From Calculus to Analysis 1st Edition

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From Calculus to Analysis
Steen Pedersen

From Calculus to Analysis

2123
Steen Pedersen
Department of Mathematics
Wright State University
Dayton, OH
USA

ISBN 978-3-319-13640-0 ISBN 978-3-319-13641-7 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13641-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015933517

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

To Katherine, without your support this book
would not have been completed.
Preface

The text is intended to form a bridge between calculus and analysis. It is based
on the author’s lecture notes, notes used and revised nearly every year over the last
decade or so. The students typically were a mixture of students intending to go on to
graduate work in mathematics and students intending to teach mathematics in grades
9–12. The later students typically only take the first semester of the two semester
sequence. In order to cover the material, the prospective teachers might need to
teach one variable calculus in high school; the text is designed to comfortably allow
coverage of the standard calculus topics including the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus in the first semester. The material needed to prepare the remaining students
for a graduate level Real Analysis course can comfortably be covered in the second
semester.
To learn something new, for example, some mathematical topic or a foreign lan-
guage, requires exposure to many examples, practice, and the passage of time. To
quote one of the famous mathematicians of the twentieth century:
"... in mathematics you don’t understand things. You just get used to them." – John Von
Neumann

Hence, to help the reader learn from the text, the text includes many examples and
a variety of interesting applications are included, several dealing with surprising
properties of irrational numbers. The applications include some of the “jewels” of
analysis, for example, e is transcendental, π is irrational, a space filling curve, and
examples of nowhere differentiable continuous functions. Many of the applications
are not standard, but of interest to the students. There are exercises embedded in the
text and problem sections at the end of each chapter. The exercises in the text are in-
tended to slow the reader down and allow immediate engagement with some aspect
of the material being discussed. Essential ideas related to limits and continuity are
treated early and revisited in greater depth later. Topics are broken into small easily
digestible modules containing detailed explanations. Brief biographical material is
included for many of the mathematicians who contributed to the development of the
subject.
The text is basically a one variable treatment, in many places this variable is a
complex variable. Using a complex variables (i) places emphasis on the triangle
inequality, hence aids in the transition to more advanced analysis courses, (ii) keeps
the level of abstraction at the same level as the standard one variable treatment, and
(iii) some two (real) variable topics are easily accessible.

vii
Introduction

We define the set of real numbers to be the set of infinite decimals. Apart from
leaving the arithmetic of infinite decimals as a mystery, we attempt an axiomatic
approach to the subject.
The chapters are intended to be read in the order in which they are presented.
Chap. 13 on topology is special, and could perhaps be regarded as an appendix.
Most of Chap. 13 can be covered at the same time as Chap. 5. It could also be
covered instead of parts of that chapter. The subsection on sequential compactness in
Sect. 13.3, requires Sect. 9.1. The appendices contain various kinds of background
material. The author has found it useful for students to begin with Appendix D. In
addition to reinforcing the rules for working with inequalities, this gets the students
used to proving things they already “know.” Since most students have taken calculus
prior to taking this course that is in itself useful, this appendix also introduces the
students to do work based on a set of axioms.
Some sections are marked with a star. This does not indicate they are less im-
portant or more difficult than other section. It only signifies that they are not used
elsewhere in the text. Some of these sections contain the most “interesting” results in
this text. Several of the starred sections involve investigating properties of irrational
and transcendental numbers. Among these are proofs that e and π are irrational as
well as the explicit construction of some transcendental numbers.
Except in a few clearly labeled places, we do not use functions whose existence
we have not established. We establish the existence of roots, logarithms, exponen-
tials, and the trigonometric functions using the methods of analysis.
The ideas in some proofs reoccur multiple times. In fact, some proofs have been
chosen specifically for this reason. Examples include the proof that a number is a
root of a polynomial if and only if there is a corresponding linear factor and the proof
that the square root of two is irrational. Consequently, some of the proofs in the text
are deliberately not the most elegant proof of the statement under consideration.
The early parts of the text uses formal notation. Writing a statement in this man-
ner indicates what must be done to prove this statement and in which order this must
be done. Using formal notation also makes it clear how a statement can be used in a
proof. Hence, using formal notation aids the beginning analysis student understand
and construct proofs. In places, the formality is relaxed to help the student transition
to the standard writing style used in many mathematics books.

ix
x Introduction

Many results in the text are credited to one or two persons, in many (most?) cases
this is misleading. Most likely the result was know to earlier mathematicians in
some form or other. Dates in the text may only be approximate. At least the author
found contradictory information in several instances. Despite these shortcomings,
mentioning names and dates serves to illustrate that analysis was developed by many
people over a long period of time.

Note to the Student Reader

Working the exercises embedded in the text is intended to help you assimilate the
material. Working these exercises without assistance of any kind, for example, from
friends, other books, or the internet is necessary in order to gain a basic understand-
ing of the subject. Each chapter contains a section of solutions and hints that can
be consulted after a significant amount of time has been spent attempting to find a
solution. Once you have written down a complete solution to an exercise, it is useful
to compare this solution to other solutions. This is where friends, other books, and
the Internet are useful.
Each chapter also contains a selection of problems. Working these problems will
give the reader additional practice with the concepts and tools developed in the text.
The results established in these problems are not used elsewhere.
When solving exercises and problems try only to rely on the definition and the
major theorems: the named theorems. Try not to use the various minor results con-
tained in un-named theorems, lemmas, and exercises. When solving exercises and
problems do not refer to other problems in the text. An exception to rule is that some
problems are part of a sequence of problems leading to up to a major conclusion.
Some easy exercises are stated because they are useful when proving some of the
more interesting statements. Claims stated without proofs as well as all claims made
in exercises/problems are meant to be proven by the reader.
When reading a proof (including your own proofs/solutions) you need to be able
to: (a) explain why the proof proves the theorem/problem, (b) identify the main
steps in the proof, (often they take the form of smaller claims made in the proof) (c)
fill in all missing details (go through the proof line by line to check the details), (d)
identify where each hypothesis in the theorem is used.
Acknowledgements

Preliminary versions of this book were class room tested over several years. I thank
the students’ suffering thought preliminary versions of this book for helping me
refine the content of this book. I would also like to thank the reviewers and the staff
at Springer for their help improving this book in so many ways.

xi
Contents

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Part I

1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Infinite Decimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Accumulation Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Calculating with Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Variations on Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.7 Geometric Progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.8 Steinhaus’ Three Distance Conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2 Introduction to Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.1 Definition and Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2 Removable Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3 One-Sided Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3 Sets of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.1 Supremum and Infimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 The Nested Interval Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4 Sets of Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.5 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6 Cantor Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4 Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.1 Countable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 Uncountable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

xiii
xiv Contents

5 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.1 Monotone Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2 The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.3 Continuous Images of Compact Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.4 Uniform Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

6 Derivatives and Their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

6.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.2 Local Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.3 Calculating with Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.4 Global Properties of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.5 Transcendental Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.6 Taylor Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.7 l’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.8 Convexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

7 The Riemann Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

7.1 Definition of the Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.2 Characterizations of Riemann Integrability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.3 Examples of Integrable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.4 Algebra of Integrable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.6 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.7 Complex Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

8 The Logarithm and the Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

8.1 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.2 Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.3 The Napier Constant e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.4 Bump Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Part II

9 Convergence of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

9.1 Real and Complex Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.2 Sequences of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
9.3 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

10 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.1 Series of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.2 Series of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
10.3 Space Filling Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
10.4 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
10.5 The Weierstrass Approximation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Contents xv

11 Trigonometric Functions and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

11.1 Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
11.2 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
11.3 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.4 Weierstrass’ Nowhere Differentiable Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
11.5 The Number Pi is Irrational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

12 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
12.2 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
12.3 Partial Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
12.4 Pointwise Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
12.5 Cesàro Summability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
12.6 Uniform Distribution of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
12.7 Norm Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

13 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
13.1 Open Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
13.2 Closed Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
13.3 Compact Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
13.4 Connected Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

A Logic and Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

A.1 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
A.1.1 The Connective “or” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
A.1.2 The Connective “and” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
A.1.3 Implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
A.1.4 Bi-implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
A.1.5 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
A.1.5.1 All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
A.1.5.2 Some . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
A.1.6 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
A.2 Sets of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
A.3 Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
A.3.1 Subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
A.3.2 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
A.3.3 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
A.3.4 Set Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
A.3.5 General Unions and Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
A.4 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
A.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
A.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
A.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
A.4.4 Set Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
A.4.4.1 Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
A.4.4.2 Pre-image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
xvi Contents

B The Principle of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

B.1 Formulations of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
B.2 Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

C The Field Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

C.1 Statement of the Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
C.2 Some Consequences of the Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

