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Handbook of Optoelectronics
Second Edition
 Series in Optics and Optoelectronics
Series Editors:
E. Roy Pike, Kings College, London, UK
Robert G. W. Brown, University of California, Irvine, USA

RECENT TITLES IN THE SERIES

Handbook of Optoelectronics, Second Edition: Concepts, Devices, and
Techniques – Volume One
John P. Dakin and Robert G. W. Brown (Eds.)
Handbook of Optoelectronics, Second Edition: Enabling Technologies – Volume Two
John P. Dakin and Robert G. W. Brown (Eds.)
Handbook of Optoelectronics, Second Edition: Applied Optical Electronics – Volume Three
John P. Dakin and Robert G. W. Brown (Eds.)
Handbook of GaN Semiconductor Materials and Devices
Wengang (Wayne) Bi, Hao-chung (Henry) Kuo, Pei-Cheng Ku, and Bo Shen (Eds.)
Handbook of Optoelectronic Device Modeling and Simulation: Fundamentals, Materials,
Nanostructures, LEDs, and Amplifiers – Volume One
Joachim Piprek (Ed.)
Handbook of Optoelectronic Device Modeling and Simulation: Lasers, Modulators,
Photodetectors, Solar Cells, and Numerical Methods – Volume Two
Joachim Piprek (Ed.)
Nanophotonics and Plasmonics: An Integrated View
Dr. Ching Eng (Jason) Png and Dr. Yuriy Akimov
Handbook of Solid-State Lighting and LEDs
Zhe Chuan Feng (Ed.)
Optical Microring Resonators: Theory, Techniques, and Applications
V. Van
Optical Compressive Imaging
Adrian Stern
Singular Optics
Gregory J. Gbur
The Limits of Resolution
Geoffrey de Villiers and E. Roy Pike
Polarized Light and the Mueller Matrix Approach
José J Gil and Razvigor Ossikovski
Handbook of Optoelectronics
Second Edition
Applications of Optoelectronics
Volume 3

Edited by
John P. Dakin
Robert G. W. Brown
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Dakin, John, 1947- editor. | Brown, Robert G. W., editor.

Title: Handbook of optoelectronics / edited by John P. Dakin, Robert G. W.
Brown.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press,
2017. | Series: Series in optics and optoelectronics ; volumes 30-32 |
Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: volume 1.
Concepts, devices, and techniques -- volume 2. Enabling technologies --
volume 3. Applied optical electronics.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017014570 | ISBN 9781138102262 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Optoelectronic devices--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC TK8320 .H36 2017 | DDC 621.381/045--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017014570

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents

Series Preface ix
Preface xi
Introduction to the Second Edition xiii
Editors xv
Contributors xvii

Part I OPTOELECTRONICS IN INFRASTRUCTURE 1

1 Overview of fiber optic sensing technologies for structural health monitoring 5

Daniele Inaudi
2 Distributed acoustic sensing for infrastructure 19
Stuart Russell
3 Intelligent infrastructure: Automatic number plate recognition for smart cities 29
Benjamin Watson
4 Optoelectronics for control of city transport 43
David Parkyns

Part II ON-VEHICLE APPLICATIONS IN TRANSPORT 49

5 Optoelectronics for automobiles, vans, and trucks 55

John P. Dakin
6 360° camera systems for surveillance and security 65
Gareth J. Edwards

Part III OPTOELECTRONICS FOR SECURITY AND SURVEILLANCE 75

7 Applications of distributed acoustic sensing for security and surveillance 79

Stuart Russell

Part IV EARTH RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 83

8 Overview of earth observation from satellites 89

Greg Blackman and Jessica Rowbury

v
vi Contents

9 Satellite-based land monitoring 97

Gerardo López-Saldaña and Debbie Clifford
10 Optical remote sensing of marine, coastal, and inland waters 103
Valborg Byfield
11 Oceanographic and aquatic: Applications of optic sensing technologies 115
Matt Mowlem, Alex Beaton, and Gregory Slavik
12 Monitoring of volcanic eruptions: An example of the application of optoelectronics
instrumentation in atmospheric science 129
Barbara J. Brooks

Part V MILITARY APPLICATIONS 139

13 Military optoelectronics 145

HilIary G. Sillitto

Part VI INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 183

14 Optical gas-sensing methods for industry 191

Jane Hodgkinson and John P. Dakin
15 Laser applications in industry 207
Paul Harrison
16 Laser and LED systems for industrial metrology and spectroscopy for industrial uses 213
John P. Dakin
17 3D Printing applications 227
Candice Majewski
18 Fiber optical sensors for monitoring industrial gas turbines 235
Ralf D. Pechstedt and David Hemsley
19 Raman gas spectroscopy 245
Andreas Knebl, Jürgen Popp, and Torsten Frosch

Part VII OIL, GAS, AND MINERAL EXPLORATION AND REFINING 259

20 Fiber optics in the oil and gas industry 263

Andre Franzen
21 Oilfield production monitoring with fiber-optic sensors 287
Philip Nash
22 Applications of visible to near-infrared spectroscopy for downhole fluid analysis
inside oil and gas wellbores 299
Go Fujisawa, Oliver C. Mullins, and Tsutomu Yamate
23 Mid-infrared spectroscopy for future oil, gas, and mineral exploration 307
Christian M. Müller, Florian Rauh, Thomas Schädle, Matthias Schwenk, Robert Stach,
Boris Mizaikoff, and Bobby Pejcic

Part VIII APPLICATIONS IN ENERGY GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 317

24 Applications of electricity generation by solar panels 323

Fernando Araújo de Castro
25 Advantages of fiber optical sensors for power generation 333
Ralf D. Pechstedt and David Hemsley
 Contents vii

Part IX APPLICATIONS FOR MEDICINE, HEALTH MONITORING, AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 335

26 Medical applications of photonics 343

Constantinos Pitris, Tuan Vo-Dinh, R. Eugene Goodson, and Susie E. Goodson
27 Breath analysis with mid-infrared diagnostics 365
Vjekoslav Kokoric, Erhan Tütüncü, Felicia Seichter, Andreas Wilk, Paula R. Fortes,
Ivo M. Raimundo, and Boris Mizaikoff
28 Fiber optic manometry catheters for in vivo monitoring of peristalsis in the human gut 377
John Arkwright and Phil Dinning
29 Optical coherence tomography in medicine 383
Michael A. Marcus

Part X HOME AND MOBILE PORTABLE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS  389

