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 Michael G. Aamodt

Industrial/Organizational
Psychology An Applied Approach

9e
Australia Brazil Canada Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States
 Industrial/Organizational Psychology:
An Applied Approach, Ninth Edition
Michael G. Aamodt
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This edition is dedicated to my mother-in-law, Joanne
Hicks, who continues to demonstrate a kind spirit in
spite of the complexities of getting a little older.
Brief Contents

Chapter 1
Introduction to I/O Psychology 1
Chapter 2
Job Analysis and Evaluation 35
Chapter 3
Legal Issues in Employee Selection 77
Chapter 4
Employee Selection: Recruiting and Interviewing 117
Chapter 5
Employee Selection: References and Testing 151
Chapter 6
Evaluating Selection Techniques and Decisions 195
Chapter 7
Evaluating Employee Performance 227
Chapter 8
Designing and Evaluating Training Systems 277
Chapter 9
Employee Motivation 315
Chapter 10
Employee Satisfaction and Commitment 351
Chapter 11
Organizational Communication 387
Chapter 12
Leadership 421
Chapter 13
Group Behavior, Teams, and Conflict 455

iv
Chapter 14
Organization Development 495
Chapter 15
Stress Management: Dealing with the Demands of Life and Work 533
Appendix
Working Conditions and Human Factors 575

Glossary 582
References 602
Name Index 648
Subject Index 660

Brief Contents v
Contents

Preface xv

Chapter 1 Introduction to I/O Psychology 1

1-1 The Field of I/O Psychology 2
Differences Between I/O and Business Programs 2
Major Fields of I/O Psychology 3
Brief History of I/O Psychology 4
Employment of I/O Psychologists 10
Educational Requirements and Types of Programs 11
Considerations in Conducting Research 14
1-3 Ethics in Industrial/Organizational
Psychology 30
On the Job: Applied Case Study: Conducting
Research at the Vancouver (British Columbia)
International Airport Authority, Canada 31

Career Workshop: Getting into Graduate School 12 Chapter Summary 32

1-2 Research in I/O Psychology 13 Key Terms 32

Why Conduct Research? 13 Questions for Review 33

Chapter 2 Job Analysis and Evaluation 35

2-1 Job Analysis 36 Determining Sex, Race, and Ethnicity Equity 70
Importance of Job Analysis 36 Career Workshop: Negotiating Salary 72
Writing a Good Job Description 38
On the Job: Applied Case Study: National Board of
Preparing for a Job Analysis 41 Veterinary Medical Examiners 73
Conducting a Job Analysis 48
Focus on Ethics: Compensating CEOs and
Using Other Job Analysis Methods 55 Executives 74
Evaluation of Methods 64
Chapter Summary 74
2.2 Job Evaluation 66
Key Terms 75
Determining Internal Pay Equity 66
Questions for Review 75
Determining External Pay Equity 68

Chapter 3 Legal Issues in Employee Selection  77

3-1 The Legal Process 78
Resolving the Complaint Internally 78
Career Workshop: What to Do If You Feel You Are
Being Discriminated Against at Work 79
Filing a Discrimination Charge 79
Outcomes of an EEOC Investigation 80
3-2 Determining Whether an Employment
Decision Is Legal 82
Does the Employment Practice Directly Refer to a
Member of a Federally Protected Class? 82

vi
 Is the Requirement a BFOQ? 92 Unintended Consequences of Affirmative Action
Has Case Law, State Law, or Local Law Expanded the Plans 108
Definition of Any of the Protected Classes? 93 3-6 Privacy Issues 109
Does the Requirement Have Adverse Impact on Members Drug Testing 109
of a Protected Class? 94
Office and Locker Searches 110
Was the Requirement Designed to Intentionally
Psychological Tests 110
Discriminate Against a Protected Class? 95
Electronic Surveillance 111
Can the Employer Prove That the Requirement Is Job
Related? 96 Chapter Summary 112
Did the Employer Look for Reasonable Alternatives That Key Terms 112
Would Result in Lesser Adverse Impact? 98
Questions for Review 112
3-3 Harassment 98
Appendix: Canadian Employment
Types of Harassment 98
Law by Province 113
Organizational Liability for Sexual Harassment 100
On the Job: Applied Case Study: Keystone RV
3-4 Family Medical Leave Act 101 Company, Goshen, Indiana 114
3-5 Affirmative Action 102 Focus on Ethics: The Ethics Behind Workplace
Reasons for Affirmative Action Plans 102 Privacy 114
Affirmative Action Strategies 103
Legality of Preferential Hiring and Promotion Plans 104

Chapter 4 Employee Selection: Recruiting and Interviewing  117

4-1 Employee Recruitment 118 4-4 Employment Interviews 133
Media Advertisements 119 Types of Interviews 133
Point-of-Purchase Methods 120 Advantages of Structured Interviews 134
Career Workshop: How to Be Successful at a Job Problems with Unstructured Interviews 135
Fair 121 Creating a Structured Interview 138
Recruiters 122 Conducting the Structured Interview 141
Employment Agencies and Search Firms 122 4-5 Job Search Skills 142
Employee Referrals 123 Successfully Surviving the Interview Process 142
Direct Mail 125 Writing Cover Letters 143
Internet 125 Writing a Résumé 146
Job Fairs 127
On the Job: Applied Case Study: Recruitment at the
Special Recruit Populations 128 Borgata Hotel Casino and Spa 148
Nontraditional Sources 128
Focus on Ethics: The Ethics of Recruiting and Hiring
Recruiting “Passive” Applicants 129 Based on Physical Appearance 148
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Recruitment
Chapter Summary 149
Strategies 129
Key Terms 150
4-2 Realistic Job Previews 131
Questions for Review 150
4-3 Effective Employee Selection
Techniques 132