D Working with Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

D.1 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
D.2 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

E Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

E.1 Basic Properties of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
E.2 Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

F Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

G Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

H Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
List of Figures

1.1 Illustrating Example 1.2.3 using balls as in (1.3). In the notation of

(1.3) the large disk is D and the small disk is Bε (a), with a = 0 . . . . . 7
1.2 Illustrating Example 1.2.4 using balls as in (1.3). In the notation of
(1.3) the large disk is D and the small disk is Bε (a), with a = 1 . . . . . 8
1.3 Illustrating Example 1.2.5 using balls as in (1.3). In the notation of
(1.3) the large disk is D and the small disk is Bε (a), with a = 2 . . . . . 8
1.4 Pseudo-sine function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 A part of the graph of σ (1/x) with some important values of x
indicated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Illustrating the proof of local boundedness (Theorem 1.3.12) in
the case where f (x) = 1/x and a = 1/3. In this case L = 3, hence
M = 1 + |L| = 4 and the proof gives δ ≤ 13 − 14 = 12 1
.............. 16
1.7 Illustrating the proof of local positivity (Theorem 1.3.14) in the
case where f (x) = 2x − 4 and a = 1/3. In this case L = 2, hence
ε = L/2 = 1 and the proof gives δ ≤ 13 − 27 = 21 1
................. 17
1.8 Illustrating the Squeeze Rule (Theorem 1.4.16) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.9 Illustrating (1.10) in the case φ = 3/7 and N = 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.10 Circle version of Fig. 1.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.11 A two dimensional Steinhaus problem. In the figure M = 5, N = 4,
φ = e, and ψ = 5π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.1 ν + ε is the midpoint of [ν , 56] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.2 Illustrating that M = −( f0 + 2) is not an upper bound for A and
N = e0 + 1 is an upper bound for A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 Since d0 .0 is not an upper bound and d0 + 1 is an upper bound,
there is a k such that d0 .k is not an upper bound and d0 .k + 1/10 is
an upper bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4 A few nested intervals [a0 , b0 ] ⊃ [a1 , b1 ] ⊃ · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5 The sets C0 , C1 , C2 , C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

xvii
xviii List of Figures

4.1 Instead of counting along the rows we count along the diagonals.
Using the notation from the proof of Theorem 4.1.5 A1 is the top
row, A2 is the second row, etc. and B2 is the diagonal with one dot,
B3 is the diagonal with two dots, and so on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

6.1 The curve y = f (x), line segments connecting the point (a, f (a))
to the point (x, f (x)) for several values of x, and the tangent line
y = f (a) + f  (a)(x − a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.2 A curve y = f (x) with f (a) = f (b) = 0, the x−axis, and three
line segments indicating the points c in Rolle’s Theorem where
f  (x) = 0, i.e., the points where the tangent line is horizontal . . . . . . . 101
6.3 The graphic on the left shows the curve y = f (x) and the line
y = L(x) connecting the endpoints (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) of
the curve. The graphic on the right shows g(x) = f (x) − L(x)
and the x−axis.
 In this illustration  a = 1, b = 4, and
f (x) = x 2x3 − 15x2 + 33x − 16 /2. Hence, L(x) = 2x and
g(x) = x 2x3 − 15x2 + 33x − 20 /2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.4 A convex curve y = f (x) and one a it’s cords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.5 A convex curve y = f (x) and some of it’s cords. a The figure on
the left illustrates Lemma 6.8.1. In the notation of Lemma 6.8.1
(x, f (x)) is the point where the cords intersect. b The figure on the
right illustrates Exercise 6.8.2. In the notation of Exercise 6.8.2
(z, f (z)) is the point where the cords intersect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.6 A convex curve y = f (x) and some of it’s cords. The figure on the
left illustrates (6.16). The figure on the right illustrates adding a
third cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

7.1 Lower step functions—in one case the function is positive. The two
parts of this figure are essentially identical except for a vertical shift . 128
7.2 Upper step functions—in one case the function is positive. The two
parts of this figure are essentially identical except for a vertical shift . 129
7.3 Inserting one additional partition point. The figure on the right has
one additional partition point. Clearly, the two step functions have
the same sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.4 The shaded area illustrates ∑ S − ∑ s. Compare to Figs. 7.1 and 7.2 . . 133
7.5 Illustrating ∑ S − ∑ s = ( f (b) − f (a)) b−a n in the proof of Theorem
7.3.2. The rectangle on the left has height f (b) − f (a) and width b−a n 135
7.6 Illustrating ∑ S − ∑ s < ε in the proof of Theorem 7.3.3. Since
ε ε
Mi − mi < b−a , the rectangle at the bottom has height < b−a .
Clearly, it has width b − a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.7 Illustrating the positive and negative parts f ± of a function f . In
this example, f = σ is the pseudosine function. In both graphs f
is the thin curve. In the graph on the left f + is the thicker dashed
curve and in the graph on the right f − is the thicker dashes curve . . . 139
List of Figures xix

7.8 The figure on the left shows f , s, and S. The figure on right shows
f + , s+ , and S+ . Illustrating s+ is a lower step function for f + , S+
is an upper step function for f + , and A+ k − ak ≤ Ak − ak . . . . . . . . . . . 139
+

7.9 Illustrating the proof of Theorem 7.4.8. In particular, the inequality

∑ T − ∑ t ≤ ∑ S − ∑ s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

8.1 The bump function φ constructed in this section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

8.2 The function ψ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

9.1 A function f , the band determined by f (x) − ε < g(x) < f (x) + ε
and a function g inside this bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
9.2 Illustrating that fn does not converge uniformly to f
in Example 9.2.2. The figure shows f , the band
f (x) − ε < g(x) < f (x) + ε with ε = 13 , and the functions
fn , n = 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

10.1 The square is the region {( j, k) | 0 ≤ j, k ≤ N} corresponding to

 N 
the sum ∑ j=0 a j ∑k=0 bk = ∑Nj=0 ∑Nk=0 a j bk . The boundary
N

between the two triangles is the line j + k = N, corresponding

to the sum cN = ∑ j+k=N a j bk . The lower triangle is the
region {( j, k) | 0 ≤ j + k ≤ N} corresponding to the sum
∑Nn=0 cn = ∑ j+k≤N a j bk . The upper triangle corresponds to the sum
∑Nj,k=0 a j bk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
j+k>N
10.2 The periodic function f (t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

11.1 Illustrating the definition of arc length and Lemma 11.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . 235

12.1 A few samples D1 , D4 , and D9 of the Dirichlet kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

12.2 A few samples K1 , K4 , and K9 of the Fejér kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
12.3 The functions f ≤ 1]a,b[ ≤ F. Making the dashed lines sufficiently
´1 ´1
steep, forces 0 F − 0 f < ε . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
12.4 Approximating a step function g with a continuous function h such
that g − h is arbitrarily small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

13.1 Illustrating proof of Lemma 13.3.13, by showing the square

[0, 1]2 , the (thin) line Lc := [0, 1] × {c}, the finite subcover Uα ,
α ∈ A of Lc (in the case where the 
open sets Uα are balls) the
inclusion [0, 1] ×  ]c − r,
 c + r[ ⊆ α ∈C Uα , and the (thick) line
Lc− 2r = [0, 1] × c − 2r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
13.2 A region D and two points in the region connected by a path in the
region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

D.1 If a is to the left of b and b is to the left of c, then a is to the left of c 314

E.1 Triangle Inequality. Label the vertices a, b, c in any manner . . . . . . . . 321

E.2 Illustration for Exercise E.2.2. The large circle has radius r and the
small circle has radius s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Part I
 Calculus

The theory of differential and integral calculus is the main focus of this part.
This includes discussions of number, sets of numbers, limits, continuity, derivative,
and Riemann integral. Applications includes a proof of the Steinhaus three distance
conjecture, Liouville’s theorem on transcendental numbers, convex function theory,
a construction of the exponential and logarithmic functions, an example of a com-
pactly supported smooth function, and a proof that the number e is transcendental.
Chapter 1
Limits

The set real numbers is defined as the set of infinite decimals. Density of the set of
rational numbers and of the set of irrational numbers in the set of real numbers is
established. This naturally leads to a discussion of accumulation points that serves
as a precursor for the main part of this chapter: the theory of limits of functions.
Convergence of sequences and series of numbers are discussed briefly. A bounded
function, the Dirichlet function, that does not have a limit at any real number is
presented. Section 1.8 contains a proof of Steinhaus’ three distance conjecture.