30 Applications for home and mobile portable equipment 397

John P. Dakin and Michael A. Marcus

PART XI FREE SPACE OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS 409

31 Optical communications through free space 413

Dominic O’Brien
Index429
Series Preface
This international series covers all aspects of
theoretical and applied optics and optoelectronics.
Active since 1986, eminent authors have long been
choosing to publish with this series, and it is now
established as a premier forum for high-impact
monographs and textbooks. The editors are proud
of the breadth and depth showcased by published
works, with levels ranging from advanced under-
graduate and graduate student texts to professional
references. Topics addressed are both cutting edge
and fundamental, basic science and applications-
oriented, on subject matter that includes: lasers,
photonic devices, nonlinear optics, interferom-
etry, waves, crystals, optical materials, biomedical
optics, optical tweezers, optical metrology, solid-
state lighting, nanophotonics, and silicon photon-
ics. Readers of the series are students, scientists,
and engineers working in optics, optoelectronics,
and related fields in the industry.
Proposals for new volumes in the series may be
directed to Lu Han, executive editor at CRC Press,
Taylor & Francis Group (lu.han@taylorandfrancis.
com).
ix
Preface
This third volume of the Handbook is a brand new
addition. Its focus on applications is intended to
complement the preceding two volumes, which
have extensively covered the basic science, key
components, and vital enabling technology. The
new chapters here have been written by authors
presenting their own selected overviews of real-
world engineering applications.
The intention of this volume is to concentrate
on a number of areas where optoelectronics is
either already making, or has great future pros-
pects of making, a major difference to our lives.
The objective is not to describe the technology
in great physical detail, but rather to give a set of
case studies. These cases focus on how the tech-
nology can be used, so the scientific and engineer-
ing descriptions are much shorter than in earlier
chapters, and more examples and photographs are
given. We have tried to ensure that, where feasible,
descriptions are not related to an obvious commer-
cial product, but, where appropriate, performance
data of real systems is occasionally included.
The structure of this volume involves splitting
it into major application fields, rather than tech-
nology areas. Naturally, this means that inevitably
some enabling technologies are applicable to more
than one application area. Where this is clearly the
case, we have attempted to cross-reference to other
relevant chapters, either via a summary table or
with a short paragraph or two of how it is used in
the other application area.
Due to the huge, and very rapidly growing,
number of applications, it is impossible to cover
all aspects and applications, even in what is a fairly
extensive selection. To try to indicate some of the
areas that we may have missed, most of the sec-
tions contain a summary table in the introduction,
to give a broader picture of the field. Some opto-
electronic technologies, such as cameras, light-
emitting diodes, and liquid crystal displays, have
had extensive applications for many years, whereas
others such as solar panels were previously only
economically practical for mobile or remote pow-
ering, but are now becoming used far more widely
as costs reduce.
The short-form treatment of other applications
in these tables will inevitably leave some questions
unanswered, but we trust that we have presented at
least a broad cross-section of case studies, which
hopefully succeed in illustrating that optoelec-
tronics is a major force for change in our world.
John P. Dakin
xi
Introduction to the Second Edition
There have been many detailed technological
changes since the first edition of the Handbook
in 2006, with the most dramatic changes seen
from the far more widespread applications of the
technology. To reflect this, our new revision has
a completely new Volume 3 focused on applica-
tions and covering many case studies from an
ever increasing range of possible topics. Even as
recently as 2006, the high cost or poorer perfor-
mance of many optoelectronics components was
still holding back many developments, but now the
cost of many high-spec components, particularly
ones such as light-­emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers,
solar cells, and other optical detectors, optoelec-
tronic displays, optical fibers and components,
including optical amplifiers, has reduced to such
an extent that they are now finding a place in all
aspects of our lives. Solid-state optoelectronics
now dominates lighting technology and is starting
to dominate many other key areas such as power
generation. It is revolutionizing our transport by
helping to guide fully autonomous vehicles, and
CCTV cameras and optoelectronic displays are
seen everywhere we go.
In addition to the widespread applications
now routinely using optoelectronic components,
since 2006, we have witnessed growth of various
fundamentally new directions of optoelectronics
research and likely new component technologies
for the near future. One of the most significant new
areas of activity has been in nano-optoelectronics;
the use of nanotechnology science, procedures and
processes to create ultra-miniature devices across
the entire optoelectronics domain: laser and LED
sources, optical modulators, photon detectors, and
solar cell technology. Two new chapters on silicon
photonics and nanophotonics and graphene opto-
electronics attempt to cover the wide range of nan-
otechnology developments in optoelectronics this
past decade. It will, however, be a few years before
the scale-up to volume manufacturing of nano-
based devices becomes an economically feasible
reality, but there is much promise for new genera-
tions of optoelectronic technologies to come soon.
Original chapters of the first edition have been
revised and brought up to date for the second edi-
tion, mostly by the original authors, but in some
cases by new authors, to whom we are especially
grateful.
Robert G. W. Brown and John P. Dakin
xiii
Editors
John P. Dakin, PhD, is professor (Emeritus) at the
Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of
Southampton, UK. He earned a BSc and a PhD at
the University of Southampton and remained there
as a Research Fellow until 1973, where he supervised
research and development of optical fiber sensors
and other optical measurement instruments. He
then spent 2 years in Germany at AEG Telefunken;
12 years at Plessey, research in Havant and then
Romsey, UK; and 2 years with York Limited/York
Biodynamics in Chandler’s Ford, UK before return-
ing to the University of Southampton.
He has authored more than 150 technical and
scientific papers, and more than 120 patent appli-
cations. He was previously a visiting professor at
the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow.
Dr. Dakin has won a number of awards, includ-
ing “Inventor of the Year” for Plessey Electronic
Systems Limited and the Electronics Divisional
Board Premium of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, UK. Earlier, he won open
scholarships to both Southampton and Manchester
Universities.
He has also been responsible for a number of
key electro-optic developments. These include the
sphere lens optical fiber connector, the first wave-
length division multiplexing optical shaft encoder,
the Raman optical fiber distributed temperature
sensor, the first realization of a fiber optic passive
hydrophone array sensor, and the Sagnac location
method described here, plus a number of novel
optical gas sensing methods. More recently, he
was responsible for developing a new distributed
acoustic and seismic optical fiber sensing system,
which is finding major applications in oil and gas
exploration, transport and security systems.
Robert G. W. Brown, PhD, is at the Beckman
Laser Institute and Medical Clinic at the University
of California, Irvine. He earned a PhD in engineer-
ing at the University of Surrey, Surrey, and a BS in
physics at Royal Holloway College at the University
of London, London. He was previously an applied
physicist at Rockwell Collins, Cedar Rapids, IA,
where he carried out research in photonic ultra-
fast computing, optical detectors, and optical
materials. Previously, he was an advisor to the
UK government, and international and editorial
director of the Institute of Physics. He is an elected
member of the European Academy of the Sciences
and Arts (Academia Europaea) and special profes-
sor at the University of Nottingham, Nottingham.
He also retains a position as adjunct full profes-
sor at the University of California, Irvine, in the
Beckman Laser Institute and Medical Clinic,
Irvine, California, and as visiting professor in the
department of computer science. He has authored
more than 120 articles in peer-reviewed journals
and holds 34 patents, several of which have been
successfully commercialized.
Dr. Brown has been recognized for his entrepre-
neurship with the UK Ministry of Defence Prize
for Outstanding Technology Transfer, a prize from
Sharp Corporation (Japan) for his novel laser-
diode invention, and, together with his team at
the UK Institute of Physics, a Queen’s Award for
Enterprise, the highest honor bestowed on a UK
company. He has guest edited several special issues
of Applied Physics and was consultant to many
companies and government research centers in
the United States and the United Kingdom. He is a
series editor of the CRC Press “Series in Optics and
Optoelectronics.”
xv
Contributors

John Arkwright Phil Dinning

School of Computer Science, Engineering and Human Physiology and Centre for Neuroscience
Mathematics Flinders University
Flanders University Bedford Park, Australia
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia and
Alex Beaton Departments of Gastroenterology and Surgery
Ocean Technology and Engineering Group Flinders Medical Centre
National Oceanography Centre South Australia, Australia
Southampton, United Kingdom
Gareth J. Edwards
Greg Blackman Observant Technology Limited
Imaging and Machine Vision Europe Hampshire, United Kingdom
Europa Science
Paula R. Fortes
Cambridge, United Kingdom
Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
Barbara J. Brooks University of Ulm
University of Leeds Ulm, Germany
Leeds, United Kingdom
André Franzen
Valborg Byfield Shell International Exploration and Production B.V.
National Oceanography Centre The Hague, the Netherlands
Southampton, United Kingdom
Torsten Frosch
Debbie Clifford Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology
University of Reading and
Reading, United Kingdom Institute of Physical Chemistry
John P. Dakin Abbe Center of Photonics
Optoelectronics Research Centre Jena, Germany
University of Southampton Go Fujisawa
Southampton, United Kingdom Schlumberger
Fernando Araujo de Castro Cambridge, United Kingdom
Materials Division R. Eugene Goodson
National Physical Laboratory Duke University
Middlesex, United Kingdom Durham, North Carolina

