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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN APPLIED SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY FORENSIC AND MEDICAL BIOINFORMATICS
Samira Hosseini
Sergio O. Martinez-Chapa
Fundamentals of
MALDI-ToF-MS
Analysis
Applications in Bio-
diagnosis, Tissue
Engineering and Drug
Delivery
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology
Series editors
Amit Kumar, Hyderabad, India
Allam Appa Rao, Hyderabad, India
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11910
Samira Hosseini Sergio O. Martinez-Chapa
•
Fundamentals
of MALDI-ToF-MS Analysis
Applications in Bio-diagnosis, Tissue
Engineering and Drug Delivery
123
Samira Hosseini Sergio O. Martinez-Chapa
School of Engineering and Sciences School of Engineering and Sciences
Tecnológico de Monterrey Tecnológico de Monterrey
Monterrey, Nuevo León Monterrey, Nuevo León
Mexico Mexico
v
Acknowledgment
vii
Contents
ix
x Contents
Abstract This chapter reviews the history and the background of matrix assisted
laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-ToF-MS)
analysis. The chapter covers, application of this technique in variety of different
areas with the special focus on MALDI analysis of the synthetic polymers. Current
chapter describes the principles behind this technique in a great detail. Important
technical aspects such as soft ionization, sample preparation and mass discrimi-
nation are explained in this chapter. In that perspective, the suitable choices of
matrix, ionizing agent and solvents are also discussed. Furthermore, this chapter
reviews the coupled analytical techniques with MALDI analysis and their specific
applications and significances.
Keywords Matrix Ionizing agent Sample preparation Mass discrimination
Linear mode Reflection mode Detection mechanism Ionization mechanism
MALDI coupling
MALDI analysis has rapidly found variety of applications in many different sci-
entific areas. In particular, MALDI analysis provides essential information about
important parameters such as molecular weight (Mw) and polydispersity of the
compound that can be effectively used for variety of applications such as studying
the synthesis pathways, verifying degradation mechanisms, measurement of the
additives and impurities, product formulations, and identification of compositional
variations. Herein, a brief review on the main applications of MALDI-ToF-MS in
some of the important areas of science is provided:
1.2 Applications of MALDI-ToF-MS 3
1.2.1 Biochemistry
In the field of biochemistry, MALDI is commonly used for the rapid identification
of the proteins. One of the major analytical applications of MALDI-ToF-MS is
peptide mass fingerprinting. It has frequently been reported for revealing amino
acid sequence of the peptides by the aim of post-source decay or high-energy
collision-induced dissociation [6–12].
1.2.4 Microbiology
1.2.5 Medicine
1.2.6 Nanotechnology
MALDI has established important position in the nanotechnology area in the last
few decades. Biopharmaceuticals including protein and peptide drugs became
increasingly important as therapeutic agents in modern nanotechnology and tar-
geted therapy [28]. Presence of the polymers in design and development of new
delivery systems for controlled/sustained drug release provided new means of
application for MALDI analysis in nanotechnology as well. MALDI-ToF-MS in
association with collision-induced dissociation (CID) tandem mass spectrometry
has the ability to detect traces of minimally modified bioactive compounds and to
identify the site of modification within the bioactive molecule [28].
1.2 Applications of MALDI-ToF-MS 5
For the first time in the history of MS techniques, MALDI introduced soft ion-
ization of the analyzed samples. When laser beam is irradiated to the targeted spot,
where the sample is mounted, laser pulse with the aim of matrix (and ionizing agent
in some cases) desorbs and ionizes the analyte of interest in an indirect manner. As
a result, a high-mass ion can be produced by this technique (soft ionization). In
order to achieve successful ionization of the sample, chosen matrix has to have a
considerable absorption coefficient at the specific applied wavelength [29]. Matrix
initially acts as a separator for the analyte as it reduces the intermolecular forces by
a phenomenon called matrix isolation [29]. Therefore, it prevents the cluster for-
mation inside the analyte as it is shown in Fig. 1.1. Upon laser irradiation, the
matrix starts its actual role in soft ionization of the analyte by absorbing majority of
the photon energy. Consequently, matrix preserves the analyte from the direct laser
irradiation. The absorbed energy leads to the matrix excitation. Through this
excitation, matrix changes the phase from solid to gas and a dense cloud of gas
expends in the vacuum chamber. The final product of ionized analyte forms as a
result of collision of the neutral analyte molecules and matrix ions [29].