1.1 Infinite Decimals

The basis set underlying all of our considerations is the set of all real numbers, that
is, the set of all infinite decimals. In this section we investigate a few basic properties
of infinite decimals. We begin by introducing some terminology.
An infinite decimal is an expression of the form

±d0 .d1 d2 · · · ,

where d0 ∈ N0, and for k ≥ 1, dk is a decimal digit meaning

dk ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

For example, if our infinite decimal is 13.23674 · · · , then d0 = 13, d1 = 2, d2 = 3,

d3 = 6, d4 = 7, etc.
An infinite decimal
±d0 .d1 d2 · · ·
is repeating, if there are k, m ∈ N, such that d j+m = d j for all j ≥ k. The digits
dk dk+1 · · · dk+m−1 are the repeating part of the infinite decimal and the repeating

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 3

S. Pedersen, From Calculus to Analysis, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13641-7_1
4 1 Limits

part has length m. We will write

d0 .d1 d2 · · · dk−1 dk dk+1 · · · dk+m−1 := d0 .d1 d2 · · · .

For example, 1.67234523452345 · · · = 1.672345 is an infinite decimal with repeat-

ing part 2345 of length 4. Another example of a repeating decimal is 0 = 0.0. More
generally, we will say that decimals of the form 2.453 := 2.4530 are finite decimals.
We assume the reader is familiar with the usual properties of addition and multi-
plication, including the associative, commutative, and distributive properties. These
properties are, for example, encoded in the field axioms. Inequality between two in-
finite decimals has the usual meaning, in particular, inequality satisfies the Axioms
of Trichotomy and Positive Closure. Consequently, we can freely use the conse-
quences of these axioms derived in Sects. D.1 and D.2.

Finite Decimals

Let x := 0.9, then 10x = 9.9 = 9 + x, hence 9x = 9, so x = 1. That is

0.999 · · · = 0.9 = 1.

Similarly, any infinite decimal terminating in 9 equals a finite decimal. Con-

versely, any finite decimal equals an infinite decimal terminating in 9. For example,
1.239 = 1.24. We have shown:
Theorem 1.1.1. The set of finite decimals equals the set of infinite decimals termi-
nating in repeating nines.

Repeating Decimals

The set of rational numbers is

p
Q := | p ∈ Z, q ∈ N .
q

We provide a characterization of the rationals in terms of decimals.

The number 0.234 is rational. In fact, if x := 0.234, then 1000x = 234 + x, hence
x = 234/999. Similarly, any repeating decimal is a rational number.
Calculating the decimal form of 1/7 by long division, there are at most 7 dif-
ferent remainders, namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Hence, after at most 7 divisions, the
division problem repeats itself. Thus the infinite decimal form of 1/7 is a repeating
decimal whose repeating part has length at most 6 (If the remainder is zero, the pro-
cess stops). Similarly, the repeating decimal form of any rational p/q, with 1 < q,
is a repeating decimal whose repeating part has length at most q − 1.
1.1 Infinite Decimals 5

We have shown:
Theorem 1.1.2. An infinite decimal is a rational number iff it is repeating.
1 2
Example 1.1.3. By long division 3 = 0.3, and 3 = 0.6. Since 13 + 23 = 1
1 and 31
13 = 1
1
we have

0.3 + 0.6 = 1 and

3 · 0.3 = 1.

Leading to two further verifications that 0.9 = 1.

A real number that is not rational is called irrational. Irrational numbers exist be-
cause non-repeating decimals exist. For example, the infinite decimal

0.1010010001 · · · (1.1)

(keep increasing the number

√ of zeros) is non-repeating, hence an irrational
√ number.
We will prove that 2, e, and π exist and are irrational. For 2 existence is
contained in Theorem 3.5.1 and irrationality is established by Theorem 3.5.4. We
construct e in Sect. 8.2 and show e is irrational (even transcendental) in Sect. 8.3. In
Sect. 11.2 we construct π and in Sect. 11.5 we show π is irrational.

Density

Let A and B be two sets. We say A is dense in B, if any ball centered at a point in B
must contain at least one point from A. In symbols,

∀b ∈ B, ∀r > 0, A ∩ Br (b) = 0.
/

Alternatively, using the definition of an open ball, we can rewrite the definition of A
being dense in B as
∀b ∈ B, ∀r > 0, ∃a ∈ A, |a − b| < r.
Usually, when we say A is dense in B, the set A is a subset of the set B, but this is
not required by the definition.
Lemma 1.1.4. If r > 0, then there is an integer N ≥ 1, such that r > 1/10N .

Proof. Let r = d0 .d1 d2 · · · be the infinite decimal representation of r. Since r = 0,

for at least one n, dn is non-zero. Consequently, r > 1/10n+1 . 

A direct consequence of this result is that there is no infinitely small positive real
number:
Corollary 1.1.5. If 0 ≤ r and r < 1/10n for all integers n, then r = 0.
6 1 Limits

The following theorems establish the density of the set of rational numbers and of
the set of irrational numbers in the set of all real numbers.
Theorem 1.1.6 (Density of Rationals). The set of all rational numbers is dense in
the set of all real numbers.

Proof. Let real number x and r > 0 be given. We must show that Br (x) contains at
least one rational number. Suppose x > 0. Let x = d0 .d1 d2 · · · be an infinite decimal
representation of x. Let N ≥ 1 be an integer such that r > 1/10N . Let y := d0 .d1 · · · dN
and z := d0 .d1 · · · dN 9 = y + 1/10N . Then y and z are rationals.
Since y is obtained from x = d0 .d1 d2 · · · by replacing the dk with k > N by 0’s
and z is obtained from x by replacing the dk with k > N by 9 ’s we have
1
y ≤ x ≤ z, and z = y + . (1.2)
10N
Hence,
1 1
x ≤ z = y+ ≤ x + N < x + r.
10N 10
Where the last inequality follows from the choice of N. Consequently, z is a rational
in Br (x).
The case where x < 0 is similar. If x = 0, then x is already a rational in Br (x). 

Exercise 1.1.7. If r = 0 is rational and x is irrational, then 1/x, x/r, rx and r + x are
irrational.

Theorem 1.1.8 (Density of Irrationals). Any open interval contains an irrational

number.

Proof. Let real numbers x and r > 0 be given. We will show that Br (x) contains at
least one irrational number. Let t be the irrational in (1.1). Then 0 < t < 1. Suppose
x > 0. Let x = d0 .d1 d2 · · · be an infinite decimal representation of x. Let N ≥ 1 be
an integer such that r > 1/10N . Then
t
y := d0 .d1 · · · dN +
10N

is an irrational such that |x − y| ≤ 101N < r.

The case x < 0 is similar. If x = 0, then t/10N is an irrational in Br (x). 

1.2 Accumulation Points

Let D be a subset of C and let a be some complex number. We say a is an accumu-

lation point of D, if there are points in D \ {a} arbitrarily close to a. Hence, a point
a is an accumulation point of D, if given any distance ε > 0, there is at least one
point in D \ {a} whose distance to a is less than ε . We restate this as:
1.2 Accumulation Points 7

Definition 1.2.1. Let D be a subset of C and let a be some complex number. We

say a is an accumulation point of D, if for all ε > 0, there is an x ∈ D, such that
0 < |x − a| < ε . In symbols,

∀ε > 0, ∃x ∈ D, 0 < |x − a| < ε .

Accumulation points are also called limits points.

A ball without its center is called a punctured ball; hence a punctured ball is a set of
the form
Br (c) := Br (c) \ {c} = {z ∈ C | 0 < |z − c| < r}.
A punctured ball is also called a punctured neighborhood of c. In the same manner
the open ball Br (a) is sometimes called a neighborhood of a.
In terms of balls, we can rewrite the definition of an accumulation point as

∀ε > 0, Bε (a) ∩ D = 0.

/ (1.3)

The following exercise shows that it is sufficient to consider small values of ε > 0.
Exercise 1.2.2. Let m > 0 be given. If for all 0 < r ≤ m, D ∩ Br (c) = 0,
/ then c is an
accumulation point of D.
Example 1.2.3. The number 0 is an accumulation point of B1 (0).
Proof. To see this consider an arbitrary ε > 0. We may assume ε ≤ 1. Let x := ε /2.
Then 0 < x = |x − 0| < 1 (so x ∈ B1 (0), ) and 0 < |x − 0| < ε . See Fig. 1.1. 

0 1
2

Fig. 1.1 Illustrating Example 1.2.3 using balls as in (1.3). In the notation of (1.3) the large disk is
D and the small disk is Bε (a), with a = 0

Example 1.2.4. The number 1 is an accumulation point of B1 (0).