xvii
xviii Contributors

Susie E. Goodson Christian M. Müller

Duke University Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
Durham, North Carolina University of Ulm
Paul Harrison Ulm, Germany
SPI Lasers Ltd. Oliver C. Mullins
Southampton, United Kingdom Schlumberger
David Hemsley Cambridge, United Kingdom
Oxsensis Ltd. Philip Nash
Oxfordshire, United Kingdom Stingray Geophysical
Jane Hodgkinson London, United Kingdom
Centre for Engineering Photonics Dominic O’Brien
Cranfield University Department of Engineering Science
Cranfield, United Kingdom University of Oxford
Daniele Inaudi Oxford, United Kingdom
Roctest Ltd. – SMARTEC SA David Parkyns
Manno, Switzerland Transport for London
Andreas Knebl London, United Kingdom
Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology Ralf D. Pechstedt
and Oxsensis Ltd.
International Max-Planck Research School Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
Global Biogeochemical Cycles Bobby Pejcic
Jena, Germany CSIRO, Energy Flagship
Vjekoslav Kokoric Western Australia, Australia
Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Constantinos Pitris
Chemistry Department of Electrical and Computer
University of Ulm Engineering
Ulm, Germany University of Cyprus
Gerardo López-Saldaña Nicosia, Cyprus
Department of Meteorology Jürgen Popp
University of Reading Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology
Reading, United Kingdom and
Candice Majewski Institute of Physical Chemistry
Department of Mechanical Engineering Abbe Center of Photonics
University of Sheffield Jena, Germany
Sheffield, United Kingdom Ivo M. Raimundo
Michael A. Marcus Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
Lumetrics Inc. University of Ulm
Rochester, New York Ulm, Germany
Boris Mizaikoff Florian Rauh
Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical
Chemistry Chemistry
University of Ulm University of Ulm
Ulm, Germany Ulm, Germany
Matt Mowlem Jessica Rowbury
Ocean Technology and Engineering Group Imaging and Machine Vision Europe
National Oceanography Centre Europa Science
Southampton, United Kingdom Cambridge, United Kingdom
 Contributors xix

Stuart Russell Robert Stach

Optasense, QinetiQ Group plc Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical
Bristol, United Kingdom Chemistry
Thomas Schädle University of Ulm
Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Ulm, Germany
Chemistry Erhan Tütüncü
University of Ulm Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical
Ulm, Germany Chemistry
Matthias Schwenk University of Ulm
Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Ulm, Germany
Chemistry Tuan Vo-Dinh
University of Ulm Department of Biomedical Engineering
Ulm, Germany Duke University
Felicia Seichter Durham, North Carolina
Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical Benjamin Watson
Chemistry 3M UK&I
University of Ulm Hampshire, United Kingdom
Ulm, Germany Andreas Wilk
Hillary G. Sillitto Institute of Analytical and Bioanalytical
University of Strathclyde Chemistry
Glasgow, United Kingdom University of Ulm
Gregory Slavik Ulm, Germany
Ocean Technology and Engineering Group Tsutomu Yamate
National Oceanography Centre Schlumberger
Southampton, United Kingdom Cambridge, United Kingdom

Optoelectronics in infrastructure
In this section, we present case studies of the use
of optoelectronics in infrastructure. This includes
applications on fixed structures, in particular, sen-
sors located next to vital road and rail systems,
civil engineering structures, such as bridges and
dams, and ones built in or on the structure of
buildings or their foundations. (Please note, sys-
tems and sensors intended specifically for security
and surveillance purposes, for energy, for oil and
gas extraction, and ones fitted to moving vehicles
will be described in later application sections.)
In order to give a broader introduction to infra-
structure applications than we could possibly
cover with our selected case studies, we shall first
present a summary table. This will give a broader
overview than possible in the more specific case
study chapters.
As will be the practice in most chapters in this
volume, we shall then present a few more detailed
case studies. Before commencing, however, it is
perhaps appropriate to briefly emphasize where
sensors described in this section also have cross-
over applications to other sections in the volume.
Chapter 1 describes various forms of optical
strain sensors for highways, but similar strain
Part     I
sensors, particularly fiber grating types, have
numerous other potential application areas, such
as structural sensors in wind energy turbines,
aircraft and ships, racing yacht masts, and many
more.
Chapter 2 describes a distributed optical fiber
acoustic/seismic sensor, which has, apart from
for infrastructure, obvious applications in secu-
rity and surveillance. Such sensors are currently
employed extensively in the oil and gas industry,
and this important application is described more
fully by Andre Franzen in Chapter 20.
Chapters 3 and 4 describe camera monitors for
roads. These are used for monitoring and identi-
fying vehicles (via number plate readers or still
photographs) and determining their speed and
position. If the book had been structured in a dif-
ferent way, such sensors would have been consid-
ered to be a part of the later sections on “transport”
or “security and surveillance,” but as they are fixed
in location, we have chosen to describe them here.
Hopefully, the readers will appreciate that there
are inevitable dilemmas of where best to describe
these applications and will bear with us in our
order of presenting them in the sections that follow.
Table I.1 Summary of applications of optoelectronics in the infrastructure field

2 Optoelectronics in infrastructure
Current situation
Application Technology Advantages Disadvantages (at time of writing) More reading
Sensors for traffic Visible CCTV Established optoelectronics Limited to line-of- Already becoming See this section.
monitoring and cameras technology and can use sight applications. widely used. (Part 1)
control. Vehicle IR cameras relatively cheap cameras. Sophistication of
identification. Time-interval Camera information can easily networking for traffic
Detection of speeding cameras be recorded and networked. monitoring systems is
and other traffic Sophisticated video Individual vehicles can be rapidly improving.
violations. processing identified via number plates Already becoming
techniques such and acquisition of vehicle fully integrated with
as vehicle number flow statistics for high traffic traffic control
plate recognition. volumes is also possible. systems.
Inbuilt sensors for Optical fiber Long distance (~30 km) Requires significant A fairly new, but rapidly See also Part VII
road, rail, or airport distributed coverage with one sensor. in-road or railside expanding and Volume II,
traffic monitoring, acoustic/seismic Sensor can be configured along works to install. technology for Chapter 11
which are buried in sensors (DAS). any desired path. Potential cross talk highway and railway (Optical Fiber
highway, or fastened Multiple (up to many hundreds) from seismic applications, but one Sensors).
to, or located close sensing points with one signals transmitted that has been used
to, railway lines, sensing system. through the with great success in
airport runways, etc. ground from other oil and gas wells.
areas nearby.
Expensive sensors as
new sophisticated
technology.
Sensors for monitoring Optical fiber strain Optical fibers are robust and Installers need to be Involves less- See this section.
structural integrity of gauges, having immune to corrosive liquids trained in the new established (Part 1)
roads, bridges, short or long such as alkaline cements and technology. technology than
dams, buildings, etc. gauge length. road-salt solutions. electrical strain
Sensors are No conductors, so no problems gauges, but is rapidly
usually embedded with electrolytic conduction, gaining acceptance in
in construction galvanic corrosion, and/or many areas.
materials. lightning strike. (Continued)
Table I.1 (Continued) Summary of applications of optoelectronics in the infrastructure field