Fig. 1.1 Schematic representation of the soft ionization mechanism of the analyte
6 1 Principles and Mechanism of MALDI-ToF-MS Analysis
Fig. 1.2 Schematic representation of the time of flight mechanism; the mixture of analyte and
matrix are targeted by laser beam and analyte ions are accelerated and led towards the ion detector
at the end of flight zone
In this equation, m is the mass of the ionized molecule and z is the number of the
electrons that have been removed from the molecule. E in Eq. 1.1 is the accelerating
voltage, e is the elementary charge, t is the time of flight and d is the length of the
drift zone.
Early MALDI instruments were operating based on the linear ToF spectrometer. In
the linear mode, ions of different masses meet the detector based on the time that
1.5 Detection Modes 7
Fig. 1.3 Linear mode MALDI-ToF-MS; heavier ions arrive to the destination later than lighter
ions
they need to travel across the drift zone. As it is expected, ions of higher weights
reach to the detector later than the lighter ions. Therefore, heavier ions occupy
higher values of m/z than the lighter ones (Fig. 1.3).
In theory, since all the ions receive the same amount of kinetic energy, the ions
of same m/z should have the same time of flight and subsequently arrive to their
destination (ion detector) at the same time. In practice, however, the exact same
intensity of the laser irradiation is not felt by the ions of same m/z. For that reason,
there exist a distribution of kinetic energies in each discrete m/z. This phenomenon,
to a considerable extent, reduces the resolution of the spectrum by assigning a
distribution of m/z (Fig. 1.4) [30].
Fig. 1.4 Possible errors in linear mode MALDI-ToF-MS at which the ions of the same m/z reach
the ion detector with different flight time
8 1 Principles and Mechanism of MALDI-ToF-MS Analysis
Fig. 1.5 Reflection mode in MALDI-ToF-MS and application of mirror method in correcting the
error produced by linear mode
The lack of resolution in linear mode was corrected by a more advanced technique,
reflection mode. This sophisticated technique consists of ion mirrors and is
equipped with electric fields that repulse back the ions into the drift zone and force
them to fly back to the detector, which is now installed in the opposite side of the
flight path [31–33]. Figure 1.5 represents the schematic explanation of the reflec-
tion mechanism that refocuses the analyte ions by their masses hence results in
improved resolution.
MALDI analysis requires the use of laser beam in different ranges as follows:
• UV-MALDI: Ultraviolet (UV) MALDI applies laser beam in the UV range such
as nitrogen lasers at 337 nm. UV lasers are the most widely applied laser range
in MALDI analysis.
• IR-MALDI: Although use of infrared (IR) range of laser beam is not as
common as UV, it founds its application as it offers softer mode of ionization.
IR-MALDI is also privileged with the greater material removal (in the case of
biological applications) and higher compatibility with other mass spectrometries
from the category of matrix-free laser desorption techniques [34].
evaporate leaving behind the crystallized analyte along with the recrystallized
matrix in the MALDI spot. This phenomenon is called co-crystallization. The
quality of the co-crystallization is of a major importance in matrix selection.
Desirable matrix should possess:
• Specific range of molecular weight that permits easy evaporation of the matrix
but not in the sample preparation process.
• Preferable acidic nature for the matrix that acts as the proton source and pro-
motes the ionization [35].
• Wide range of optical absorbance that covers either UV or IR range [36].
• Functionalization with polar groups and subsequent applicability in aqueous
medium [19].