Proof. To see this, consider ε > 0. We may assume ε ≤ 1. Then 0 < ε /2 ≤ 1/2.
Hence, 0 < 12 ≤ 1 − ε2 < 1. Consequently, if x := 1 − ε2 , then 0 < x < 1. Thus x ∈
B1 (0) and 0 < |x − 1| < ε , as we needed to show. See Fig. 1.2. 
8 1 Limits

0 1 1 2 1 1

Fig. 1.2 Illustrating Example 1.2.4 using balls as in (1.3). In the notation of (1.3) the large disk is
D and the small disk is Bε (a), with a = 1

Example 1.2.5. The number 2 is not an accumulation point of B1 (0).

Proof. Let ε := 12 . Let x ∈ B1 (0). Then |x − 2|  ε , because |x − 2| ≥ ||x| − |2||
= 2 − |x| ≥ 2 − 1 > 1/2 = ε . See Fig. 1.3. 

0 1 2 2
2

Fig. 1.3 Illustrating Example 1.2.5 using balls as in (1.3). In the notation of (1.3) the large disk is
D and the small disk is Bε (a), with a = 2

Remark 1.2.6. Using the methods from Examples 1.2.3 to 1.2.5 it follows that the
set of accumulation points of an open ball in the corresponding closed ball.
1.3 Limits of Functions 9

1.3 Limits of Functions

Understanding the definition of limits is central to understanding a modern devel-

opment of calculus. The modern concept of limits is highly nontrivial: It took math-
ematicians several hundred years, after the discovery of calculus, to organize the
logical development of calculus around the concept of the limits and another hun-
dred years or so to write down the modern (precise) definition of the limit.

Definition of Limits

If A and B are sets, then the notation f : A → B is used to indicate that f is defined
on all of A and has values in B. If every element of B is a value of f , then f is said
to be onto or surjective. See Sect. A.4 for more background information regarding
functions.
Let D be a subset of C. Let function f : D → C and suppose a ∈ C is an accumu-
lation point of D. Let L ∈ C. We would like to turn the vague statement

f (x) is close to L, when x is close to a

into a precise mathematical statement, that is, into a statement that can be described
using set theory and logic. As a step in this direction we reformulate the previous
vague statement as:

we can arrange that f (x) is as close to L, as we wish,

for all x sufficiently close to a

The first part “that f (x) is as close to L, as we wish” can be made precise as follows:

for any (small) ε > 0, | f (x) − L| < ε .

The second part “for all x sufficiently close to a” can be made precise by saying that

0 < |x − a| < δ for some δ > 0 depending on ε ,

where 0 < |x − a| < δ says x is close to a and “sufficiently” is encoded in the de-
pendence of δ on ε . We want a to be an accumulation point of D, because that guar-
antees that D ∩ Bδ (a) is nonempty, that is, 0 < |x − a| < δ for at least one x ∈ D.
Hence we have arrived at:
Definition 1.3.1. Let D ⊆ C, a, L ∈ C, and f : D → C. If a is an accumulation point
of D, we will say that f (x) converges to L as x goes to a provided: Given any ε > 0,
there is a δ > 0, such that for any x ∈ D with 0 < |x − a| < δ , we have | f (x) − L| < ε .
10 1 Limits

In symbols,

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ D, 0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ | f (x) − L| < ε . (1.4)

This definition of limit is due to Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass (31 October
1815 Ostenfeldeto 19 February 1897 Berlin). Using neighborhoods, as in Sect. 1.2,
Eq. (1.4) can be written as

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ D, x ∈ Bδ (a) =⇒ f (x) ∈ Bε (L). (1.5)

If g : A → B and C ⊆ A, then g(C) := {g(x) | x ∈ C} is the image of C. Clearly,

g(A) ⊆ B. Note that g is onto, if g(A) = B. Using this image notation we can write
(1.5) and therefore (1.4) as

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, f (D ∩ Bδ (a)) ⊆ Bε (L). (1.6)

Restating (1.6) in words: Given a ball B centered at L, there is a punctured ball B

centered at a, such that f maps B into B.
We will abbreviate Eq. (1.4) as

lim f (x) = L
x→a

and say that L is the limit of f as x goes to a. Using notation that is similar to saying
that f (x) goes to L as x goes to a, we will also abbreviate (1.4), and therefore also
the equivalent formulations (1.5) and (1.6), as

f (x) → L, as x → a
and as
f (x)−→L.
x→a

Model Nothing moves in the definition of convergence. Hence, notation using

arrows to describe convergence is somewhat deceptive. Here we discuss a more
appropriate model of limx→a f (x) = L.
Preamble The model below is chosen because traditionally, at least in Europe
during times of war, mathematicians were employed calculating ballistic or-
bits, sometimes even on the battlefield.
Set-up Suppose we have a canon. When this canon is fired at an angle x to
the horizon the projectile lands a distance f (x) from the canon. The intended
target is a distance L from the canon and a is an angle such that f (a) = L. In
practice, it is not possible to set up the canon in such a way that the angle x
is determined with absolute precision, i.e., such that x = a. However, we only
need the projectile to land so close to the target that the target is destroyed.
We call this the target tolerance.
Discussion The function f (x) encodes a lot of information, e.g., how far the
target is above (or below) the canon (or more complicated information about
the terrain), wind speed, atmospheric pressure, etc. How close to the target
1.3 Limits of Functions 11

we need the projectile to land depends on how well the target is fortified.
Considering both the angle to the horizon x and the direction y in which the
canon is fired, leads to a problem where f (x + iy) is a function mapping the
plane into the plane—into the plane because the projectile can land left or
right of the target as well as in front of or behind the target.
Problem Given a target, set up the canon such that the target is destroyed.
Solution For any target tolerance, there is an angle tolerance, such that, if the
angle adjustment of the canon falls within the angle tolerance, then the projec-
tile will land within the target tolerance. Using the symbols a, x, L, and f (x)
we restate this as: Given any target tolerance ε > 0, there is an angle tolerance
δ > 0, such that, if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then | f (x) − L| < ε . See Table 1.1.

Ballistic model Definition (1.4) of limit

For any target tolerance ∀ε > 0
there is an angle tolerance ∃δ > 0
such that such that
if ..., then ... =⇒
angle adjustment falls within angle tolerance 0 < |x − a| < δ
projectile lands within the target tolerance | f (x) − L| < ε
Table 1.1 Comparison of the ballistic model to the definition (1.4) of the limit of a function

Remark The condition 0 < |x − a| in Table 1.1 corresponds to the fact that it is
not possible to adjust the angle of the canon with absolute precision.

End-of-Model
It is a consequence of Exercise 1.2.2 that when working with limits only “small”
values of ε > 0 and δ > 0 need to be considered. This is illustrated in the following
two remarks. We give the arguments both in terms of (1.4) and in terms of (1.6).
Remark 1.3.2. If we can find a δ corresponding to ε = 1/2, then that δ also works
for ε = 1. Simply
1
0 < |x − a| < δ =⇒ | f (x) − b| < =⇒ | f (x) − b| < 1
2
by transitivity of inequality. In terms of ball, if f (Bδ (a)) ⊆ B1/2 (b), then f (Bδ (a)) ⊆
B1 (b), because B1/2 (b) ⊆ B1 (b).
Thus, when trying to verify (1.4), it is sufficient to consider small values of ε .
That is, if it is convenient to assume, for example, ε < 1/3, you can safely do so.
Remark 1.3.3. Suppose δ = 1 works for some value of ε , then δ = 1/2 also works
for that value of ε . Again, this is by transitivity of inequalities:
1
0 < |x − a| < =⇒ 0 < |x − a| < 1 =⇒ | f (x) − b| < ε .
2
12 1 Limits
 
In terms of ball, if f (B1 (a)) ⊆ Bε (b), then f B1/2 (a) ⊆ Bε (b), because B1/2 (a) ⊆
B1 (a).
Since we only need to find one value of δ , this means that, if it is convenient
to assume, for example, δ < 1/3, we can safely do so. We are not looking for the
“best” or largest δ , or trying to classify all the possible δ ’s that might work.
The arguments in Remarks 1.3.2 and 1.3.3 show that we can replace 0 < |x − a| < δ
by 0 < |x − a| ≤ δ and/or | f (x) − L| < ε by | f (x) − L| ≤ ε , if convenient. That is,
we can use closed balls in place of open balls, or a mixture of open and closed balls,
whenever it is convenient.
Simple, but important, limits are established in the following two examples.
Example 1.3.4. Let a, k ∈ C. If f (x) := k for all x ∈ C, then f (x) → k as x → a.
Proof. Let ε > 0 be given. Let δ := 1. Then 0 < |x − a| < δ = 1, implies | f (x) − k| =
|k − k| = 0 < ε . Hence, δ = 1 works for any ε . 