Current situation
Application Technology Advantages Disadvantages (at time of writing) More reading
Very large optical Originally, these LEDs have had excellent No real Unless a revolutionary See also Volume
displays for traffic displays used reliability for many years. disadvantages. new technology I, Chapter 10
control and incandescent Most low-cost LEDs arrives, these LED (LEDs) and
providing sources, but most packages conveniently emit displays are here to Volume II,
information to road are now replaced light in a forward cone, of stay! There is, Chapter 9 (3D
and rail users (e.g., by arrays of the type needed to maximize however, potential Display
traffic lights, and high-brightness visibility to approaching competition from Systems).
overhead gantry or LEDs. drivers. Current LEDs are far large-area organic
roadside displays). brighter and more efficient displays.
than earlier types and unit
costs are falling rapidly.
Roadside solar power, Photovoltaic optical A very economical way of Needs a storage A common feature on See also
for remote to electrical providing power in locations battery and charge cross-country roads Volume II,
powering of LED energy conversion away from mains electricity controller to cover and highways. Chapter 16
road signs, traffic (often supplies. periods without Perhaps the most (Optical to
lights, speed supplemented by sun or wind! elegant and artistic Electrical
sensors, emergency small wind Batteries must be ones are those used Energy
telephones, etc. generator to replaced regularly, on French highways, Conversion:
generate at night and they could for powering Solar Cells).
and on cloudy potentially emergency

Optoelectronics in infrastructure 3
days!). discharge too far telephones!
in unsuitable
weather.
Warning strobe lights Used to employ arc LED lamps have far greater Still not as bright as As with many areas of See also
for high towers, lamps and reliability, easier drive the best arc lamps, lighting, LEDs are Volume I,
and scanned lights gas-filled flash circuitry, and can provide but can use arrays gradually taking over. Chapter 10
for lighthouses, etc. lamps, but most different colors without the of them to help to (LEDs).
Dual-pulse flash are now LED need for filters. compensate for
lamps for roadside based. this.
speed cameras. (Continued)
Table I.1 (Continued) Summary of applications of optoelectronics in the infrastructure field

4 Optoelectronics in infrastructure
Current situation
Application Technology Advantages Disadvantages (at time of writing) More reading
Road lighting system. These used to use Reliability, as very high Somewhat higher Again, unless a new See also
high- or low- lifetimes. Present LEDs are initial cost at revolutionary Volume I,
pressure arc lamps far brighter and more present, but this is technology arrives, Chapter 10
(mostly low- efficient than earlier types of falling very rapidly. they are here to stay! (LEDs).
pressure sodium lighting. Initial costs are Expect nearly all
lamps), but now falling rapidly, electricity lighting systems to
changing to white costs are reduced and soon use LEDs or
LED-based maintenance costs are very semiconductor lasers.
systems. low.
Roadside optical Optical systems for Can monitor road traffic for Expensive systems at A system developed by See Chapter 19
pollution sensors. determination of identifying vehicles that are present but costs NASA has been used (Raman Gas
pollution from emitting noxious fumes or would reduce with to monitor Spectroscopy)
vehicles, using are using illegal fuels. greater usage. automobile emissions and Part VII
spectroscopic in numerous US chapters on
analysis. states. gas sensing
for discussion
of general
concepts.
 1
Overview of fiber optic sensing
technologies for structural health
monitoring

DANIELE INAUDI
SMARTEC/Roctest

1.1 Fiber optic sensors 5 1.2.2 Pile loading test 9

1.1.1 SOFO displacement sensors 6 1.2.3 I35W Bridge, Minneapolis 11
1.1.2 Bragg grating strain sensors 7 1.2.4 Luzzone Dam 12
1.1.3 Fabry–Perot strain sensors 7 1.2.5 B ridge crack detection 12
1.1.4 Raman distributed 1.2.6 Bitumen joint monitoring 15
temperature sensors8 1.2.7 Gas pipeline monitoring 16
1.1.5 Brillouin distributed 1.3 Conclusions 17
temperature sensors8 Acknowledgment17
1.2 Selected projects 9 References 17
1.2.1 Colle Isarco Bridge 9

1.1 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS ●● Distributed sensors are able to sense at any

There exist a great variety of fiber optic sensors (FOSs)
[1] for structural monitoring in both the academic
and industrial areas. In this overview we will con-
centrate on fiber optic sensing systems for civil health
monitoring that have reached an industrial level and
have been used in a number of field applications.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the four main types of FOSs:
●● Point sensors have a single measurement point
at the end of the fiber optic connection cable,
similar to most electrical sensors.
●● Multiplexed sensors allow the measurement at
multiple points along a single fiber line.
●● Long-base sensors integrate the measurement
over a long measurement base. They are also
known as long-gauge sensors.
point along a single fiber line, typically every
meter over many kilometers of length
The greatest advantages of FOS are intrinsically
linked to the optical fiber itself that is either used
as a link between the sensor and the signal condi-
tioner, or becomes the sensor itself in the case of
long-gauge and distributed sensors. In almost all
FOS applications, the optical fiber is a thin glass
fiber that is protected mechanically by a polymer
coating (or a metal coating in extreme cases) and
further protected by a multilayer cable structure
designed to protect the fiber from the environment
where it will be installed. Since glass is an inert
material very resistant to almost all chemicals, even
at extreme temperatures, it is an ideal material for
use in harsh environments such as that encountered

5
6 Overview of fiber optic sensing technologies for structural health monitoring

Point sensor: Quasi-distributed (multiplexed):

sensoptic (Fabry–Pérot) MuST (FBG)

Long base: Distributed: DiTest/DiTemp

SOFO (Brillouin and Raman)

Figure 1.1 Fiber optic sensor types.

in geotechnical applications. Chemical resistance

is a great advantage for long-term reliable health
monitoring of civil engineering structures, making
FOSs particularly durable. Since the light confined
to the core of the optical fibers used for sensing
purposes does not interact with any surrounding
electromagnetic (EM) field, FOSs are intrinsically
immune to any EM interferences. With such unique
advantage over sensors using electrical signals,
FOSs are obviously the ideal sensing solution when
the presence of EM, radio frequency, or microwaves
cannot be avoided. For instance, FOS will not be
affected by EM fields ­generated by lightning hitting
a monitored bridge or dam, nor will they be affected
by the interference produced by subway trains run-
ning near a monitored zone. FOSs are intrinsically
safe and naturally explosion-proof, making them
particularly suitable for monitoring applications of
risky structures such as gas pipelines or chemical
plants. But the greatest and most exclusive advan-
tage of such sensors is their ability to offer long- Figure 1.2 SOFO system reading unit.
range distributed sensing capabilities.

1.1.1 SOFO displacement sensors

The SOFO system (Figure 1.2) is a fiber optic dis-
placement sensor with a resolution in the microm-
eter range and an excellent long-term stability. It
was developed at the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology in Lausanne (EPFL) and is now com-
mercialized by SMARTEC in Switzerland [2].
The measurement setup uses low-coherence
interferometry to measure the length difference
between two optical fibers installed on the struc-
ture to be monitored (Figure 1.3). The measurement
fiber is pretensioned and mechanically coupled to
the structure at two anchorage points in order to
follow its deformations, while the reference fiber is Figure 1.3 SOFO sensor installed on a rebar.