Contents vii
Chapter 5 Employee Selection: References and Testing  151
5-1 Predicting Performance Using References Personality Inventories 177
and Letters of Recommendation 152 Interest Inventories 180
Reasons for Using References and Integrity Tests 181
Recommendations 152
Conditional Reasoning Tests 182
Career Workshop: Asking for Letters of Credit History 183
Recommendation 153
Criminal History 184
Ethical Issues 160
Graphology 184
5-2 Predicting Performance Using Applicant
5-8 Predicting Performance Limitations
Training and Education 160
Due to Medical and Psychological
5-3 Predicting Performance Using Applicant Problems 185
Knowledge 161 Drug Testing 185
5-4 Predicting Performance Using Applicant Psychological Exams 187
Ability 161 Medical Exams 187
Cognitive Ability 162
5-9 Comparison of Techniques 187
Perceptual Ability 163
Validity 187
Psychomotor Ability 166
Legal Issues 190
Physical Ability 166
5-10 Rejecting Applicants 191
5-5 Predicting Performance Using Applicant
Skill 169 On the Job: Applied Case Study: City of New
London, Connecticut, Police Department 192
5-6 Predicting Performance Using Prior
Experience 172 Focus on Ethics: The Ethics of Tests of Normal
Personality in Employee Selection 193
Experience Ratings 172
Biodata 173 Chapter Summary 193

5-7 Predicting Performance Using Key Terms 194

Personality, Interest, and Character 177 Questions for Review 194

Chapter 6 Evaluating Selection Techniques and Decisions  195

6-1 Characteristics of Effective Selection Lawshe Tables 213
Techniques 196 Expectancy Charts 213
Reliability 196 Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Utility Formula 213
Validity 201
6-3 Determining the Fairness of a Test 217
Career Workshop: Evaluating Tests 202 Measurement Bias 217
Cost-Efficiency 207 Predictive Bias 218
6-2 Establishing the Usefulness of a Selection 6-4 Making the Hiring Decision 219
Device 208
Unadjusted Top-Down Selection 219
Taylor-Russell Tables 208
Rule of Three 220
Proportion of Correct Decisions 209

viii Contents
 Passing Scores 220 Focus on Ethics: Diversity Efforts 225
Banding 223 Chapter Summary 225
On the Job: Applied Case Study: Thomas A. Edison’s Key Terms 226
Employment Test 224
Questions for Review 226

Chapter 7 Evaluating Employee Performance  227

7-1 Determine the Reason for Evaluating 7-8 Communicate Appraisal Results to
Employee Performance 228 Employees 260
Providing Employee Training and Feedback 229 Prior to the Interview 261
Determining Salary Increases 229 During the Interview 262
Making Promotion Decisions 229 7-9 Terminate Employees 263
Making Termination Decisions 230
Career Workshop: Getting Good Performance
Conducting Organizational Research 230 Ratings 263
7-2 Identify Environmental and Cultural Employment-at-Will Doctrine 264
Limitations 230
Legal Reasons for Terminating Employees 265
7-3 Determine Who Will Evaluate The Termination Meeting 267
Performance 231
7-10 Monitor the Legality and Fairness of the
Supervisors 231
Appraisal System 268
Peers 232
On the Job: Applied Case Study: Firing an Employee
Subordinates 232
at Kohl’s Department Store 268
Customers 233
Focus on Ethics: The Ethics of the At-Will
Self-Appraisal 234
Doctrine 269
7-4 Select the Best Appraisal Methods to
Chapter Summary 269
Accomplish Your Goals 235
Decision 1: Focus of the Appraisal Dimensions 235 Key Terms 270
Decision 2: Should Dimensions Be Weighted? 237 Questions for Review 270
Decision 3: Use of Employee Comparisons, Objective Appendix: Additional Types of Rating Scales 271
Measures, or Ratings 237
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales 271
Evaluation of Performance Appraisal Methods 246
Creating BARS 271
7-5 Train Raters 250
Using BARS 272
7-6 Observe and Document
Forced-Choice Rating Scales 272
Performance 250
Creating a Forced-Choice Scale 273
7-7 Evaluate Performance 254
Mixed-Standard Scales 273
Obtaining and Reviewing Objective Data 254
Reading Critical-Incident Logs 254 Behavioral Observation Scales 274
Completing the Rating Form 254

Contents ix
Chapter 8 Designing and Evaluating Training Systems  277
8-1 Determining Training Needs 278 Interest 302
Organizational Analysis 278 Feedback 302
Task Analysis 280 8-6 Ensuring Transfer of Training 303
Person Analysis 280 Use Realistic Training Programs 303
8-2 Establishing Goals and Objectives 283 Have Opportunities to Practice Work-Related Behavior
During the Training 304
8-3 Choosing the Best Training Method 283
Provide Employees with the Opportunity to Apply Their
Using Lectures to Provide Knowledge 284
Training 304
Using Case Studies to Apply Knowledge 285
Ensure Management Is Supportive of the
Using Simulation Exercises to Practice New Training 305
Skills 286
Have Employees Set Goals 305
Practicing Interpersonal Skills Through
Role-Play 287 8-7 Putting It All Together 305
Increasing Interpersonal Skills Through Behavior 8-8 Evaluation of Training Results 307
Modeling 288 Research Designs for Evaluation 307
8-4 Delivering the Training Program 289 Evaluation Criteria 309
Conducting Classroom Training 290 On the Job: Applied Case Study: Training at Pal’s
Career Workshop: Audience Etiquette 293 Sudden Service 312
Conducting Training Through Virtual Learning 294 Focus on Ethics: The Ethics of Using Role-Play in
Conducting On-the-Job Training 297 Employee Trainings 313