Some of the commonly applied matrices in MALDI analysis are: (i) are
3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (sinapinic acid); (ii) a-cyano-4-
hydroxycinnamic acid (CHCA, alpha-cyano or alpha-matrix); and (iii) 2,5-
dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB).
Variety of matrix options has been investigated in MALDI analysis and different
levels of efficiencies have been described [19]. Many of the researchers, however,
reported frequent incompatibilities, background effects and limitations for the used
matrices, which are summarized in this section:
• Particular matrices in association with specific ionizing agents may offer limited
stability that can last only for few minutes [19].
• Obscurity in mass spectrum might occur as some of the matrices show
self-polymerization when mixed with analyte and ionizing agent [19].
• Specific matrices have proven to lead to a significant level of mass discrimi-
nation [37, 38].
• Liquid matrices in special cases might cause intense contamination of the ion
source [39].
• In peptides analysis, matrices with low protein affinity (PA) values have induced
more fragmentation than matrices with high PA values [40].
In the area of synthetic polymers, ionizing agent plays an equally important role as
matrix in analyte ionization. Therefore, selection of a suitable matrix, alone, is not
sufficient and a proper choice of ionizing agent should also be considered. Different
10 1 Principles and Mechanism of MALDI-ToF-MS Analysis
cations such as lithium, sodium, and cesium would effectively wrap the polymer
chain around them and further promote the soft ionization of the analyte in asso-
ciation with the matrix [41–43]. It is believed that larger ionizing salts produce
more solid conformation with the larger polymer chains if more oxygen atoms
present in the structure. Abundance of oxygen atoms in the polymer chain subse-
quently involves coordination with the salt and results in analyte ionization in a
more efficient manner [29].
Polymers with high cation affinity do not require high concentration of ionizing
agents. In the case of polar polymers, traces of the sodium and/or potassium can be
found in their MALDI spectrum. These elements are normally present in glassware,
solvents and other reagents and considered to be as impurities in MALDI analysis.
Almost all of the synthetic polymers with heteroatoms such as polyethers,
polyacrylates, polyesters and polyamides can be ionized by using sodium or
potassium salts as the ionizing agents. Since polyesters are less flexible than
polyethers and/or polyacrylates, the most probable interaction with the ionizing
agent expectedly occurs at higher molecular weight of the polymer chains.
Synthetic polymers such as polystyrene, polybutadiene, and polyisoprene, which
are polar polymers without heteroatoms, can successfully become ionized by
addition of silver or copper salts. These ionizing agents can interact with double
bonds of such synthetic polymers [42].
Synthetic polymers with neither heteroatoms nor double bonds like polyethylene
and polypropylene present significantly low binding energy between the ionizing
salt and the polymer chain. For that reason, such polymers are not amenable to
MALDI analysis [44].
Detailed investigation on ionization of polystyrene has shown that silver, copper,
and palladium yielded in the most efficient ionization among all the other ionizing
agents [45–47]. However, the isotopic forms of silver and copper complicate the
ionization of the polystyrene chains. In general, application of monoisotopic ion-
izing agents are highly recommended in the literature [48].
Variety of techniques for sample preparation has been explained in the literature
[19]. Herein, some of the commonly applied and successful methods for sample
preparation and MALDI spotting are summarized:
1.9.2.1 Dried-Droplet
This method is known as the oldest sample preparation technique [51]. In this
technique, solution of matrix, analyte and ionizing agent have initially been pre-
pared and then mixed by the volume. MALDI spotting can be performed by
depositing droplets of solution mixture on the MALDI plate and drying at ambient
temperature.
12 1 Principles and Mechanism of MALDI-ToF-MS Analysis
This technique is based on rapid crystallization that normally takes place within few
seconds. This method, which is typically performed by the aim of vacuum chamber
results in the smaller scale crystals that subsequently cause less segregation and
significant improvement in reproducibility of the signals and resolution of the
spectrum [52, 53]. Rapid sample drying using nitrogen stream of high purity can
also be considered as an alternative for achieving the same goal [54, 55].