free and acts as temperature reference. Both fibers
are installed inside the same pipe and the mea-
surement basis can be chosen between 200 mm
and 10 m. The resolution of the system is of 2 μm
independently from the measurement basis and its
precision is of 0.2% of the measured deformation
even over years of operation.
The SOFO system has been successfully used
to monitor more than 150 structures, including
bridges, tunnels, piles, anchored walls, dams, his-
torical monuments, nuclear power plants, as well
as laboratory models.
1.1.2 Bragg grating strain sensors
Bragg gratings are periodic alterations in the index
of refraction of the fiber core that can be produced
by adequately exposing the fiber to intense ultravio-
let (UV) light. The produced gratings typically have
length of the order of 10 mm. If white light is injected
in the fiber containing the grating, the wavelength
corresponding to the grating pitch will be reflected,
while all other wavelengths will pass through the
grating undisturbed. Since the grating period is
strain and temperature dependent, it becomes pos-
sible to measure these two parameters by analyz-
ing the spectrum of the reflected light [3]. This is
typically done by using a tunable filter (such as a
Fabry–Perot cavity) or a spectrometer. Resolutions
of the order of 1 με and 0.1°C can be achieved with
the best demodulators. If strain and temperature
variations are expected simultaneously, it is neces-
sary to use a free reference grating that measures
the temperature alone and uses its reading to cor-
rect the strain values. Setups allowing the simulta-
neous measurement of strain and temperature have
been proposed but have yet to prove their reliability
Attachment points
Optical fiber
Figure 1.4 Fabry–Perot sensor.
1.1 Fiber optic sensors 7
in field conditions. The main interest in using Bragg
gratings resides in their multiplexing potential.
Many gratings can be written in the same fiber at
different locations and tuned to reflect at different
wavelengths. This allows the measurement of strain
at different places along a fiber using a single cable.
Typically, 4–16 gratings can be measured on a sin-
gle fiber line. It has to be noticed that since the grat-
ings have to share the spectrum of the source used
to illuminate them, there is a trade-off between the
number of gratings and the dynamic range of the
measurements on each of them.
Because of their length, fiber Bragg gratings can
be used as a replacement for conventional strain
gauges and installed by gluing them on metals and
other smooth surfaces. With adequate packaging,
they can also be used to measure strains in con-
crete over a basis length of typically 100 mm.
1.1.3 Fabry–Perot strain sensors
An extrinsic Fabry–Perot interferometer (EFPI) con-
sists of a capillary silica tube containing two cleaved
optical fibers facing each other, but leaving an air
gap of a few microns or tens of microns between
them (see Figure 1.4) [4]. When light is launched
into one of the fibers, a back-reflected interference
signal is obtained. This is due to the reflection of the
incoming light on the glass-to-air and on the air-to-
glass interfaces. This interference can be demodu-
lated using coherent or low-coherence techniques to
reconstruct the changes in the fiber spacing. Since
the two fibers are attached to the capillary tube near
its two extremities (with a typical spacing of 10 mm),
the gap change will correspond to the average strain
variation between the two attachment points.
Fabry–Perot cavity
Mirros
8 Overview of fiber optic sensing technologies for structural health monitoring
1.1.4 Raman distributed
temperature sensors
Raman scattering is the result of a nonlinear interac-
tion between the light traveling in a fiber and silica.
When an intense light signal is shined into the fiber,
two frequency-shifted components called Raman
Stokes and Raman anti-Stokes, respectively, will
appear in the back-scattered spectrum. The relative
intensity of these two components depends on the
local temperature of the fiber. If the light signal is
pulsed and the back-scattered intensity is recorded
as a function of the round-trip time, it becomes pos-
sible to obtain a temperature profile along the fiber
[5]. Typically, a temperature resolution of the order
of 0.1°C and a spatial resolution of less than 1 m over
a measurement range up to 10 km are obtained for
multimode fibers. A new system based on the use of
single mode fibers should extend the range to about
30 km with a spatial resolution of 8 m and a tem-
perature resolution of 2°C.
1.1.5 Brillouin distributed
temperature sensors
Brillouin scattering sensors show an interesting
potential for distributed strain and temperature
monitoring. Systems able to measure strain or tem-
perature variations of fibers of length up to 50 km
with spatial resolution down in the meter range
are now demonstrating their potential in field
applications. For temperature measurements, the
Brillouin sensor is a strong competitor to systems
based on Raman scattering, while for strain mea-
surements, it has practically no rivals.
Brillouin scattering is the result of the interac-
tion between optical and sound waves in optical
fibers. Thermally excited acoustic waves (phonons)
produce a periodic modulation of the refrac-
tive index. Brillouin scattering occurs when light
propagating in the fiber is diffracted backward by
this moving grating, giving rise to a frequency-
shifted component by a phenomenon similar to the
Doppler shift. This process is called spontaneous
Brillouin scattering.
Acoustic waves can also be generated by inject-
ing in the fiber two counterpropagating waves with
a frequency difference equal to the Brillouin shift.
Through electrostriction, these two waves will give
rise to a traveling acoustic wave that reinforces
the phonon population. This process is called
stimulated Brillouin amplification. If the probe sig-
nal consists of a short light pulse and its reflected
intensity is plotted against its time of flight and fre-
quency shift, it will be possible to obtain a profile of
the Brillouin shift along the fiber length.
The most interesting aspect of Brillouin scat-
tering for sensing applications resides in the tem-
perature and strain dependence of the Brillouin
shift [6]. This is the result of the change in the
acoustic velocity according to variation in the silica
density. The measurement of the Brillouin shift can
be approached using spontaneous or stimulated
scattering. The main challenge in using spontane-
ous Brillouin scattering for sensing applications
lies in the extremely low level of the detected sig-
nal. This requires sophisticated signal processing
and relatively long integration times.
Systems based on the stimulated Brillouin
amplification have the advantage of working with
a relatively stronger signal but face another chal-
lenge. To produce a meaningful signal, the two
counter-propagating waves must maintain an
extremely stable frequency difference. This usually
requires the synchronization of two laser sources
that must inject the two signals at the opposite
ends of the fiber under test. The MET (metrol-
ogy laboratory) group at Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology in Lausanne (EPFL) proposed a more
elegant approach [6]. The approach consists in gen-
erating both waves from a single laser source using
an integrated optics modulator. This arrangement
offers the advantage of eliminating the need for
two lasers and intrinsically insures that the fre-
quency difference remains stable independently
from the laser drift. SMARTEC and Omnisens
(Switzerland) commercialized a system based
on this setup and named it DiTeSt (Figure 1.5).
It features a measurement range of 10 km with a
spatial resolution of 1 m or a range of 25 km with a
Figure 1.5 DiTeSt reading unit.
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Dublin.

Rule XII. Words in Pairs.—Words in pairs should have a comma

between each pair.

examples.
“In all the characters, patriots and tyrants, haters and lovers, the
frown and sneer of Harold were discernible in an instant.”—
Macaulay.
“Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable.”—
Webster.

Rule XIII. Unconnected Words.—When two words, of the same

part of speech, are not connected by a conjunction, a comma should
be placed between them.

examples.
“He had in himself a radiant, living spring of generous and manly
action.”—Burke.
“A still, small voice.”—Kings.

“Where sits our sulky, sullen dame,

Gathering her brows like gathering storm,
Nursing her wrath to keep it warm.”—Burns.

remarks.
1. When two nouns, the subjects of a verb, are not connected by a conjunction,
a comma should be placed between the two words and also after the second; as,
“Indignation, expostulation, were powerless upon him as a mist upon a rock.”—
Macdonald.
2. When two adjectives come together, the first qualifying the second adjective
and also the noun, a comma should not be used; as, A beautiful white horse.
3. A word repeated for emphasis usually has a punctuation mark before and
after it; as,—
 “Water, water, everywhere,
Nor any drop to drink.”—Coleridge.

“Verily, verily, I say unto you, He that believeth on me, the works that I do shall
he do also.”—John xiv. 12.

Rule XIV. A Series of Words.—1. When a series of words, of the

same part of speech, are connected by and, or, nor, they should not
be separated from each other by punctuation marks.
“The fruits and flowers and shrubs sent forth grateful perfumes.”—
Irving.
Some writers place a comma before each and. This, however, is
not necessary.
2. When a conjunction is used only with the last word in the series,
a comma should be placed before the conjunction and between the
other words.
The fruits, flowers, and shrubs sent forth grateful perfumes.
3. When the conjunctions are omitted, a comma should be placed
between each word and also at the end of the series.
The fruits, flowers, shrubs, sent forth grateful perfumes.

remarks.
1. When the last word in the series precedes only a single word, the comma
should be omitted; as, “A refined, thoughtful, warm-hearted, pure-souled
Englishman.”
2. When two words or expressions are connected by or, the latter explaining the
former, the explanatory word or expression should be separated from the rest of
the sentence by a comma or commas; as, “The love of variety, or curiosity of
seeing new things, which is the same, or at least a sister passion to it, seems
woven into the frame of every son and daughter of Adam.”—Sterne.