8-5 Motivating Employees to Learn During Chapter Summary 313

Training 301 Key Terms 314
Providing Incentives for Learning 301
Questions for Review 314

Chapter 9 Employee Motivation  315

9-1 Is an Employee Predisposed to Being 9-4 Needs for Competency, Autonomy, and
Motivated? 317 Relatedness 328
Personality 317 Drives to Acquire, Bond, Learn, and Defend 328
Self-Esteem 317 9-5 Do Employees Have Achievable
Intrinsic Motivation 320 Goals? 329
9-2 Are Employees Effectively Involved in Specific 329
Self-Regulating Behavior? 321 Measurable 330
9-3 Have the Employee’s Values and Difficult but Attainable 330
Expectations Been Met? 322 Relevant 330
Job Expectations 322 Time-Bound 331
Job Characteristics 323 Employee Participation 331
Needs, Values, and Wants 324 9-6 Are Employees Receiving Feedback on
Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power 328 Their Goal Progress? 331

x Contents
 9-7 Are Employees Rewarded for Achieving 9-9 Are Other Employees Motivated? 345
Goals? 331
9-10 Integration of Motivation
Career Workshop: Providing Feedback 332 Theories 346
Timing of the Incentive 333 On the Job: Applied Case Study: Faster Service at
Contingency of Consequences 333 Taco Bueno Restaurants 347
Type of Incentive Used 334 Focus on Ethics: Ethics of Motivation
Individual Versus Group Incentives 337 Strategies 348
Expectancy Theory 341 Chapter Summary 349
Reward Versus Punishment 343
Key Terms 349
9-8 Are Rewards and Resources Given
Questions for Review 350
Equitably? 343

Chapter 10 Employee Satisfaction and Commitment  351

10-1 Why Should We Care About Employee Commonly Used Standard Inventories 369
Attitudes? 352
Career Workshop: What to Do If You Are Unhappy
10-2 What Causes Employees to Be Satisfied with Your Job 369
with and Committed to Their Jobs? 354 Custom-Designed Inventories 373
What Individual Differences Affect Job
10-4 Consequences of Dissatisfaction and
Satisfaction? 354
Other Negative Work Attitudes 373
Are Employees Satisfied with Other Aspects of Their
Absenteeism 373
Lives? 357
Turnover 379
Are Employees’ Job Expectations Being Met? 359
Counterproductive Behaviors 382
Is the Employee a Good Fit with the Job and the
Organization? 360 Lack of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors 383
Are the Tasks Enjoyable? 360 On the Job: Applied Case Study: Reducing Turnover
Do Employees Enjoy Working with Supervisors and at Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. 383
Coworkers? 361 Focus on Ethics: Ethics and Organizational
Are Coworkers Outwardly Unhappy? 361 Commitment 384
Are Rewards and Resources Given Equitably? 362 Chapter Summary 384
Is There a Chance for Growth and Challenge? 364
Key Terms 385
Integration of Theories 366
Questions for Review 385
10-3 Measuring Job Satisfaction and
Commitment 368

Contents xi
Chapter 11 Organizational Communication  387
11-1 Types of Organizational 11-3 Improving Employee Communication
Communication 388 Skills 413
Upward Communication 388 Interpersonal Communication Skills 414
Downward Communication 391 Written Communication Skills 414
Business Communication 393 On the Job: Applied Case Study: Reducing Order
Career Workshop: Video Conferencing Errors at Hardee’s and McDonald’s 417
Etiquette 394 Focus on Ethics: Ethical Communication 417
Informal Communication 396
Chapter Summary 418
11-2 Interpersonal Communication 399
Key Terms 418
Problem Area 1: Intended Message Versus Message
Sent 399 Questions for Review 419
Problem Area 2: Message Sent Versus Message Media Resources and Learning Tools 419
Received 400
Problem Area 3: Message Received Versus Message
Interpreted 409

Chapter 12 Leadership  421

12-1 An Introduction to Leadership 422 Leadership Through Vision: Transformational
Leadership 442
12-2 Personal Characteristics Associated with
Leadership 422 Leadership Through Authenticity 444
Leader Emergence 422 12-5 Cultural Differences in Leadership:
Leader Performance 424 Project Globe 445