Example 1.3.5. Let a ∈ C. If f (x) := x for all x ∈ C, then f (x) → a as x → a.

Proof. Let ε > 0 be given. Let δ := ε , then δ > 0 and

0 ≤ |x − a| < δ =⇒ | f (x) − a| = |x − a| < δ = ε .

Hence, δ = ε works. 

In order to analyze more interesting examples we need some techniques. Using

(1.6) is often intuitive, since it allows us a pictorial argument. (The reader may
want to illustrate Remarks 1.3.2 and 1.3.3 using drawings of appropriate balls.)
However, in concrete cases (1.4) is often more useful because it allows us to “solve”
| f (x) − L| < ε for δ . This is illustrated in the examples below.
Example 1.3.6. Let f : C → C be determined by f (x) := 3x − 5. Then f (x) → 7 as
x → 4.

Proof. To prove this, let ε > 0 be given. We need to find a δ > 0, such that | f (x) −
7| < ε , when 0 < |x − 4| < δ . A useful algebraic manipulation is

| f (x) − 7| = |3x − 12| = 3 |x − 4| (1.7)

since this displays |x − 4| as a factor of | f (x) − 7|. The choice of δ will control the
size of |x − 4|. Our goal
| f (x) − 7| < ε
takes the form
3|x − 4| < ε .
Dividing by 3, gives
ε
|x − 4| < .
3
1.3 Limits of Functions 13

So, let δ := ε /3. Then δ > 0 since ε > 0. Having constructed a δ , we must verify
that it works. Using (1.7) it follows that
ε
|x − 4| < δ =⇒ 3|x − 4| < 3δ =⇒ | f (x) − 7| < 3 = ε .
3
Thus δ = ε /3 works. 
Having constructed δ , one should in principle verify that it works, as we did
above. This step is often left for the reader.
Example 1.3.7. Let f : C → C be determined by f (x) := x2 . Then f (x) → 9 as x → 3.
Proof. To prove this, let ε > 0 be given. We need to find a δ > 0, such that | f (x) −
9| < ε , when 0 < |x − 3| < δ . A useful algebraic manipulation is

| f (x) − 9| = |x + 3| |x − 3| (1.8)

since this displays |x − 3| as a factor of | f (x) − 9|. The choice of δ will control the
size of |x − 3|, but before we can choose δ , we need to control the size of |x + 3|.
Since we want x to be close to 3, we can restrict our deliberations to |x − 3| < 1 and
see what that says about |x + 3|. By the triangle inequality

|x + 3| = |x − 3 + 6| ≤ |x − 3| + |6| < 1 + 6 = 7

when |x − 3| < 1. Hence, using (1.8)

|x − 3| < 1 =⇒ | f (x) − 9| ≤ 7|x − 3|.

The last inequality suggests we want 7|x − 3| < ε . In fact, if |x − 3| < 1 and |x − 3| <
ε /7, then
ε
| f (x) − 9| ≤ 7|x − 3| < 7 = ε .
4
Thus δ := min{1, ε /7} works. 
The choice of the 1 in |x − 3| < 1 above, was arbitrary. Replacing that 1 by any other
positive number would work in this example.
The proof above could be written using neighborhood notation, to summarize:

x ∈ B1 (3) =⇒ |x + 3| < 7 and

x ∈ Bε /7 (3) =⇒ |x − 3| < ε /7 hence
x ∈ B1 (3) ∩ Bε /7 (3) =⇒ |x + 3| |x − 3| < 7(ε /7).

The assignment δ := min{1, ε /7} then results from

B1 (3) ∩ Bε /7 (3) = Bmin{1,ε /7} (3).

Example 1.3.8. Let f : C \ {0} → C be determined by f (x) := 1x . Then f (x) → 2 as

x → 12 .
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towards her, and she, seeing that I recognized her, bounded to me
with joy in every feature, and expressed her great happiness at
seeing me. All thought of slavery, color, or what might seem to
belong to the dignity of her position vanished, and the meeting was
as the meeting of friends long separated, yet still present in each
other’s memory and affection.
Amanda made haste to tell me that she agreed with me about
slavery, and that she had freed all her slaves as they had become of
age. She brought her children to me, and I took them in my arms,
with sensations which I could not if I would stop here to describe.
One explanation of the feeling of this lady towards me was, that her
mother, who died when she was yet a tender child, had been briefly
described by me in a little “Narrative of my life,” published many
years before our meeting, and when I could have had no motive but
the highest for what I said of her. She had read my story, and
learned something of the amiable qualities of her mother through
me. She also recollected that as I had had trials as a slave, she had
had her trials under the care of a stepmother, and that when she was
harshly spoken to by her father’s second wife she could always read
in my dark face the sympathy of one who had often received kind
words from the lips of her beloved mother. Mrs. Sears died three
years ago in Baltimore, but she did not depart without calling me to
her bedside, that I might tell her as much as I could about her
mother, whom she was firm in the faith that she should meet in
another and better world. She especially wished me to describe to
her the personal appearance of her mother, and desired to know if
any of her own children then present resembled her. I told her that
the young lady standing in the corner of the room was the image of
her mother in form and features. She looked at her daughter and
said, “Her name is Lucretia—after my mother.” After telling me that
her life had been a happy one, and thanking me for coming to see
her on her death-bed, she said she was ready to die. We parted to
meet no more in life. The interview touched me deeply, and was, I
could not help thinking, a strange one—another proof that “Truth is
often stranger than Fiction.”
 If any reader of this part of my life shall see in it the evidence of
a want of manly resentment for wrongs inflicted upon myself and
race by slavery, and by the ancestors of this lady, so it must be. No
man can be stronger than nature, one touch of which, we are told,
makes all the world akin. I esteem myself a good, persistent hater of
injustice and oppression, but my resentment ceases when they
cease, and I have no heart to visit upon children the sins of their
fathers.
It will be noticed, when I first met Mr. Sears in Philadelphia, he
declined to talk with me, on the ground that I had been unjust to
Capt. Auld, his father-in-law. Soon after that meeting, Capt. Auld had
occasion to go to Philadelphia, and, as usual, went straight to the
house of his son-in-law, and had hardly finished the ordinary
salutations, when he said: “Sears, I see by the papers that Frederick
has recently been in Philadelphia. Did you go to hear him?” “Yes,
sir,” was the reply. After asking something more about my lecture, he
said, “Well, Sears, did Frederick come to see you?” “Yes, sir,” said
Sears. “Well, how did you receive him?” Mr. Sears then told him all
about my visit, and had the satisfaction of hearing the old man say
that he had done right in giving me welcome to his house. This last
fact I have from Rev. J. D. Long, who, with his wife, was one of the
party invited to meet me at the house of Mr. Sears, on the occasion
of my visit to Mrs. Sears.
But I must now return from this digression, and further relate my
experience in the Loyalist National Convention, and how from that
time there was an impetus given to the enfranchisement of the
freedmen, which culminated in the fifteenth amendment to the
Constitution of the United States. From the first, the members of the
convention were divided in their views of the proper measures of
reconstruction, and this division was in some sense sectional. The
men from the far South, strangely enough, were quite radical, while
those from the border States were mostly conservative, and,
unhappily, these last had control of the convention from the first. A
Kentucky gentleman was made President, and its other officers were
for the most part Kentuckians, and all opposed to colored suffrage in
sentiment. There was a “whole heap” (to use a Kentucky phrase) of
“halfness” in that State during the war for the union, and there was
much more there after the war. The Maryland delegates, with the
exception of Hon. John L. Thomas, were in sympathy with Kentucky.
Those from Virginia, except Hon. John Miner Botts, were unwilling to
entertain the question. The result was, that the convention was
broken square in two. The Kentucky President declared it adjourned,
and left the chair against the earnest protests of the friends of
manhood suffrage.
But the friends of this measure were not to be out-generaled and
suppressed in this way, and instantly reorganized, elected John M.
Botts of Virginia, President, discussed and passed resolutions in
favor of enfranchising the freedmen, and thus placed the question
before the country in such a manner that it could not be ignored. The
delegates from the Southern States were quite in earnest, and bore
themselves grandly in support of the measure; but the chief
speakers and advocates of suffrage on that occasion were Mr.
Theodore Tilton and Miss Anna E. Dickinson. Of course, on such a
question, I could not be expected to be silent. I was called forward,
and responded with all the energy of my soul, for I looked upon
suffrage to the negro as the only measure which could prevent him
from being thrust back into slavery.
From this time onward the question of suffrage had no rest. The
rapidity with which it gained strength was more than surprising to
me.
In addition to the justice of the measure, it was soon
commended by events as a political necessity. As in the case of the
abolition of slavery, the white people of the rebellious States have
themselves to thank for its adoption. Had they accepted, with
moderate grace, the decision of the court to which they appealed,
and the liberal conditions of peace offered to them, and united
heartily with the national government in its efforts to reconstruct their
shattered institutions, instead of sullenly refusing as they did, their
counsel and their votes to that end, they might easily have defeated
the argument based upon necessity for the measure. As it was, the
question was speedily taken out of the hands of colored delegations
and mere individual efforts, and became a part of the policy of the
Republican party; and President U. S. Grant, with his characteristic
nerve and clear perception of justice, promptly recommended the
great amendment to the Constitution by which colored men are to-
day invested with complete citizenship—the right to vote and to be
voted for in the American Republic.
 CHAPTER XIV.
LIVING AND LEARNING.