Rule XV. Phrases and Clauses.—Phrases and clauses, either

with or without conjunctions, having a mutual relation to some other
word in the sentence, should be separated from each other and from
what follows by commas.

examples.
“Purity of style, and an easy flow of numbers, are common to all
Addison’s Latin poems.”—Macaulay.
“The unbought grace of life, the chief defense of nations, the nurse
of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, is gone.”—Burke.
“The little that is known, and the circumstance that little is known,
must be considered as honorable to him.”—Macaulay.
“Books that you can carry to the fire, and hold readily in your hand,
are the most useful after all.”—Dr. Johnson.

remarks.
1. A phrase is one of the smaller divisions of a sentence, and consists of two or
more words. Apart from the rest of the sentence, it is incomplete in meaning. It
does not, like a clause, include a subject and a verb.
2. When two brief expressions are connected by a conjunction, it is better to
omit punctuation marks; as, “Good company and good discourse are the very
sinews of virtue.”—Izaak Walton.
3. When words and phrases form a series, a conjunction being used only with
the last phrase, they should be separated from each other and from what follows
by commas; as, “Virtue, merit, and everything that is praiseworthy, will be made
the subject of ridicule and buffoonery.”—Addison.

Rule XVI. Logical Subject.—When the logical subject ends with a

verb, or is separated into parts by commas, or is unusually long, a
comma should be placed between the logical subject and the main
verb.

examples.
“This imaginary promise of divine aid thus mysteriously given,
appeared to him at present in still greater progress of fulfillment.”—
Irving.
 “The voice of praise, too, coming from those to whom we had
thought ourselves unknown, has a magic about it that must be felt to
be understood.”—Charles Lever.
“Those who can put the best countenance upon the outrages of
this nature which are offered them, are not without their secret
anguish.”—Addison.

remarks.
1. The logical subject consists of the name of the person or thing, of which
something is affirmed, together with its modifying words. It is “the subject
according to the real meaning or logic of the sentence.”
2. Some writers always place a comma before the verb, when its subject
consists of many words.

Rule XVII. Contrasted Expressions.—Contrasted expressions or

comparisons should be separated by a comma.

examples.
“Of the other two men, one was a species of giant, the other a sort
of dwarf.”—Hugo.
“The more I reflected upon it, the more important it appeared.”—
Goldsmith.
“As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul
after thee, O God.”—Psalms.
“Master books, but do not let them master you. Read to live, not
live to read.”—Bulwer.

remarks.
1. When the comparison is short and the words closely connected, the comma
may be omitted.
2. When so—that, so—as, rather—than, more—than, connect expressions, the
comma is usually omitted; as, “Ingratitude never so thoroughly pierces the human
heart as when it proceeds from those in whose behalf we have been guilty of
transgression.”—Fielding.
 When, however, the expressions themselves are divided into smaller parts by
commas, or are unusually long, they should be separated by a comma; as,—

“So over-violent, or over-civil,

That every man with him was God or Devil.”—Dryden.

3. When two short expressions are united by as or than, a comma should not be
used; as,—

“He knew what’s what, and that’s as high

As metaphysic wit can fly.”—Butler.

When, however, the expressions are long, it is better to use a comma; as, “I
have no more pleasure in hearing a man attempting wit and failing, than in seeing
a man trying to leap over a ditch and tumbling into it.”—Dr. Johnson.
4. When the first expression is negative and the other affirmative, a comma
should be placed between the expressions and before the negative word, if it does
not commence a sentence; as, “The world generally gives its admiration, not to the
man who does what nobody else even attempts to do, but to the man who does
best what multitudes do well.”—Macaulay.
If, however, a finite verb immediately precedes the negative word, the comma
should be omitted; as, “Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising every
time we fall.”—Confucius.

Rule XVIII. Numeral Figures.—Arabic numbers should be

separated into periods of three figures each, commencing at the
right.

example.

2,509,909,456.

remark.
Dates should not be separated into periods; as, 1877.

Rule XIX. Expressions at the End of Sentences.—It is frequently

necessary, at the end of a sentence, to separate an expression
beginning with a preposition from the rest of the sentence, in order to
avoid ambiguity.
 examples.

“He trudged along, unknowing what he sought,

And whistled as he went, for want of thought.”—Dryden.

“Angling is always to be considered as a stick and a string, with a

fly at one end and a fool at the other.”—Swift.

GENERAL REMARK.

A comma should always be used, when it aids in bringing out the

meaning of the writer, or in avoiding ambiguity.

THE SEMICOLON.

Rule I. Long Sentences.—When the smaller divisions of

sentences are separated by commas, the main divisions should be
separated by semicolons.

examples.
“Sheridan, Pitt, and Fox all drank hard and worked hard; they were
all great in the councils of the nation, but not one could rule his own
household.”—London Athenæum.

“Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong;

Was every thing by starts, and nothing long.”—Dryden.

“Nor is it always in the most distinguished achievements that

men’s virtues or vices may be best discerned; but very often an
action of small note, a short saying, or a jest, shall distinguish a
person’s real character more than the greatest sieges, or the most
important battles.”—Plutarch.

Rule II. Expressions Complete in Themselves.—Short

expressions, complete in themselves but slightly connected in
meaning, may be separated by semicolons.

examples.
“We do not want precepts so much as patterns; an example is the
softest and least invidious way of commanding.”—Pliny.
“It is a beautiful thing to model a statue and give it life; to mould an
intelligence and instil truth therein is still more beautiful.”—Hugo.
“There are on every subject a few leading and fixed ideas; their
tracks may be traced by your own genius as well as by reading.”—
Sheridan.

remark.
When as introduces an example, a semicolon should be placed before and a
comma after it.

Rule III. Series of Expressions.—When several clauses follow

each other in succession, having a common dependence on some
part of the sentence, they should be separated from each other by
semicolons, and from the clause on which they depend, by a
comma.

example.
“If such men will make a firm and solemn pause, and meditate
dispassionately on its importance; if they will contemplate it in all its
attributes, and trace it to all its consequences, they will not hesitate
to part with trivial objections to a constitution, the rejection of which
would, in all probability, put a final period to the Union.”—Hamilton.

remark.
Commas may be used instead of semicolons, when the clauses are short; as,
“When public bodies are to be addressed on momentous occasions, when great
interests are at stake, and strong passions excited, nothing is valuable in speech
farther than it is connected with high intellectual and moral endowments.”—
Webster.
 GENERAL REMARK.

When the members of a sentence seem to be loosely connected,

they are frequently separated by semicolons.

examples.
“Honest name is goodly; but he that hunteth only for that, is like
him that hath rather seem warm than be warm.”—Sir Thomas Wyatt.
“Some blemishes may undoubtedly be detected in his character;
but the more carefully it is examined, the more will it appear sound in
the noble parts.”—Macaulay.
Some writers use commas in the examples given above in
preference to semicolons, and usage varies so much among our
best writers that it is impossible to lay down a general rule that will
be applicable in all cases. If it is desirable to indicate a somewhat
close connection between the members of a sentence, a comma
should be used; if the connection is slight, it is better to use a
semicolon.

THE COLON.