12-3 Interaction Between the Leader and the 12-6 Leadership: Where Are We Today? 447
Situation 430 Career Workshop: Obtaining Leadership
Situational Favorability 430 Skills 450
Organizational Climate 432 On the Job: Applied Case Study: Developing
Subordinate Ability 434 Leaders at Claim Jumper Restaurants 451
Relationships with Subordinates 436 Focus on Ethics: Ethics and Leadership 452
12-4 Specific Leader Skills 437 Chapter Summary 453
Leadership Through Decision-Making 440
Key Terms 453
Leadership Through Contact: Management by Walking
Around 440 Questions for Review 454
Leadership Through Power 440

xii Contents
Chapter 13 Group Behavior, Teams, and Conflict  455
13-1 Group Dynamics 456 Types of Teams 475
Definition of a Group 456 How Teams Develop 477
Reasons for Joining Groups 457 Why Teams Don’t Always Work 478
13-2 Factors Affecting Group 13-5 Group Conflict 480
Performance 460 Types of Conflict 481
Group Cohesiveness 460 Causes of Conflict 481
Group Ability and Confidence 464 Conflict Styles 484
Personality of the Group Members 465
Career Workshop: Tips for Being a Good Group
Communication Structure 465 Member 485
Group Roles 466 Resolving Conflict 488
Presence of Others: Social Facilitation and
On the Job: Applied Case Study: Conflict at
Inhibition 466
Work 491
Individual Dominance 470
Focus on Ethics: Group Hazing 491
Groupthink 470
Chapter Summary 492
13-3 Individual Versus Group
Performance 471 Key Terms 492
13-4 Teams 473 Questions for Review 493
What Is a Work Team? 473

Chapter 14 Organization Development  495

14-1 Managing Change 496 Strategy 3: Reducing Work Hours 520
Sacred Cow Hunts 496 Strategy 4: Working from Home 521
Employee Acceptance of Change 498 14-4 Downsizing 523
Implementing Change 501 Reducing the Impact of Downsizing 523
Organizational Culture 502 Effects of Downsizing 527
Career Workshop: Coping with Change 503 On the Job: Applied Case Study: Managing Change
14-2 Empowerment 507 at Carlson Restaurants 529
Making the Decision to Empower 507 Focus on Ethics: Change Management 529
Levels of Employee Input 510 Chapter Summary 530
Empowerment Charts 514
Key Terms 531
Consequences of Empowerment 515
Questions for Review 531
14-3 Flexible Work Arrangements 515
Media Resources and Learning Tools 531
Strategy 1: Full-Time Work, Flexible Hours 516
Strategy 2: Compressed Workweeks 518

Contents xiii
Chapter 15 Stress Management: Dealing with the Demands of Life and Work 533
15-1 Stress Defined 534
15-2 Predisposition to Stress 535
Stress Personalities 536
Gender, Ethnicity, and Race 536
Stress Sensitization 537
15-3 Sources of Stress 537
Personal Stressors 537
Occupational Stressors 539
Organizational Stressors 540
Stressors in the Physical Work Environment
Noise Reduction 544
Stress Caused by Work Schedules 550
Other Sources of Stress 553
15-4 Consequences of Stress 554
Personal Consequences 554
Organizational Consequences 555
15-5 Managing Stress 557
Planning for Stress 557
Appendix Working Conditions and Human Factors
Glossary 582
References 602
Name Index 648
Subject Index 660
xiv Contents
15-6 Stress Reduction Interventions Related
to Life/Work Issues 561
Easing the Child-Care Burden 561
Career Workshop: Dealing with Stress 563
Easing the Care of the Older Population Burden 565
Easing the Daily-Chore Burden 565
Providing Rest Through Paid Time Off 566
15-7 Measuring Stress 567
15-8 Workplace Violence 567
542 Perpetrators of Workplace Violence 570
Reducing Workplace Violence 570
On the Job: Applied Case Study: Reducing Stress at
a Manufacturing Company 572
Focus on Ethics: The Obligation to Reduce
Stress 573
Chapter Summary 574
Key Terms 574
Questions for Review 574
575
Preface

To Students
I can’t imagine a career better than industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology; it has
something for everyone. You can be a scientist, a detective, a lawyer, an adviser, a
statistician, an inventor, a writer, a teacher, a mentor, a trainer, a high-stakes gambler,
a motivator, a humanitarian, or an engineer—or all at the same time. In no other field
can you experience such challenging opportunities, earn an excellent salary, and derive
the satisfaction of bettering the lives of others.
I wrote this book because there was a strong need for a text that would appeal
directly to undergraduates without sacrificing scholarship. Our field is so exciting,
yet the existing texts do not reflect that excitement. This book contains many real-
world examples that illustrate important points; humor to make your reading more
enjoyable; and charts and tables that integrate and simplify such complicated issues as
employment law, job satisfaction, work motivation, and leadership.
In writing this book, I tried to strike a balance between research, theory, and
application. In addition to the fundamental theories and research in I/O psychology, you
will find such practical applications as how to write a résumé, survive an employment
interview, write a job description, create a performance appraisal instrument, and
motivate employees.

Student Friendly!
To make your reading easier, humor, stories, and real-world examples are used. The
text is written at a level designed to help you understand the material rather than at
a level designed to show off the author’s vocabulary. The feedback I have received
indicates that students actually enjoy reading this text!
To help you learn, innovative charts such as those found in Chapters 3, 8, 9, 10,
and 13 integrate the main points of the chapter. At the beginning of each chapter, a list
of learning objectives helps organize your thinking for what you are about to read. On
each page, key terms are defined in the margins. At the end of each chapter, a chapter
summary reminds you of the important points you learned, and critical thinking
questions test the depth of your new knowledge.
To help you apply the material to whatever career you choose, each chapter
contains a Career Workshop Box that provides tips on how to use the chapter
information to help your career, a case study of an actual situation experienced by a
real organization, and a Focus on Ethics Box that presents an ethical dilemma related
to the chapter material.

Two Books in One!