MALDI spotting by using spin coating technique is another method for sample
preparation that results in a greater homogeneity [56]. In this technique, MALDI
plate is placed inside the spin coating chamber and the droplets of the solution
mixture is introduced from the top to the spinning plate under a specific rotation
speed. The solvent rapidly evaporates and a fine layer of coating on the MALDI
plate will be remained.
Fig. 1.6 Mass discrimination in MALDI-ToF-MS; smaller ions such as matrix ions and shorter
polymer chains or oligomers occupy the ion detector as they fly faster than heavier ions; therefore
the bigger ions lose the chance of meeting the detector due to the over saturation of the target
14 1 Principles and Mechanism of MALDI-ToF-MS Analysis
To increase the detector’s response to the higher molecular mass ions, the
application of higher laser powers can be introduced as an alternative solution [62].
In the ideal case, the laser power should be high enough to initiate complete
ionization but, at the same time, it should be low enough to avoid fragmentation.
From the practical point of view, higher laser powers are required in order to obtain
successful ionization of the higher mass molecules [63].
In that path, many researchers have reported the reduced mass discrimination
when higher laser powers were applied for MALDI analysis [19]. It was observed
that an increase in laser power outcomes in an enhanced ion intensity of the higher
mass molecules. It also results in an increase in the peak intensity of the matrix [19].
Application of stronger laser beams can also encourage dimerization due to the
clustering of the analyte ions in the gas phase, which in turn, yields in a shift in
MWD towards higher values of molecular mass [64]. In some cases, nonetheless,
an unintentional scission in polymer structure has also been reported due to the
higher laser power [65–67].
Various MS techniques have been combined with MALDI, such as ToF, magnetic
sector, fourier transform (FT), Paul trap, and quadrupole, among which MALDI
ToF-MS and MALDI-FT-MS [29] have been commercialized. Majority of the
available MALDI instruments are equipped with the ToF technology [29]. MALDI
has also been coupled with some other external techniques in an off-line or on-line
mode in order to enhance the analysis. An overview of the MALDI coupled systems
and their significance are provided as follows.
Ion mobility time of flight IMS-ToF mass spectrometry is an analytical method that
recognizes analyte ions in the gas phase according to their mobility in a carrier
buffer gas. This technique operates at high and low pressure that, in the case of high
pressure, the temperature can be increased up to 100 °C. Although the main
applications of IMS-Tof are in military and security areas, it has also been coupled
with MALDI for identification of phosphorylated and non-phosphorylated peptides
[68, 69].
1.11 MALDI Coupling 15
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) has application in different areas such as mon-
itoring reaction progress, identifying compounds, and purity determination of the
substances. The coupling of TLC with MALDI-ToF-MS is normally used for the
extraction purposes. In this combined technique, a TLC plate can be used for
MALDI spotting. By adding a droplet of extraction solvent, the analyte of interest
can be separated from the TLC spot into the solvent. By introducing MALDI matrix
in the next step, co-crystallization occurs on the TLC plate. Data can be analyzed in
an on-line or off-line mode by MALDI. In the literature, TLC/MALDI approach has
been used and reported by different researchers [19, 71, 72].