Rule I. Long Sentences.—When the smaller divisions of

sentences are separated by semicolons, the main divisions should
be separated by a colon.

examples.
“Emulation is a dangerous passion to encourage, in some points,
in young men; it is so linked with envy: if you reproach your son for
not surpassing his school-fellows, he will hate those who are before
him.”—Sheridan.
“A man over ninety is a great comfort to all his elderly neighbors:
he is a picket-guard at the extreme outpost; and the young folks of
sixty and seventy feel that the enemy must get by him before he can
come near the camp.”—O. W. Holmes.
 Rule II. A Quotation.—A colon should precede a long quotation. If,
however, the quotation is short, it is better to use a comma.

examples.
Socrates recommended to one of his disciples the following
prayer: “O Jupiter, give us those things which are good for us,
whether they are such things as we pray for, or such things as we do
not pray for; and remove from us those things which are hurtful,
though they are such things as we pray for.”
When the Earl of Dudley took leave of Sydney Smith, on going
from London to Yorkshire, he said: “You have been laughing at me
constantly, Sydney, for the last seven years, and yet, in all that time,
you never said a single thing to me that I wished unsaid.”

remark.
1. When the quotation is long, or it begins a new paragraph, a dash is frequently
placed after the colon.
2. When a direct quotation is introduced into the middle of a sentence, a comma
should be used; as, “He was surprised, but replied, ‘I am not the king, he is there,’
pointing at the same time to a different part of the hall.”—Lingard.

Rule III. Enumeration of Particulars.—A colon should precede an

enumeration of particulars, when they are formally introduced by
thus, following, as follows, this, these, &c.

examples.
“We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created
equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with inalienable rights:
that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”—
Jefferson.
“The penalty is graduated thus: the mildest, confiscation; the
moderate, closing the shop; the severest, exposure.”—Lippincott’s
Magazine.

remarks.
 1. When the particulars are preceded by a colon, they are usually separated
from each other by semicolons, as in the examples given above.
2. If the particulars are not introduced by thus, following, &c., they should be
preceded by a semicolon; as, “Grammar is divided into four parts; Orthography,
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.”
3. When the particulars are preceded by a semicolon, they are usually
separated from each other by commas.
4. Sometimes a comma and dash are used instead of a semicolon; as,
“Grammar is divided into four parts,—Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and
Prosody.”

GENERAL REMARK.

The colon is used by some writers to separate short expressions

that are complete in themselves, but slightly connected in meaning.

examples.

“But men are men: the best sometimes forget.”—Shakespeare.

“It [the Seine] is the wash-tub and summer bath-tub of its citizens;
it was the birthplace of Paris, and it is too often the grave of her
children.”—Lippincott’s Magazine.
If a conjunction is used, it is better to use a semicolon; as,—
“She cannot separate her name from his without lessening it; for it
is equally incrusted with his greatness as with his faults.”—
Lamartine.
She cannot separate her name from his without lessening it: it is
equally incrusted with his greatness as with his faults.
The colon is not as commonly used as formerly. A semicolon
would be preferred by very many writers in all sentences similar to
the examples given above. See Rule II. p. 23.

THE PERIOD.
 Rule I. Complete Sentences.—A period should be placed at the
end of a sentence, when it is complete in meaning and construction,
and is declarative or imperative in its nature.

examples.
“Swift boasted that he was never known to steal a hint.”—
Macaulay.

“But evil is wrought by want of thought,

As well as want of heart.”—Hood.

“It is a great evil not to be able to bear an evil.”—Bion.

remark.
A period should always be placed after the title of an essay, oration, after a
signature, an address of a person, &c.

Rule II. Abbreviations.—A period should be used after every

abbreviation.

examples.
Dr. Samuel A. Jones. Mr. C. R. Miller. Mrs. T. S. Applegate. Miss
Hattie E. Knapp.

Esq., Esquire.
Jan., January.
Mich., Michigan.
Hon., Honorable.
Pro tem., for the time being.
Ans., Answer.
D. D., Doctor of Divinity.
B. C., before Christ.
Rev., Reverend.
P., page; pp., pages.
Pres., President.
Rec. Sec., Recording Secretary.
 N. Y., New York.
A. D., in the year of our Lord.
A. M., Master of Arts.
M. C., Member of Congress.
No., in number, number.
Co., County.
&c. or etc., and so forth.

remarks.
1. It should be remembered that the period thus used, simply indicates an
abbreviation, and that punctuation marks are to be used, in addition to the period,
when required. When a word, written in full, requires a punctuation mark after it,
the same punctuation mark should be used after the word, when it is abbreviated;
as, Adrian, Michigan, January 5, 1877; Adrian, Mich., Jan. 5, 1877.
2. Some proper names are not abbreviations, and consequently a period should
not be used; as, Ben Jonson, Fred Knapp. When Ben. stands for Benjamin, and
Fred. for Frederick, a period should be used.
3. When numerals are represented by the letters of the alphabet, periods are
placed after them; as, Gen. vii. 1, 7, 8.
4. In numbering pages, no mark should be placed after 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.
5. When a letter, used as an abbreviation, is doubled to indicate the plural, the
period should be placed after the last letter; as, pp. for pages, LL. D. for Doctor of
Laws.
6. In abbreviating words, sometimes the first letters are used, sometimes the
first and last, and sometimes the first and some letter near the middle of the word;
as, Ala. for Alabama, Chas. for Charles, Wm. for William, MS. for manuscript.
7. A list of abbreviations will be found at the close of any good dictionary.

INTERROGATION POINT.

Rule I. Direct Question.—A direct question must be followed by

an interrogation point.

examples.
 “Who ever knew truth put to the worse, in a free and open
encounter?”—Milton.

“Are you good men and true?”—Shakespeare.

EXCLAMATION POINT.

Rule I. Strong Emotion.—The exclamation point is used after

expressions denoting strong emotion.

examples.
“Discipline of mind! say rather starvation, confinement, torture,
annihilation.”—Macaulay.
“My valor is certainly going! it is sneaking off! I feel it oozing out,
as it were, at the palms of my hands.”—Sheridan.

“How sharper than a serpent’s tooth it is

To have a thankless child!”—Shakespeare.

remark.
To express an unusual degree of emotion, more than one exclamation point may
be used.

Rule II. Interjections.—All interjections except O may be followed

by an exclamation point.

examples.

“But, alas! to make me

The fixed figure of the time, for scorn
To point his slow unmoving finger at.”—Shakespeare.

“Oh! blessed temper, whose unclouded ray

Can make to-morrow cheerful as to-day.”—Pope.
 “O thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name to be known
by, let us call thee devil!”—Shakespeare.

remarks.
1. When the connection between the interjection and what follows is very close,
it is sometimes better to put the exclamation point at the end of the sentence; as,
—

“Oh for that ancient spirit

Which curbed the Senate’s will!”—Macaulay.

2. When it is desirable to express strong feeling through-out an entire sentence,

the exclamation point should be placed at the end; as,—

“Ho, trumpets, sound a war-note!

Ho, lictors, clear the way!”—Macaulay.

Rule III. Address.—Expressions of address, when emphatic, may

be followed by an exclamation point.

examples.
“Lord! what music hast thou provided for the saints in heaven,
when thou affordest bad men such music [music of the nightingale]
on earth.”—Izaak Walton.
“Hail, candle-light! without disparagement to sun or moon, the
kindest luminary of the three.”—Lamb.

“Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain.”—Goldsmith.

“Ah! happy years! once more who would not be a boy.”—Byron.

THE DASH.

Rule I. Broken Sentences.—When a sentence is broken off

abruptly, or there is an unexpected change in the sentiment, or
hesitation is to be indicated, a dash should be used.
 examples.

Prince.—“I tell you what, my cousin Buckingham,—”

Buck.—“What, my gracious lord?”—Shakespeare.

“I only feel—Farewell—Farewell!”—Byron.

“You will think me foolish;—but—but—may it not be that some

invisible angel has been attracted by the simplicity and good faith
with which our children set about their undertaking? May he not have
spent an hour of his immortality in playing with those dear little
souls?”—Hawthorne.
“Men will wrangle for religion; write for it; fight for it; die for it;
anything but—live for it.”—Colton.