Your instructor has access to both a workbook containing applied exercises and a
statistics primer that they can distribute to students at no additional cost. Each chapter
comes with exercises to help you apply what you have learned. Thus, not only will you
read about I/O psychology, but you will also get the opportunity to experience it as well.

xv
 You will take psychological tests, conduct the critical incident technique, solve case
studies, analyze situations, prepare for an interview, and create a structured interview.

To Instructors
Instructor Resources
Additional instructor resources for this product are available online. Instructor assets
include an Instructor’s Manual, PowerPoint® slides, a test bank powered by Cognero®, a
workbook, and a Statistics Primer. Sign up or sign in at www.cengage.com to search
for and access this product and its online resources.

Instructor’s Manual
The instructor’s manual contains a variety of resources to aid instructors in preparing
and presenting text material in a manner that meets their personal preferences and
course needs. It presents chapter-by-chapter suggestions and resources to enhance and
facilitate learning.

PowerPoint® Slides
These vibrant Microsoft PowerPoint® lecture slides for each chapter assist you with
your lecture by providing concept coverage using content directly from the textbook.

Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero®

Cognero is a flexible online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content
as well as create multiple test versions in an instant. You can deliver tests from your school’s
learning management system, your classroom, or wherever you want!

Workbook
This workbook contains exercises related to psychological tests, case studies, and
interviews.

Understanding Statistics Primer

This resource provides students with a brief guide to understanding the statistics they
encounter in journal articles, technical reports, and conference presentations.

New to This Edition

■■ More examples of diversity efforts spread throughout the text
■■ Enhanced discussion of the history of I/O psychology
■■ Revised discussion of conducting salary equity analyses
■■ Updates on changes in employment law
■■ Updated discussion on employee recruitment
■■ Enhanced discussion of considering an applicant’s criminal history
■■ New material on expectancy charts
■■ Increased discussion of virtual interviews, meetings, and communication
■■ New discussion of the four-drive theory of human nature
■■ Enhanced discussion of working at home
■■ Updated use of technology examples
■■ Updated references and examples in every chapter

xvi Preface
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to the excellent staff at Cengage Learning, including vendor project
manager Sheila Moran and associate product manager Cazzie Reyes. I am especially
grateful to Valarmathy Munuswamy of Lumina Datamatics for working so diligently and
patiently in getting the text through production. The quality of this edition was greatly
enhanced by the thoughtful responses of Jolene Goh who served as a subject matter
expert to ensure accuracy and provide additional examples.
I would like to thank the reviewers of previous editions, whose comments and
suggestions continue to make the text stronger: Sheree Barron, Georgia College and State
University; Elizabeth Boyd, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis; Jay Brand,
Haworth Inc.; Robert Bubb, Auburn University; Linda Butzin, Owens Community College;
Maureen Conard, Sacred Heart University; George Cook, University of Rochester; Daniel
DeNeui, University of Southern Oregon; Jim Diefendorff, University of Akron; Elizabeth
Erffmeyer, Western Kentucky University; Armando Estrada, Washington State University;
Evan Finer, College of Lake County; Donald Fisher, Southwest Missouri State; Mary Fox,
University of Maryland; Mark Frame, University of Texas at Arlington; Alisha Francis,
Northwest Missouri State University; Dean Frost, Portland State University; William
Gaeddert, SUNY-Plattsburgh; David Gilmore, University of North Carolina at Charlotte;
Matthew Grawitch, St. Louis University; George Hampton, University of Houston; Paul
Hanges, University of Maryland; Kathy Hanish, Iowa State University; Donald Hantula,
Temple University; Steven Hurwitz, Tiffin University; Brian Johnson, University of Tennessee
at Martin; Scott Johnson, John Wood Community College; Harold Kiess, Framingham
State College; Jean Powell Kirnan, The College of New Jersey; Janet Kottke, California State
University at San Bernardino; Charles Lance, University of Georgia; Laurie Lankin, Mercer
University; Paul Lloyd, Southwest Missouri State University; Janine Miller Lund, Tarrant
County College; Alexandra Luong, University of Minnesota; James Mitchel, LIMRA
International; Paul Nail, Southwestern Oklahoma State University; Christopher Nave,
Rutgers University; Craig Parks, Washington State University; Charles Pierce, University
of Memphis; Marc Pratarelli, Colorado State University-Pueblo; Juan Sanchez, Florida
International University; Steven Scher, Eastern Illinois University; Ken Schultz, California
State University, San Bernardino; Eugene Sheehan, University of Northern Colorado;
William Siegfried, University of North Carolina at Charlotte; Sharmin Spencer, University
of Illinois; Ross Steinman, Widener University; Keith Syrja, Owens Community College;
Todd Thorsteinson, University of Idaho; and Tiffani Tribble, College of Mount Union.
I would also like to thank my family, friends, and students for accommodating my
time spent writing and for all their ideas and support. I appreciate my colleagues Eric
Dunleavy, Emilee Tison, Mark Nagy, Kayo Sady, Michael Surrette, and David Cohen, who
patiently allowed me to bounce ideas off them, vent, and ask dumb questions. Thanks
also to my SIOP, IPMA, IPAC, and SHRM colleagues for their insight and stories. There
is no way I can properly express my gratitude to my mentor, Dr. Wilson W. Kimbrough,
who taught me much more than facts and theories, and to Dr. Al Harris and Dr. Daniel
Johnson, who have been so supportive throughout my career.
Finally, I thank my wife, Bobbie, and son, Josh, for their love and emotional support.
Most of the time, writing a book is an enjoyable process. However, during the times I
was stressed or confused (an increasingly common occurrence), my family was always
patient and understanding. I could not have done this, or much of anything, without
them. I would also like to thank Bobbie for her contributions in helping write the stress
chapter, the section on organizational culture, several of the Career Workshop Boxes,
and all of the Focus on Ethics Boxes.
Michael G. Aamodt