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References 19
Der nächste Tag war einer der unangenehmsten, deren ich mich
entsinnen kann. Eine dicke Wolkenschicht lag unmittelbar über dem
Gebirge und hüllte uns in kalten, grauen Schatten, während nach
Norden und Süden hin Berge und Ebene im lieblichsten
Sonnenschein lagen. Wir ritten ungefähr eine Stunde nordwärts
nach Keifār, einem großen Dorfe am äußersten Ende des Djebel
Sim'ān. Über dem Tale des Afrīn drüben, der das Gebirge im
Nordwesten begrenzt, erhoben sich die ersten großen Strebepfeiler
des Giour Dagh. Nach Mūsas Aussage enthalten weder das Tal
noch die entfernteren Gebirge weitere verfallene Dörfer; sie hören an
der Grenze des Djebel Sim'ān ganz plötzlich auf, und die syrische
Zivilisation scheint nicht weiter nordwärts gedrungen zu sein. Aus
welchem Grunde ist nicht festzustellen. In Keifār fanden wir drei arg
verfallne Kirchen, an denen aber noch Spuren außerordentlich fein
gearbeiteter Verzierungen sichtbar waren, einige gut erhaltene
Häuser und ein Baldachingrab, ähnlich dem zu Barād. Eine
zahlreiche kurdische Bevölkerung bewohnte das Dorf. Wir kehrten
nach Barād zurück und ritten dann in bitter kaltem Regen und Wind
etwa 1½ Stunde in südöstlicher Richtung weiter nach Kefr Nebu.
Hier sahen wir eine Inschrift auf dem Oberbalken einer Tür, ein paar
kufische Grabsteine und ein sehr schönes, zum Teil wieder
hergestelltes Haus; ich litt aber viel zu sehr unter der Kälte, um
diesen historischen Denkmälern die gebührende Aufmerksamkeit
zuwenden zu können. Ich war bis aufs Mark erkältet und außerdem
so enttäuscht, daß meine Versuche, einige Aufnahmen zu machen,
infolge des Sturmes mißlungen waren, daß ich sofort mein eine
Stunde von Kefr Nebu entfernt in Bāsufān befindliches Lager
aufsuchte, ohne einige weiter südlich liegende Ruinen zu
besichtigen.
Bāsufān ist Mūsas Heimat; wir gingen an seinem Vater vorüber,
der auf dem Kornfeld arbeitete.
»Gott gebe deinem Körper Kraft!« rief Mūsa. Es ist dies der
übliche Gruß für jemand, der Feldarbeit tut.
»Und deinem Körper!« antwortete der Alte und blickte mit seinen
trüben Augen zu uns herüber.
»Er ist schon alt,« erklärte Mūsa im Weiterreiten, »und Kummer
hat ihn getroffen, aber einstens war er der schönste Mann und der
beste Schütze im Djebel Sim'ān.«
»Welcher Kummer?« fragte ich.
»Mein Bruder ist vor wenigen Monaten von einem Blutfeind
erschlagen worden,« antwortete er. »Wir wissen nicht, wer ihn
getötet hat, vielleicht war es ein Verwandter seiner Braut, denn er
wollte sie ohne die Zustimmung ihrer Familie heiraten.«
»Und was ist aus der Braut geworden?«
»Sie ist zu den Ihren zurückgegangen,« sprach er, »aber sie hat
bitterlich geweint.«
Bāsufān wird von gewissen Juden und Christen aus Aleppo als
Sommerfrische benutzt. Sie kommen heraus und wohnen während
der heißen Monate in den Häusern der Kurden, die um diese Zeit in
ihren Zelten hausen. Auch einige hohe Bäume stehen im Süden des
Dorfes, wo sie einen Kirchhof beschatten, auf dem zumeist
mohammedanische Tote ruhen, die oft viele Meilen weit hergebracht
worden sind. Das nahe Tal birgt einen berühmten Quell, der selbst in
regenlosen Jahren, wo alle seine Brüder erschöpft sind, nicht
versiegt.
Wie ich früher gehört oder gelesen, befanden sich in den Bergen
bei Kalb Lōzeh einige drusische Niederlassungen, die von
Auswanderern aus dem Libanon bewohnt wurden, da ich aber noch
keine gesehen, hatte ich ihr Dasein fast ganz vergessen. Nun
standen in der Nähe der Kirche ungefähr ein halbes Dutzend Hütten,
deren Bewohner herauskamen und mir beim Photographieren
zusahen. Und siehe da, es traf mich ein wohlbekannter Blick aus
kohlschwarzen Augen, es fielen mir gewisse Eigentümlichkeiten im
Benehmen auf, die zwar schwer zu beschreiben sind, die aber in