamos á
entender lo que los corazones en
esta partida sentían, y no fué
poco poderlo encubrir de manera
que los que estaban presentes no
lo conociessen. Assí nos
apartamos, yendo los unos por
una parte y los otros por la otra; y
si yo quissiese contar ni
encarecer el sentimiento que
llevaba, imposible sería que mi
lengua podiese decirlo, porque yo
iba tan fuera de mi juicio, que ni
entendía lo que me hablaban ni
oía lo que me decían, porque
todos mis pensamientos y
sentidos llevaba ocupados en la
contemplación de mi desventura
teniendo el retrato de la mi Belisia
en el alma de tal manera que los
ojos espirituales, que mirándola
estaban siempre, también
ocupaban á los corporales para
que en otra cosa ocupar no se
pudiesen; llegados que fuimos á
nuestra aldea, muchos días
anduve con esta triste vida
buscando la soledad de los
desiertos y montes deshabitados,
trayendo mis ganados por los
riscos y peñascos, huyendo de
los otros pastores y de cualquiera
otra compañía que apartarme del
pensamiento de la mi Belisia
pudiese, porque sola esta era mi
gloria y en solo esto hallaba
descanso y alivio; muchas veces
á voces la llamaba, llevándolas en
vano el viento sin ser oídas, y
otras estaba hablando con ella
contándole mis passiones y
trabajos, como si presente la
tuviera; pero después,
hallándome burlado de ver cuán
lexos de mí estaba apartada,
tornaba á mis principiadas quexas
conmigo solo, de las cuales hacía
muchos días testigo á esta clara
fuente donde agora estamos,
porque sola ella las oía. Y
andando con este cuidado,
determiné de escrebirla una carta
dándole cuenta de mi vida y
rogándole que me enviase algún
consuelo con que sustentarla
pudiesse; lo cual ella hizo con
muy amorosas razones, de
manera que en mi salud y
contento se pareció la alegría que
con ella había recebido. Passado
algún tiempo, la ventura me
descubrió cierto negocio y
ocasión con que lícitamente pude
ir á la aldea donde sus padres
habitaban; y llegado sin haber
sentido cansancio ninguno en el
camino, con la agonía que
llevaba, aunque la mi Belisia me
recibió con alegre semblante y
palabras amorosas, el corazón,
que pocas veces suele
engañarse, me daba á entender
que no hallaba en ella aquella
fuerza de affición con que otras
veces eran dichas, antes me las
representaba con una tibieza que
por una parte me espantaba y
ponía temor y por otra no la creía.
Pero al fin, dándome audiencia en
secreto, con alguna importunidad
que me puso en mayor sospecha
y parecióme hallarla con alguna
más libertad que solía, aunque no
de manera que pudiese tener
razón que por estonces bastase
para agraviarme, y habiéndome
detenido tanto espacio cuanto el
negocio requería, el cual yo dilaté
todo lo que pude, fueme forzado
volverme, dexando el ánima con
ella y llevando conmigo solo el
cuerpo y el cuidado que me
acompañaba, porque ya yo iba
algún tanto sospechoso,
adivinando el mal que esperaba
de las señales encubiertas, que
hacían á mi atribulado corazón
adivino, y assí entreteniéndome
algún tiempo la esperanza
confiando en la fe que había en
un tiempo conocido y en las
promesas que con tan gran
hervor y voluntad se me habían
hecho, determiné de tornar á
descubrir tierra, y para ello le
escribí una carta, la cual le envié
con mensajero cierto, y si queréis
oirla, decírosla he, porque la
tengo en la memoria de la mesma
manera que fué escrita.
Grisaldo.—Antes te lo rogamos
que lo hagas; pero bien será, si te
parece, Torcato, que primero, por
ser passada tanta parte del día,
comamos algún bocado si en tu
hatero traes aparejo para ello,
que ya la hambre me acusa y á
Filonio creo que le debe tener
fatigado.
Filonio.—Antes os hago ciertos
que casi de hambre y de sed
estoy desmayado; porque ayuno
me vine esta mañana, y como no
me sustento en amores, de la
manera que Torcato lo hace,
hasme dado, Grisaldo, la vida con