Preface xvii
About the Author

Mike is a professor emeritus of industrial/organizational psychology at Radford

University in Radford, Virginia. In 2009, after 26 years of teaching at RU, Mike took
advantage of an early retirement option and joined DCI Consulting Group as a
principal consultant.
Mike received his B.A. in psychology from Pepperdine University in Malibu,
California, and both his M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Arkansas. Over the
years, Mike has taught courses in employee selection, job analysis, compensation,
employee training and development, organizational psychology, organizational
influence, organizational politics, and forensic psychology. Mike has received teaching
awards as a graduate student at the University of Arkansas and as a professor at Radford
University. Mike is the recipient of the 2020 Stephen E. Bemis Memorial Award for
Excellence.
As a researcher, Mike has published over 65 journal articles and book chapters
and presented many papers at professional conferences. He is the author of Applied
Industrial/Organizational Psychology, now in its ninth edition, Research in Law
Enforcement Selection, I/O Psychology in Action, Understanding Statistics in I/O
Psychology, and Human Relations in Business. Mike is on the editorial boards of the
Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology and Criminal Justice and Behavior.
In over 35 years as a trainer and a consultant, Mike has helped a wide variety of
organizations deal with such issues as employee selection, performance evaluation,
down-sizing, organizational change, compensation, and motivation. He is considered
one of the nation’s experts in police psychology. Mike’s fast-paced and humorous
presentation style makes him a frequently requested speaker throughout the region.
Mike is an active member in many organizations, including SIOP, SHRM, IPAC,
and the Society for Police and Criminal Psychology.
In his spare time, Mike likes to make lame attempts at being athletic, cook what at
times turn out to be edible meals, travel, and scuba dive. He lives in Pulaski, Virginia,
with his wife, Bobbie. Mike and Bobbie have a son, Josh, who is an attorney in northern
Virginia, but they continue to love him anyway.

xviii
Chapter

1 Introduction to I/O
Psychology
Learning Objectives
1-1 Define I/O psychology. ­1-5 Explain the importance of conducting research.
1-2 Describe what I/O psychologists do. ­1-6 Describe how to evaluate I/O psychology
­1-3 Summarize the history of I/O psychology. research.
­1-4 List the admissions requirements for graduate ­1-7 Differentiate various research methods.
programs in I/O psychology.

1-1 The Field of I/O
Psychology 2
Differences Between I/O and
Business Programs 2
Major Fields of I/O
Psychology 3
Brief History of I/O
Psychology 4
Employment of I/O
Psychologists 10
Educational Requirements and 1-3 Ethics in Industrial
Types of Programs 11 /Organizational Psychology 30
Career Workshop: Getting into On The Job: Applied Case
Graduate School 12 Study 31
1-2 Research in I/O Psychology 13
Why Conduct Research? 13
Considerations in Conducting
Research 14

W
ouldn’t it be wonderful if all employees loved their jobs so much that they
couldn’t wait to get to work and were so well suited and trained that their
performances were outstanding? Well, this is the ultimate goal of industrial
psychology. Unfortunately, not every employee will enjoy their job, and not every
employee will do well on a job. In this book, you will learn the techniques developed by
industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists that lead toward the goal of a happy and
productive workforce.
Before we can talk about these techniques, several areas must be discussed so that
you will have the basics to help you better understand the rest of the book. This chapter
has two distinct sections. The first section provides a brief overview of the field of I/O
psychology; the second section discusses the research methods that will be mentioned
throughout the text.

1
1-1 The Field of I/O Psychology
Industrial/organizational
psychology A branch
of psychology that
applies the principles
of psychology to the
workplace.
Scientist-practitioner
model A teaching
model in which students
are trained first to be
scientists and second
to be able to apply the
science of their field to
find solutions to real-
world problems.
2 Chapter 1
Differences Between I/O and Business Programs
Perhaps the best place to begin a textbook on I/O psychology is to look at the field
itself. Industrial/organizational psychology is a branch of psychology that applies
the principles of psychology to the workplace. The purpose of I/O psychology is “to
enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the organizations they
work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior” (Rucci, 2008).
For example, principles of learning are used to develop training programs and
incentive plans, principles of social psychology are used to form work groups and
understand employee conflict. Principles of motivation and emotion are used to
motivate and satisfy employees. The application of psychological principles is what
best distinguishes I/O psychology from related fields typically taught in business
colleges. Although many of the topics covered in this text are like those found in a
human resource management (HRM) or organizational behavior text, the main
difference between I/O psychology and business fields is that I/O psychology examines
factors that affect the people in an organization, as opposed to the broader aspects of
running an organization such as marketing channels, transportation networks, and
cost accounting (Kimbrough, Durley, & Muñoz, 2005). As you can tell from the typical
graduate courses listed in Table 1.1, business (MBA) programs examine such areas as
accounting, economics, and marketing, whereas I/O programs focus almost exclusively
on issues involving the people in an organization (Moberg & Moore, 2011).
I/O psychology relies extensively on research, quantitative methods, and testing
techniques. I/O psychologists are trained to use empirical data and statistics rather
than intuition to make decisions. I/O psychologists are not clinical psychologists who
happen to be in industry, and they do not conduct therapy for workers. There are
psychologists working for organizations and helping employees with such problems
as drug and alcohol misuse, but these are counselors rather than I/O psychologists.
A factor that helps differentiate I/O psychology from other branches of psychology
is the reliance on the scientist-practitioner model. That is, I/O psychologists act as
scientists when they conduct research and as practitioners when they work with actual
organizations. In addition, I/O psychologists act as scientist-practitioners when they
apply research findings so the work that they perform with organizations will be of
high quality and enhance an organization’s effectiveness.
One reason that I/O psychology continually increases in popularity is that, perhaps
more than in any other field, professionals in the field can have a positive impact on the
lives of other people. To support this last statement, let us examine a typical day in the
life of a typical person:
Work 8 hours
Commute to work 1 hour
Watch TV 3 hours
Sleep 8 hours
Prepare and eat meals 2 hours
Other 2 hours
With the possible exception of sleeping, people spend more time at their jobs
than at any other activity in life. (And sometimes these two activities overlap!) Thus, it
makes sense that people who are happy with and productive at their jobs will lead more
fulfilling lives than people unhappy with their jobs. If a person is unhappy at work for
 Table 1.1 Comparison of Commonly Required Courses in I/O Psychology
and MBA Programs