Rule II. Concluding Clause.—When several expressions follow

each other in succession, having a common dependence on the
concluding part of the sentence, a dash is frequently placed before
the clause on which they depend.

examples.
“If you think it a crime in this writer that his language has not been
braided and festooned as elegantly as it might be; that he has not
pinched the miserable plaits of his phraseology, nor placed his
patches and feathers with that correctness of millinery which became
him,—then find a civil and obliging verdict against the printer!”—
Curran.
“To foster industry, to promote union, to cherish religious peace,—
these were the honest purposes of Lord Baltimore during his long
supremacy.”—Bancroft.

remarks.
1. A dash is sometimes used to give prominence or emphasis to an emphatic
conclusion; as, “Fortune, friends, kindred, home,—all were gone.”—Prescott.
 2. When such words as namely, that is, &c., are omitted, a dash is sometimes
used; as, “Many actions, like the Rhone, have two sources,—one pure, and the
other impure.”—Hare.
3. When a word or an expression is repeated for emphasis, a dash should be
placed before it; as, “It is this, I conjure Your Lordships, for your honor, for the
honor of the nation, for the honor of human nature, now intrusted to your care,—it
is this duty that the Commons of England, speaking through us, claims at your
hands.”—Sheridan.

Rule III. Subjects.—When the subject of a general statement, or

the subject of a quotation, is in the same paragraph with the subject-
matter, a dash should separate the subject from what follows.

examples.
The Bible.—“A person who professes to be a critic in the niceties
of the English language ought to have the Bible at his fingers’
ends.”—Macaulay.
Letter-Writing.—“Common interests are necessary to give
permanent stability to epistolary connections. We may love a man
dearly, and yet find no time to write ten lines to him.”—From the
German of Rudolph Lindau.

remarks.
1. A subject is a word or expression about which some statement is made.
2. A dash should be placed between a quotation and the author from whom the
quotation is taken.
3. When a question and an answer are in the same paragraph, a dash is
frequently inserted between the two; as, “Saw you my lord?”—“No, lady.”
4. When as, thus, as follows, &c., introduce an example or a quotation, a dash
should be placed after the comma or colon, if what follows commences a new
paragraph; as,—

“All we possess, and use not on the road,

Adds to the burden we must bear.”—Goethe.
 Rule IV. Letters or Figures Omitted.—When letters or figures are
omitted, a dash should be used to indicate the omission.

examples.
“Why, to comfort me, must Alice W⸺n be a goblin?”—Lamb.
Mark xi. 1-10. Gen. v. 3-9.

remark.
3-9 is equivalent to 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

GENERAL REMARK.

The dash is frequently used to give prominence or emphasis to an

expression.

examples.
“In the quiet air, there was a sound of distant singing,—shepherd
voices.”—Dickens.
“Wealth has its temptations,—so has power.”—Robertson.
“The poorest man may in his cottage bid defiance to all the force
of the crown. It may be frail; its roof may shake; the wind may blow
through it; the storms may enter, the rains may enter,—but the king
of England cannot enter! all his forces dare not cross the threshold of
the ruined tenement.”—Pitt.

Rule V. Parenthesis.—Two dashes are sometimes used instead

of the usual marks of parenthesis.

examples.
“A yellow claw—the very same that had clawed together so much
wealth—poked itself out of the coach window, and dropt some
copper coins upon the ground.”—Hawthorne.
 “Jackson—the omniscient Jackson he was called—was of this
period. He had the reputation of possessing more multifarious
knowledge than any man of his time.”—Lamb.

remarks.
1. When the sentence, without the parenthesis, would require a comma where
the dashes are used, each dash should be preceded by a comma; as, “See that
aged couple,—a sad sight, truly,—John Proctor, and his wife Elizabeth.”—
Hawthorne.
2. If the parenthetical expression is a question or expresses emotion, an
interrogation or an exclamation point should be placed before the second dash; as,
“The laurel of the hero—alas for humanity that it should be so!—grows best on the
battle field.”

MARKS OF PARENTHESIS.

Rule I. Parenthesis.—When an expression breaks the connection

between the different parts of a sentence, and might be omitted
without affecting the sense or the construction, it should be inclosed
in parenthetical marks.

examples.
“Of all sound of all bells (bells, the music nighest bordering
heaven) most solemn and touching is the peal which rings out the
Old Year.”—Lamb.

“The tuneful Nine (so sacred legends tell)

First waked their heavenly lyre these scenes to tell!”—Campbell.

“Their intellectual wardrobe (to confess fairly) has few whole

pieces in it.”—Lamb.

remarks.
1. When parenthetical marks are used, it is sometimes necessary to use
additional marks.
 a. When the sentence, without the parenthesis, requires a punctuation
mark where the parenthetical marks are used, the punctuation mark
should be placed after the last mark of the parenthesis; as,—

“Know then this truth (enough for man to know),

‘Virtue alone is happiness below.’”—Pope.

b. Sometimes the parenthesis requires a punctuation mark before the last

mark of the parenthesis; as, “Spill not the morning (the quintessence
of the day!) in recreations.”—Thomas Fuller.
c. When a punctuation mark immediately precedes the last mark of the
parenthesis, and a punctuation mark is also needed where the
parenthetical marks are used, it should be placed before the first mark
of the parenthesis; as, “F. was the most gentlemanly of oilmen. He
had two Latin words almost constantly in his mouth, (how odd sounds
Latin from an oilman’s lips!) which my better knowledge since has
enabled me to correct.”—Lamb.
2. An interrogation point inclosed in parenthetical marks (?) implies that an
assertion is doubtful.
3. An exclamation point inclosed within parenthetical marks (!) expresses irony
or contempt.
4. Parenthetical marks are not as frequently used as formerly, the comma and
dash being often preferred.

BRACKETS.

Rule I. Quoted Passage.—When words are inserted by another

into a quoted passage, either to correct a mistake or explain the
meaning, they should be inclosed in brackets.

examples.
“A variety of pleasing objects meet [meets] the eye.”
“‘My dear lady,’ returned the schoolmaster [Mr. Graham], ‘when I
have on good grounds made up my mind to a thing, I always feel as
if I had promised God to do it; and indeed it amounts to the same
thing very nearly. Such a resolve, then, is not to be unmade, except
on equally good grounds with those upon which it was made.’”—
George Macdonald.

remarks.
1. Punctuation marks are sometimes required, when the brackets are used. The
same remarks apply to the brackets that apply to parenthetical marks.
2. In reporting speeches, brackets are used, when words are introduced by the
reporter which do not form a part of the speech; as,—
“We would have our Union to be a union of hearts, and we would have our
Constitution obeyed, not merely because of force that compels obedience, but
obeyed because the people love the principles of the Constitution [long continued
applause], and to-day, if I am called to the work to which Abraham Lincoln was
called sixteen years ago, it is under brighter skies and more favorable auspices.
[Applause.] I do hope, I do fervently believe, that, by the aid of divine Providence,
we may do something in this day of peace, by works of peace, towards re-
establishing, in the hearts of our countrymen, a real, a hearty attachment to the
Constitution as it is, and to the Union as it is. [Long continued applause].”—
President Hayes.—Chicago Tribune.
3. Parenthetical marks are frequently used instead of brackets.

QUOTATION MARKS.

Rule I. Direct Quotation.—When the exact words of another are

given, they should be inclosed in quotation marks.

examples.
“He had the longest tongue and the shortest temper of any man,
high or low, I ever met with.”—Wilkie Collins.
Prescott, in his “Conquest of Mexico,” tells us that intemperance
among the Aztecs “was punished in the young with death, and in
older persons with loss of rank and confiscation of property.”

remarks.
1. When the exact words of another are not given, quotation marks should not
be used; as,—