tu buen aviso de acordarlo á tan
buen tiempo.
Torcato.—Yo confiesso que no
ha sido pequeño mi descuido en
no convidaros, y aunque no esté
tan bien aparejado como vosotros
lo merecéis y como lo estuviera si
fuera avisado de vuestra venida,
todavía no faltará qué comáis,
que aquí tengo un pedazo de
cecina de venado que mis
mastines este invierno, por estar
herido en una pierna, mataron;
también hallaréis parte de un
buen queso y cebolletas y ajos
verdes, y el pan, aunque es de
centeno, tan bien sazonado que
no habrá ninguno de trigo que
mejor sabor tenga.
Filonio.—Yo traigo conmigo la
salsa de San Bernardo para que
todo me haga buen gusto; pero
bien será, Torcato, que también tú
nos ayudes, porque sin comer ni
beber mal pueden los hombres
sustentarse, y, como suelen decir,
todos los duelos con pan son
buenos.
Torcato.—Quiero hacer lo que
me dices, que no es poca mi
flaqueza ni la necesidad que
tengo de socorrerla.
Grisaldo.—En mi vida no comí
cosa que mejor me supiese; ¡oh
qué sabroso está todo y qué
bueno! que aunque nos esperaras
no estuviera más á punto, ni nos
pudieras hacer convite que más
agradable nos fuera.
Filonio.—Dame, Torcato, el
barril, que no es menor mi sed
que mi hambre, y quiero que se
corra todo junto.
Torcato.—Vedlo aquí; y aunque
yo no lo he probado, por muy
buen vino me lo dieron.
Grisaldo.—Passo, Filonio, que
no lo has de acabar todo, que á
dos vaivenes como ese apenas
nos dexarías una gota.
Filonio.—No había bebido tres
tragos cuando ya te matabas; ¿no
miras que tiene el cuello muy
angosto y que sale tan destilado
que casi no le he tomado el
gusto?
Torcato.—Bebe, Grisaldo, que
no faltará vino, porque acabado
esse barril otro está en aquel
zurrón, con que podréis tornar á
rehacer la chanza.
Grisaldo.—¡Oh, qué singular
vino, mal año para el de San
Martín ni Madrigal, que ninguna
ventaja le hacen!
Filonio.—Por tu fe, Grisaldo, que
ordeñes aquella cabra negra que
tan llenas trae las tetas de leche
como si el cabrito no hubiera hoy
mamado; que pues hay barreños
y cuchares en que la comamos,
no vendrá á mal tiempo para
tomarla por fruta de postre.
Grisaldo.—Bien has dicho; harta
tiene para todos, aunque, según
tú tienes las migas hechas, no
parece que te bastaría toda la que
traen las cabras y ovejas del
rebaño.
Filonio.—No las hago todas para
mí, que muy bien podrán
repartirse, y assí haz tu de la
leche; bien está, para mí no
eches más.
Torcato.—Pues harta tenemos
yo y Grisaldo en la que queda.
Grisaldo.—Dios te dé muchos
días de vida, Torcato, que así nos
has socorrido.
Filonio.—El barril vuelva á
visitarnos, que la hambre ya la
maté como ella me mataba.
Grisaldo.—Toma y bebe á tu
placer; paréceme que no hay
sacristán que mejor ponga las
campanas en pino.
Filonio.—De ti lo aprendí cuando
fueste monacino, que solías hacer
de la mesma manera á las
vinajeras antes que se desnudase
el clérigo que había dicho la misa.
Grisaldo.—Hora sus, pues
estamos hartos. ¡Dios loado!
recoge, Torcato, lo que queda,
que no dexará de aprovechar
para otro día.
Torcato.—Bien me parece que
seas en tus cosas tan bien
proveído; y pues todo está ya
guardado, ved qué es lo que más
os agrada que hagamos.
Filonio.—¿Qué es lo que hemos
de hacer sino que nos digas la
carta que á Belisia escribiste, con
todo lo demás que sobre tus
amores tan penados te hubiere
sucedido?
Torcato.—Por dos cosas
quisiera dexarlo en el estado que
habéis oído: la una era por pensar
que con mi largo cuento os tenía
enfadados, y la otra porque no
podré decir cosa que no os dé
sinsabor y enojo, entendiendo
cuán contrario fue de aquí
adelante el fin de mi porfía á lo
que de razón hubiera de serlo,
según los buenos prencipios con
que el Amor me había
favorescido; y para que entendáis
cuán poderosamente executó
contra mí sus inhumanas fuerzas,
escuchadme la carta, que
después os diré lo demás:

CARTA DE TORCATO Á
BELISIA
«Mi mano está temblando,
ánima mía;
mi lengua se enmudece
contemplando
lo mucho que el dolor decir
podría.

Tantas cosas se están

representando
juntas con gran porfía de
escrebirse,
que yo las dexo á todas
porfiando.

Porque en mi alma pueden

bien sentirse;
mas mostrar cómo están es
excusado,
pues nunca acabarían de
decirse.

Su confusión me tiene
fatigado,
aunque lo que me da mayor
fatiga
es verme estar de ti tan
apartado.

Mi poca libertad es mi
enemiga,
pues quiere que te escriba mis
pasiones
sin estar yo presente que las
diga.

No me falta razón; mas las

razones
con que entiendas mi mal yo
no las hallo
si tu en mi torpe lengua no las
pones.

Mis cuitas y trabajos, porque

callo,
me dan mayor fatiga y más
cuidado,
y el remedio se alexa en
procurallo.
 No sé qué me hacer,
desventurado,
que todo me aborresce en no
tenerte
presente ante mis ojos y á mi
lado.

En todo cuanto veo hallo la

muerte,
todo placer me daña y da
tormento,
todo me da pesar si no es
quererte.

Los campos que solían dar

contento
con los montes y bosques á
mis ojos,
estrechos son agora al
pensamiento.

Las ovejas y cabras, que

despojos
de lana y queso y leche dan
contino,
en lugar de esto me causan
mil enojos.

No hay monte, valle ó

prado, ni camino
donde halle holganza ni
reposo,
que en todos me aborrezco y
pierdo el tino.

A las fuentes me llego

temeroso,
por no hallar en ellas mi figura
que en verme cuál estoy mirar
no me oso.

Ell alma tiene en mí la

hermosura
con tenerte á ti en sí
representada,
que el cuerpo casi está en la
sepoltura.

La vida trayo á muerte

condenada
si tú no revocares la sentencia
que mi pena cruel ya tiene
dada.

Porque no pasarla en tu
presencia
no es pena, mas es muerte
muy rabiosa,
ó que me da fatiga con tu
ausencia.

En esta vida triste y

trabajosa
paso mis tristes días
padeciendo,
teniendo á mi esperanza algo
dudosa.

Las noches, si las paso, es

no durmiendo;
los días sin comer, gemidos
dando,
y en verme que estoy vivo no
 me entiendo.

Susténtase mi vida
contemplando
cuán bien está empleado mi
tormento,
y por algún favor tuyo
esperando
con que pasarlo pueda más
contento».