Program Type

Course I/O (%) MBA (%)

Research methods 90 6
Quantitative methods 82 50
Employee selection 80 0
Organizational psychology/behavior 80 48
Psychometrics/test construction 62 0
Training & development 60 2
Performance appraisal 38 2
Finance 0 94
Marketing 0 90
Corporate strategies and policies 4 82
Accounting 0 78
Information systems 0 68
Economics 0 66
Operations management 0 56
Culture/global/international business 12 42
Ethics 20 36
Source: Adapted from Moberg & Moore (2011).

eight hours a day, the residual effects of this unhappiness will affect the quality of that
person’s family and leisure life as well.
From a societal perspective, I/O psychologists can also improve the quality of life by
increasing employee effectiveness, which reduces the cost of sold goods by improving
product quality. This in turn reduces repair and replacement costs by improving
organizational efficiency, which can result in decreases in inefficient activities such as
waiting in line.
Thus, I/O psychology can improve the quality of life at levels equal to, and often
exceeding, those of fields such as counseling psychology and medicine. So even though
I/O psychologists earn a good salary, the real benefits to the field involve the positive
impacts on the lives of others.

Major Fields of I/O Psychology

Though the goal of I/O psychology is to increase the productivity and well-being of
employees, there are two approaches as to how this can be accomplished. The industrial
approach (the “I” in I/O psychology) focuses on determining the competencies
needed to perform a job, staffing the organization with employees who have those
competencies, and increasing those competencies through training. The organizational
approach (the “O” in I/O psychology) creates an organizational structure and culture

Introduction to I/O Psychology 3

 that will motivate employees to perform well, give them the necessary information to
do their jobs, and provide working conditions that are safe and result in an enjoyable
and satisfying work/life environment.

Personnel Psychology
Personnel I/O psychologists and human resource management professionals involved in
psychology The field of personnel psychology study and practice in such areas as analyzing jobs, recruiting
study that concentrates applicants, selecting employees, determining salary levels, training employees, and
on the selection and
evaluation of employees.
evaluating employee performance. Professionals working in these areas choose existing
tests or create new ones that can be used to select and promote employees. These tests
are then constantly evaluated to ensure that they are both fair and valid.
Personnel psychologists also analyze jobs to obtain a complete picture of
what each employee does, often assigning monetary values to each position. After
obtaining complete job descriptions, professionals in personnel psychology construct
performance-appraisal instruments to evaluate employee performance.
Psychologists in this area also examine various methods that can be used to train and
develop employees. People within this subfield usually work in a training department
of an organization and are involved in such activities as identifying the organization’s
training needs, developing training programs, and evaluating training success.

Organizational Psychology
Organizational Psychologists involved in organizational psychology are concerned with the issues
psychology The of leadership, job satisfaction, employee motivation, organizational communication,
field of study that conflict management, organizational change, and group processes within an organization.
investigates the behavior
of employees within
Organizational psychologists often create and conduct surveys of employee attitudes to get
the context of an ideas about what employees believe are an organization’s strengths and weaknesses. Usually
organization. serving in the role of a consultant, an organizational psychologist makes recommendations
on ways problem areas can be improved. For example, low job satisfaction might be
improved by allowing employees to participate in making certain company decisions, and
poor communication might be improved by implementing an employee suggestion system.
Organization development professionals implement organization-wide programs
designed to improve employee performance. Such programs might include team
building, restructuring, and employee empowerment.

Human Factors/Ergonomics
Human factors A field of Psychologists studying human factors concentrate on workplace design, human-
study concentrating on machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress. These psychologists
the interaction between
frequently work with engineers and other technical professionals to make the
humans and machines.
workplace safer and more efficient. Sample activities in this subfield have included
designing the optimal way to assemble products, designing the most comfortable chair,
and investigating the optimal work schedule.