Inducements to a political career—Objections—A newspaper enterprise—The

new National Era—Its abandonment—The Freedmen’s Savings and Trust
Company—Sad experience—Vindication.

THE adoption of the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments and their

incorporation into the Constitution of the United States opened a
very tempting field to my ambition, and one to which I should
probably have yielded, had I been a younger man. I was earnestly
urged by many of my respected fellow-citizens, both colored and
white and from all sections of the country, to take up my abode in
some one of the many districts of the South where there was a large
colored vote, and get myself elected, as they were sure I easily could
do, to a seat in Congress—possibly in the Senate. That I did not
yield to this temptation was not entirely due to my age; for the idea
did not square well with my better judgment and sense of propriety.
The thought of going to live among a people in order to gain their
votes and acquire official honors, was repugnant to my self-respect,
and I had not lived long enough in the political atmosphere of
Washington to have this sentiment sufficiently blunted to make me
indifferent to its suggestions. I do not deny that the arguments of my
friends had some weight in them, and from their stand-point it was all
right; but I was better known to myself than to them. I had small faith
in my aptitude as a politician, and could not hope to cope with rival
aspirants. My life and labors in the North had in a measure unfitted
me for such work, and I could not readily have adapted myself to the
peculiar oratory found to be most effective with the newly
enfranchised class. In the New England and Northern atmosphere I
had acquired a style of speaking which in the South would have
been considered tame and spiritless; and, consequently, he who
“could tear a passion to tatters and split the ear of groundlings,” had
far better chance of success with the masses there, than one so little
boisterous as myself.
Upon the whole, I have never regretted that I did not enter the
arena of Congressional honors to which I was invited.
Outside of mere personal considerations I saw, or thought I saw,
that in the nature of the case the sceptre of power had passed from
the old slave and rebellious States to the free and loyal States, and
that hereafter, at least for some time to come, the loyal North, with its
advanced civilization, must dictate the policy and control the destiny
of the republic. I had an audience ready made in the free States; one
which the labors of thirty years had prepared for me, and before this
audience the freedmen of the South needed an advocate as much
as they needed a member of Congress. I think in this I was right; for
thus far our colored members of Congress have not largely made
themselves felt in the legislation of the country; and I have little
reason to think I could have done any better than they.
I was not, however, to remain long in my retired home in
Rochester, where I had planted my trees and was reposing under
their shadows. An effort was being made about this time to establish
a large weekly newspaper in the city of Washington, which should be
devoted to the defence and enlightenment of the newly emancipated
and enfranchised people; and I was urged by such men as George
T. Downing, J. H. Hawes, J. Sella Martin, and others, to become its
editor-in-chief. My sixteen years’ experience as editor and publisher
of my own paper, and the knowledge of the toil and anxiety which
such a relation to a public journal must impose, caused me much
reluctance and hesitation: nevertheless, I yielded to the wishes of my
friends and counsellors, went to Washington, threw myself into the
work, hoping to be able to lift up a standard at the national capital,
for my people, which should cheer and strengthen them in the work
of their own improvement and elevation.
I was not long connected with this enterprise, before I discovered
my mistake. The coöperation so liberally promised, and the support
which had been assured, were not very largely realized. By a series
of circumstances a little bewildering as I now look back upon them, I
found myself alone, under the mental and pecuniary burden involved
in the prosecution of the enterprise. I had been misled by loud talk of
a grand incorporated publishing company, in which I should have
shares if I wished, and in any case a fixed salary for my services;
and after all these fair-seeming conditions, I had not been connected
with the paper one year before its affairs had been so managed by
the agent appointed by this invisible company or corporate body, as
to compel me to bear the burden alone, and to become the sole
owner of the printing establishment. Having become publicly
associated with the enterprise, I was unwilling to have it prove a
failure, and had allowed it to become in debt to me, both for money
loaned, and for services, and at last it seemed wise that I should
purchase the whole concern, which I did, and turned it over to my
sons Lewis and Frederic, who were practical printers, and who, after
a few years, were compelled to discontinue its publication. This
paper was the New National Era, to the columns of which the
colored people are indebted for some of the best things ever uttered
in behalf of their cause; for, aside from its editorials and selections,
many of the ablest colored men of the country made it the medium
through which to convey their thoughts to the public. A misadventure
though it was, which cost me from nine to ten thousand dollars, over
it I have no tears to shed. The journal was valuable while it lasted,
and the experiment was full of instruction to me, which has to some
extent been heeded, for I have kept well out of newspaper
undertakings since.
Some one has said that “experience is the best teacher.”
Unfortunately the wisdom acquired in one experience seems not to
serve for another and new one; at any rate, my first lesson at the
National Capital, bought rather dearly as it was, did not preclude the
necessity of a second whetstone to sharpen my wits in this my new
home and new surroundings. It is not altogether without a feeling of
humiliation that I must narrate my connection with the “Freedmen’s
Savings and Trust Company.”
 This was an institution designed to furnish a place of security
and profit for the hard earnings of the colored people, especially at
the South. Though its title was “The Freedmen’s Savings and Trust
Company,” it is known generally as the “Freedmen’s Bank.”
According to its managers it was to be this and something more.
There was something missionary in its composition, and it dealt
largely in exhortations as well as promises. The men connected with
its management were generally church members, and reputed
eminent for their piety. Some of its agents had been preachers of the
“Word.” Their aim was now to instil into the minds of the untutored
Africans lessons of sobriety, wisdom, and economy, and to show
them how to rise in the world. Circulars, tracts, and other papers
were scattered like snowflakes in winter by this benevolent institution
among the sable millions, and they were told to “look” to the
Freedman’s Bank and “live.” Branches were established in all the
Southern States, and as a result, money flowed into its vaults to the
amount of millions. With the usual effect of sudden wealth, the
managers felt like making a little display of their prosperity. They
accordingly erected one of the most costly and splendid buildings of
the time on one of the most desirable and expensive sites in the
national capital, finished on the inside with black walnut, and
furnished with marble counters and all the modern improvements.
The magnificent dimensions of the building bore testimony to its
flourishing condition. In passing it on the street I often peeped into its
spacious windows, and looked down the row of its gentlemanly and
elegantly dressed colored clerks, with their pens behind their ears
and button-hole bouquets in their coat-fronts, and felt my very eyes
enriched. It was a sight I had never expected to see. I was amazed
with the facility with which they counted the money; they threw off
the thousands with the dexterity, if not the accuracy, of old and
experienced clerks. The whole thing was beautiful. I had read of this
Bank when I lived in Rochester, and had indeed been solicited to
become one of its trustees, and had reluctantly consented to do so;
but when I came to Washington and saw its magnificent brown stone
front, its towering height, and its perfect appointments, and the fine
display it made in the transaction of its business, I felt like the Queen
of Sheba when she saw the riches of Solomon, “the half had not
been told me.”
After settling myself down in Washington in the office of the New
Era, I could and did occasionally attend the meetings of the Board of
Trustees, and had the pleasure of listening to the rapid reports of the
condition of the institution, which were generally of a most
encouraging character. My confidence in the integrity and wisdom of
the management was such that at one time I had entrusted to its
vaults about twelve thousand dollars. It seemed fitting to me to cast
in my lot with my brother freedmen, and help to build up an institution
which represented their thrift and economy to so striking advantage;