Inviada esta carta, Belisia la

recibió, según supe, mostrando
poca voluntad, y pidiéndole la
respuesta de ella, como ya las
velas de su voluntad y affición
estuviessen puestas en calma, ó
por ventura vueltas á otro nuevo
viento con que navegaban, no la
quiso dar por escrito, sino que
con gran desabrimiento de
palabras me invió á decir que no
curase más de escrebirla ni
importunarla, porque su
determinación era de despedir de
su memoria todas las cosas
passadas, las cuales estaban ya
fuera de ella, y que si alguna vez
se acordaba de ellas era para
pesarle, y que estuviesse cierto
de que jamás haría conmigo otra
cosa de lo que me decía, y que
tendría por muy enojosa
persecución la que yo le diese si
quissiese proseguir en mi porfía
más adelante, de la cual no
sacaría ningún fruto, si no era
ponerla en mayor cuidado, para
que de mí y de mis
importunidades con gran
diligencia se guardasse.
Venido el mensajero, el cual yo
esperaba con alegres nuevas
para mi descanso, y recibiendo en
lugar dellas esta desabrida
respuesta, ya podéis sentir lo que
mi ánima sentiría, que muchas
veces estuve por desamparar la
compañía de mi atormentado
cuerpo para procurar por su parte
algún alivio de sus passiones;
pero no habiendo acabado de
perder del todo la esperanza, y
pensando que este nuevo
accidente podría presto hacer otra
mudanza, quise sustentar la vida
para poder ver con ella la razón
que Belisia me daba, mostrando
la que tenía para tratarme con
tanta crueldad y aspereza.
Y comenzando á mostrar en mi
gesto la tristeza que me
acompañaba, desechando de mí
toda alegría, andaba cargado de
cuidados y pensamientos, no
sabiendo qué decir ni qué hacer
que aprovecharme pudiesse; no
dormía ni reposaba; mi comer, era
tan poco que difficultosamente
podía sustentarme; la flaqueza y
la falta del sueño, que me traían
casi fuera de mi juicio.
Y lo que mayor pena me daba era
que á ninguno osaba descubrirla,
ni con nadie la comunicaba para
recibir algún alivio. Anduve ansí
muchos días, más muerto que
vivo, y pensando que Belisia por
ventura lo había hecho por
probarme para saber de mí si
estaba firme con la fe que
siempre le había mostrado,
determiné de tomar el camino
para su aldea, lo cual puse luego
por obra; y llegando allá ninguna
manera ni diligencia bastó para
que Belisia oirme ni escucharme
quisiesse, á lo menos en secreto
como solía, que en lo público no
podía decirle nada que á nuestros
amores tocasse, y con tal
disimulación me inviaba como si
jamás entre mí y ella ninguna
cosa hubiera pasado; estaba tan
seca de razones y tan estéril de
palabras, que, en verlo, mil veces
estuve por desesperarme.
Y, en fin, queriendo tornar á
probar mi ventura, me determiné
de escribirle otra carta,
encaresciéndole mi pena y
passión todo lo que pude,
pensando que aprovecharía para
que dello se doliesse, y la carta
era ésta, porque aquí tengo el
traslado della:

CARTA DE TORCATO Á BELISIA

«Los golpes de los azadones,
Belisia mía, que cavan en mi
sepoltura, con su temeroso son
ensordecen mis oídos; y el clamor
de las campanas, con su
estruendo espantoso, no me
dexan oir cosa que para mi salud
aprovechase. La tristeza de los
que con verme tan al cabo de mi
vida se duelen de mí, me tiene
tan triste, que ni ellos bastan á
consolarme ni yo estoy ya para
recebir algún consuelo. En tal
extremo me tienes puesto, que lo
que con mayor verdad puede
pronunciar mi lengua es que me
han rodeado los dolores de la
muerte y los peligros del infierno
me han hallado. Desventurado de
mí, que vivo para que no se
acaben mis tormentos muriendo,
y muero por acabar de morir si
pudiesse. Mas ha querido mi
desventura que mi pena rabiosa
tenga mayores fuerzas que la
muerte, la cual, viéndome tan
muerto en la vida no procura
matarme, antes, espantada de
verme cual estoy, va huyendo de
mí con temor de que no sea yo
otra muerte más poderosa que
pueda matarla á ella, y cuando la
crueldad viene en su compañía
con intención de ayudarla, para
acabarme, movida á compasión
de mí se pone á llorar conmigo
mis fatigas; y tú, más cruel que la