for the more millions accumulated there, I thought, the more
consideration and respect would be shown to the colored people of
the whole country.
About four months before this splendid institution was compelled
to close its doors in the starved and deluded faces of its depositors,
and while I was assured by its President and by its Actuary of its
sound condition, I was solicited by some of its trustees to allow them
to use my name in the board as a candidate for its Presidency. So I
waked up one morning to find myself seated in a comfortable arm
chair, with gold spectacles on my nose, and to hear myself
addressed as President of the Freedmen’s Bank. I could not help
reflecting on the contrast between Frederick the slave boy, running
about at Col. Lloyd’s with only a tow linen shirt to cover him, and
Frederick—President of a Bank counting its assets by millions. I had
heard of golden dreams, but such dreams had no comparison with
this reality. And yet this seeming reality was scarcely more
substantial than a dream. My term of service on this golden height
covered only the brief space of three months, and these three
months were divided into two parts, during the first part of which I
was quietly employed in an effort to find out the real condition of the
Bank and its numerous branches. This was no easy task. On paper,
and from the representations of its management, its assets
amounted to three millions of dollars, and its liabilities were about
equal to its assets. With such a showing I was encouraged in the
belief that by curtailing expenses, doing away with non-paying
branches, which policy the trustees had now adopted, we could be
carried safely through the financial distress then upon the country.
So confident was I of this, that in order to meet what was said to be a
temporary emergency, I was induced to loan the Bank ten thousand
dollars of my own money, to be held by it until it could realize on a
part of its abundant securities. This money, though it was repaid,
was not done so promptly as under the supposed circumstances I
thought it should be, and these circumstances increased my fears
lest the chasm was not so easily bridged as the Actuary of the
institution had assured me it could be. The more I observed and
learned the more my confidence diminished. I found that those
trustees who wished to issue cards and publish addresses
professing the utmost confidence in the Bank, had themselves not
one dollar deposited there. Some of them, while strongly assuring
me of its soundness, had withdrawn their money and opened
accounts elsewhere. Gradually I discovered that the Bank had
sustained heavy losses at the South through dishonest agents, that
there was a discrepancy on the books of forty thousand dollars, for
which no account could be given, that instead of our assets being
equal to our liabilities we could not in all likelihoods of the case pay
seventy-two cents on the dollar. There was an air of mystery, too,
about the spacious and elegant apartments of the Bank building
which greatly troubled me, and which I have only been able to
explain to myself on the supposition that the employees, from the
Actuary and the Inspector down to the messengers, were (perhaps)
naturally anxious to hold their places, and consequently have the
business continued. I am not a violent advocate of the doctrine of the
total depravity of human nature. I am inclined, on the whole, to
believe it a tolerably good nature, yet instances do occur which
oblige me to concede that men can and do act from mere personal
and selfish motives. In this case, at any rate, it seemed not
unreasonable to conclude that the finely dressed young gentlemen,
adorned with pens and bouquets, the most fashionable and genteel
of all our colored youth, stationed behind those marble counters,
should desire to retain their places as long as there was money in
the vaults to pay them their salaries.
 Standing on the platform of this large and complicated
establishment, with its thirty-four branches, extending from New
Orleans to Philadelphia, its machinery in full operation, its
correspondence carried on in cipher, its actuary dashing in and out
of the bank with an air of pressing business, if not of bewilderment, I
found the path of enquiry I was pursuing an exceedingly difficult one.
I knew there had been very lately several runs on the bank, and that
there had been a heavy draft made upon its reserve fund, but I did
not know what I should have been told before being allowed to enter
upon the duties of my office, that this reserve, which the bank by its
charter was required to keep, had been entirely exhausted, and that
hence there was nothing left to meet any future emergency. Not to
make too long a story, I was, in six weeks after my election as
president of this bank, convinced that it was no longer a safe
custodian of the hard earnings of my confiding people. This
conclusion once reached, I could not hesitate as to my duty in the
premises, and this was, to save as much as possible of the assets
held by the bank for the benefit of the depositors; and to prevent
their being further squandered in keeping up appearances, and in
paying the salaries of myself and other officers in the bank.
Fortunately, Congress, from which we held our charter, was then in
session, and its committees on finance were in daily session. I felt it
my duty to make known as speedily as possible to Hon. John
Sherman, chairman of the Senate committee on finance, and to
Senator Scott of Pennsylvania, also of the same committee, that I
regarded the institution as insolvent and irrecoverable, and that I
could no longer ask my people to deposit their money in it. This
representation to the finance committee subjected me to very bitter
opposition on the part of the officers of the bank. Its actuary, Mr.
Stickney, immediately summoned some of the trustees, a dozen or
so of them, to go before the finance committee and make a counter
statement to that made by me; and this they did. Some of them who
had assisted me by giving me facts showing the insolvency of the
bank, now made haste to contradict that conclusion and to assure
the committee that it was abundantly able to weather the financial
storm, and pay dollar for dollar to its depositors if allowed to go on.
 I was not exactly thunderstruck, but I was much amazed by this
contradiction. I, however, adhered to my statement that the bank
ought to stop. The finance committee substantially agreed with me,
and in a few weeks so legislated as to bring this imposing banking
business to a close by appointing three commissioners to take
charge of its affairs.
This is a fair and unvarnished narration of my connection with
the Freedmen’s Savings and Trust Company, otherwise known as
the Freedmen’s Savings Bank, a connection which has brought upon
my head an amount of abuse and detraction greater than any
encountered in any other part of my life.
Before leaving the subject I ought in justice to myself to state
that when I found that the affairs of the bank were to be closed up, I
did not, as I might easily have done, and as others did, make myself
a preferred creditor and take my money out of the bank, but on the
contrary, I determined to take my chances with other depositors, and
left my money, to the amount of two thousand dollars, to be divided
with the assets among the creditors of the bank. And now, after
seven years have been allowed for the value of the securities to
appreciate and the loss of interests on the deposits for that length of
time, the depositors may deem themselves fortunate if they receive
sixty cents on the dollar of what they placed in the care of this fine
savings institution.
It is also due to myself to state, especially since I have seen
myself accused of bringing the Freedmen’s Bank into ruin, and
squandering in senseless loans on bad security the hardly-earned
moneys of my race, that all the loans ever made by the bank were
made prior to my connection with it as its president. Not a dollar, not
a dime of its millions were loaned by me, or with my approval. The
fact is, and all investigation shows it, that I was married to a corpse.
The fine building was there with its marble counters and black walnut
finishings, the affable and agile clerks, and the discreet and comely
colored cashier; but the Life, which was the money, was gone, and I
found that I had been placed there with the hope that by “some
drugs, some charms, some conjuration, or some mighty magic,” I
would bring it back.
 When I became connected with the bank I had a tolerably fair
name for honest dealing; I had expended in the publication of my
paper in Rochester thousands of dollars annually, and had often to
depend upon my credit to bridge over immediate wants, but no man
there or elsewhere can say I ever wronged him out of a cent; and I
could, to-day, with the confidence of the converted centurion, offer
“to restore fourfold to any from whom I have unjustly taken aught.” I
say this, not for the benefit of those who know me, but for the
thousands of my own race who hear of me mostly through the
malicious and envious assaults of unscrupulous aspirants who vainly
fancy that they lift themselves into consideration by wanton attacks
upon the characters of men who receive a larger share of respect
and esteem than themselves.
 CHAPTER XV.
WEIGHED IN THE BALANCE.

The Santo Domingo controversy—Decoration day at Arlington, 1871—Speech

delivered there—National colored convention at New Orleans, 1872—
Elector at large for the State of New York—Death of Hon. Henry Wilson.

THE most of my story is now before the reader. Whatever of good or ill
the future may have in store for me, the past at least is secure. As I
review the last decade up to the present writing, I am impressed with a
sense of completeness; a sort of rounding up of the arch to the point
where the key stone may be inserted, the scaffolding removed, and the
work, with all its perfections or faults, left to speak for itself. This
decade, from 1871 to 1881, has been crowded, if time is capable of
being thus described, with incidents and events which may well
enough be accounted remarkable. To me they certainly appear
strange, if not wonderful. My early life not only gave no visible promise,
but no hint of such experience. On the contrary, that life seemed to
render it, in part at least, impossible. In addition to what is narrated in
the foregoing chapter, I have to speak of my mission to Santo
Domingo, my appointment as a member of the council for the
government of the District of Columbia; my election as elector at large
for the State of New York; my invitation to speak at the monument of
the unknown loyal dead, at Arlington, on Decoration day; my address
on the unveiling of Lincoln monument, at Lincoln Park, Washington; my
appointment to bring the electoral vote from New York to the National
Capital; my invitation to speak near the statue of Abraham Lincoln,
Madison Square, New York; my accompanying the body of Vice-
President Wilson from Washington to Boston; my conversations with
Senator Sumner and President Grant; my welcome to the receptions of
Secretary Hamilton Fish; my appointment by President R. B. Hayes to
the office of Marshal of the District of Columbia; my visit to Thomas
Auld, the man who claimed me as his slave, and from whom I was
purchased by my English friends; and my visit to Lloyd’s plantation, the
home of my childhood, after an absence of fifty-six years; my
appointment by President James A. Garfield to the office of Recorder
of Deeds of the District of Columbia, are some of the matters which
belong to this decade, and may come into the chapter I am now about
to write.
Those who knew of my more than friendly relations with Hon.
Charles Sumner, and of his determined opposition to the annexation of
Santo Domingo to the United States, were surprised to find me
earnestly taking sides with Gen. Grant upon that question. Some of my
white friends, and a few of those of my own color—who, unfortunately,
allow themselves to look at public questions more through the medium
of feeling than of reason, and who follow the line of what is grateful to
their friends rather than what is consistent with their own convictions—
thought my course was an ungrateful return for the eminent services of
the Massachusetts senator. I am free to say that, had I been guided
only by the promptings of my heart, I should in this controversy have
followed the lead of Charles Sumner. He was not only the most
clearsighted, brave, and uncompromising friend of my race who had
ever stood upon the floor of the Senate, but was to me a loved,
honored, and precious personal friend; a man possessing the exalted
and matured intellect of a statesman, with the pure and artless heart of
a child. Upon any issue, as between him and others, when the right
seemed in anywise doubtful, I should have followed his counsel and
advice. But the annexation of Santo Domingo, to my understanding,
did not seem to be any such question. The reasons in its favor were
many and obvious; and those against it, as I thought, were easily
answered. To Mr. Sumner, annexation was a measure to extinguish a
colored nation, and to do so by dishonorable means and for selfish
motives. To me it meant the alliance of a weak and defenceless
people, having few or none of the attributes of a nation, torn and rent
by internal feuds, unable to maintain order at home, or command
respect abroad, to a government which would give it peace, stability,
prosperity, and civilization, and make it helpful to both countries. To
favor annexation at the time when Santo Domingo asked for a place in
our union, was a very different thing from what it was when Cuba and
Central America were sought by fillibustering expeditions. When the
slave power bore rule, and a spirit of injustice and oppression
animated and controlled every part of our government, I was for
limiting our dominion to the smallest possible margin; but since liberty
and equality have become the law of our land, I am for extending our
dominion whenever and wherever such extension can peaceably and
honorably, and with the approval and desire of all the parties
concerned, be accomplished. Santo Domingo wanted to come under
our government upon the terms thus described; and for more reasons
than I can stop here to give, I then believed, and do now believe, it
would have been wise to have received her into our sisterhood of
States.

Charles Sumner
The idea that annexation meant degradation to a colored nation,
was altogether fanciful; there was no more dishonor to Santo Domingo
in making her a State of the American union, than in making Kansas,
Nebraska, or any other territory such a State. It was giving to a part the
strength of the whole, and lifting what must be despised for its isolation
into an organization and relationship which would compel
consideration and respect.
Though I differed from Mr. Sumner in respect of this measure, and
although I told him I thought he was unjust to President Grant, it never
disturbed our friendship. After his great speech against annexation,
which occupied six hours in its delivery, and in which he arraigned the
President in a most bitter and fierce manner, being at the White House
one day, I was asked by President Grant what I “now thought of my
friend Mr. Sumner”? I replied that I believed Mr. Sumner sincerely
thought, that in opposing annexation, he was defending the cause of
the colored race as he always had done, but that I thought he was
mistaken. I saw my reply was not very satisfactory, and said: “What do
you, Mr. President, think of Senator Sumner?” He answered, with
some feeling, “I think he is mad.”
The difference in opinion on this question between these two great
men was the cause of bitter personal estrangement, and one which I
intensely regretted. The truth is, that neither one was entirely just to
the other, because neither saw the other in his true character; and
having once fallen asunder, the occasion never came when they could
be brought together.
Variance between great men finds no healing influence in the
atmosphere of Washington. Interested parties are ever ready to fan the
flame of animosity and magnify the grounds of hostility in order to gain
the favor of one or the other. This is perhaps true in some degree in
every community; but it is especially so of the National Capital, and
this for the reason that there is ever a large class of people here
dependent upon the influence and favor of powerful public men for
their daily bread.
My selection to visit Santo Domingo with the commission sent
thither, was another point indicating the difference between the old
time and the new. It placed me on the deck of an American man-of-
war, manned by one hundred marines and five hundred men-of-wars-
men, under the national flag, which I could now call mine, in common
with other American citizens, and gave me a place not in the fore-
castle, among the hands, nor in the caboose with the cooks, but in the
captain’s saloon and in the society of gentlemen, scientists, and
statesmen. It would be a pleasing task to narrate the varied
experiences and the distinguished persons encountered in this Santo
Domingo tour, but the material is too boundless for the limits of these
pages. I can only say, it was highly interesting and instructive. The
conversations at the Captain’s table (at which I had the honor of a
seat) were usually led by Messrs. Wade, Howe, and White—the three
commissioners; and by Mr. Hurlburt of the New York World; the last-
named gentleman impressed me as one remarkable for knowledge
and refinement, in which he was no whit behind Messrs. Howe and
White. As for Hon. Benj. F. Wade, he was there, as everywhere,
abundant in knowledge and experience, fully able to take care of
himself in the discussion of any subject in which he chose to take a
part. In a circle so brilliant, it is no affectation of modesty to say I was
for the most part a listener and a learner. The commander of our good
ship on this voyage, Capt. Temple, now promoted to the position of
Commodore, was a very imposing man, and deported himself with
much dignity towards us all. For his treatment to me I am especially
grateful. A son of the United States navy as he was,—a department of
our service considerably distinguished for its aristocratic tendencies, I
expected to find something a little forbidding in his manner; but I am
bound to say that in this I was agreeably disappointed. Both the
commander and the officers under him bore themselves in a friendly
manner towards me during all the voyage, and this is saying a great
thing for them, for the spectacle presented by a colored man seated at
the captain’s table was not only unusual, but had never before
occurred in the history of the United States navy. If during this voyage
there was anything to complain of, it was not in the men in authority, or
in the conduct of the thirty gentlemen who went out as the honored
guests of the expedition, but in the colored waiters. My presence and
position seemed to trouble them for its incomprehensibility; and they
did not know exactly how to deport themselves towards me. Possibly
they may have detected in me something of the same sort in respect of
themselves; at any rate we seemed awkwardly related to each other
during several weeks of the voyage. In their eyes I was Fred. Douglass
suddenly, and possibly undeservedly, lifted above them. The fact that I
was colored and they were colored had so long made us equal, that
the contradiction now presented was too much for them. After all, I
have no blame for Sam and Garrett. They were trained in the school of
servility to believe that white men alone were entitled to be waited
upon by colored men; and the lesson taught by my presence on the
“Tennessee” was not to be learned upon the instant, without thought
and experience. I refer to the matter simply as an incident quite
commonly met with in the lives of colored men who, by their own
exertions or otherwise, have happened to occupy positions of
respectability and honor. While the rank and file of our race quote with
much vehemence the doctrine of human equality, they are often
among the first to deny and denounce it in practice. Of course this is
true only of the more ignorant. Intelligence is a great leveler here as
elsewhere. It sees plainly the real worth of men and things, and is not
easily imposed upon by the dressed up emptiness of human pride.
With a colored man on a sleeping car as its conductor, the last to
have his bed made up at night, and the last to have his boots blacked
in the morning, and the last to be served in any way, is the colored
passenger. This conduct is the homage which the black man pays to
the white man’s prejudice whose wishes, like a well-trained servant, he
is taught to anticipate and obey. Time, education, and circumstances
are rapidly destroying these mere color distinctions, and men will be
valued in this country as well as in others, for what they are, and for
what they can do.
My appointment at the hands of President Grant to a seat in the
council—by way of eminence sometimes called the upper house of the
territorial legislature of the District of Columbia—at the time it was
made, must be taken as a signal evidence of his high sense of justice,
fairness, and impartiality. The colored people of the district constituted
then as now about one-third of the whole population. They were given
by Gen. Grant, three members of this legislative council—a
representation more proportionate than any that has existed since the
government has passed into the hands of commissioners, for they
have all been white men.
 Commissioners to Santo Domingo.
It has sometimes been asked why I am called “Honorable.” My
appointment to this council must explain this, as it explains the
impartiality of Gen. Grant, though I fear it will hardly sustain this
prodigious handle to my name, as well as it does the former part of this
proposition. The members of this district council were required to be
appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the United
States Senate. This is the ground, and only ground that I know of,
upon which anybody has claimed this title for me. I do not pretend that