Brief History of I/O Psychology

Considering that the field of psychology itself has been around for only a relatively
short time (since 1879), it is not surprising that I/O psychology has a correspondingly
short history. Although various experts disagree about the precise beginning of I/O
psychology, as shown in Table 1.2, it is generally thought to have started either in

4 Chapter 1
Table 1.2 Important Events in I/O Psychology

Year Event
1903 Walter Dill Scott publishes The Theory of Advertising
1911 Walter Dill Scott publishes Increasing Human Efficiency in Business
Frederick Winslow Taylor publishes The Principles of Scientific Management
1913 Hugo Münsterberg publishes Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (German version published in 1910)
1917 Journal of Applied Psychology first published
1918 World War I provides I/O psychologists with first opportunity for large-scale employee testing and selection
1921 First Ph.D.s in I/O psychology awarded to Bruce Moore and Merrill Ream at Carnegie Tech
1932 First I/O text written by Morris Viteles
1933 Hawthorne studies published
1937 American Association for Applied Psychology established
1939 The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) was first published by the U.S. Employment Service
1945 Society for Industrial and Business Psychology established as Division 14 of the American Psychological Association (APA) with 130
members
1951 Marion Bills elected as the first woman president of Division 14
1960 Division 14 renamed as Society for Industrial Psychology, membership exceeds 700
1963 Equal Pay Act passed
1964 Civil Rights Act passed
First issue of The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist (TIP) published
1970 Division 14 membership exceeds 1,100
1971 B. F. Skinner publishes Beyond Freedom and Dignity
1980 Division 14 membership exceeds 1,800
1982 Division 14 renamed Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP)
1986 Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) holds first annual national conference separate from APA meeting
1989 Supreme Court sets conservative trend and becomes more “employer friendly”
1990 Americans with Disabilities Act passed
SIOP membership exceeds 2,800
1991 Civil Rights Act of 1991 passed to overcome 1989 conservative Supreme Court decisions
1997 SIOP celebrates golden anniversary at its annual conference in St. Louis
2000 SIOP membership exceeds 5,700
2005 Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) and Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) become more
aggressive in fighting systemic discrimination
2008 The journal Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice begins publication as an official journal of SIOP
2009 Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act and Americans with Disabilities Act Amendment Act (ADAAA) passed
2010 SIOP membership exceeds 8,000; SIOP members narrowly vote to keep the name Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology
rather than change the name to the Society for Organizational Psychology
2013 OFCCP issues new regulations affecting the hiring of military veterans and individuals with disabilities
2020 SIOP membership exceeds 7,500
Global COVID-19 pandemic results in a tremendous increase in employees working remotely and the SIOP conference being held virtually

Introduction to I/O Psychology 5

 1903, when Walter Dill Scott wrote The Theory of Advertising, in which psychology
was first applied to business; in 1910, when Hugo Münsterberg wrote Psychology and
Industrial Efficiency, which was first published in English in 1913; in 1911, when Scott
wrote the book Increasing Human Efficiency in Business (Koppes & Pickren, 2007) or
when Taylor published The Principles of Scientific Management, which emphasized a
fourfold philosophy of management, including personnel selection and training (Van
De Water, 1997). Regardless of the official starting date, I/O psychology was born in the
early 1900s. In addition to Scott Taylor, and Münsterberg, pioneers in the field include
James Cattell, Walter Bingham, Arthur Kornhauser, Louis Thurstone, John Watson,
Marion Bills, and Lillian Gilbreth (DiClemente & Hantula, 2000; Vinchur & Koppes
Bryan, 2021). Interestingly, the term “industrial psychology” was seldom used prior to
World War I. Instead, the common terms for the field were “economic psychology,”
“business psychology,” and “employment psychology” (Koppes & Pickren, 2007).
I/O psychology made its first big impact during World War I. Because of the large
number of soldiers who had to be assigned to various units within the armed forces, I/O
psychologists were employed to test recruits and then place them in appropriate positions.
Army Alpha An The testing was accomplished mainly through the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests of
intelligence test mental ability. The Alpha test was used for recruits who could read and the Beta test for
developed during World
recruits who could not read. The higher scoring recruits were assigned to officer training,
War I and used by the
army for soldiers who and the lower scoring to the infantry. John Watson, who is better known as a pioneer in
can read. behaviorism, served as a major in the U.S. Army in World War I and developed perceptual
and motor tests for potential pilots (DiClemente & Hantula, 2000). I/O psychologists,
Army Beta An
intelligence test
along with engineers such as Henry Gantt, were responsible for increasing the efficiency
developed during World with which cargo ships were built, repaired, and loaded (Van De Water, 1997). While
War I and used by the women were infrequently directly involved with World War I, after attending graduate
army for soldiers who school at the University of Chicago, Mary Holmes Steven Hayes consulted and conducted
cannot read. research on personnel issues on the Committee on Classification of Personnel in the
Army (Koppes, 1997). I/O psychologists helped select aviators in Italy; gunners and pilots
in France; and pilots, radio operators and drivers in Germany (Vinchur, 2018).
Though certainly not an I/O psychologist, inventor Thomas A. Edison understood
the importance of selecting the appropriate employees for the job requirements. In 1920,
Edison created a 163-item knowledge test that he administered to over 900 applicants.
The test and its passing score were so difficult that only 5% of the applicants passed! You
will learn more about Edison’s test in the Applied Case Study at the end of Chapter 6.
Two of the most interesting figures in the early years of I/O psychology were the
husband-and-wife team of Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth. The Gilbreths
were among the first, if not the first, scientists to improve productivity and reduce fatigue
by studying the motions used by workers. Frank began his career as a contractor and
became famous for developing improvements in bricklaying that reduced the number
of motions needed to lay a brick from 18 to 4½. Lillian, received her Ph.D. from Brown
University in 1915—a rare achievement for a woman at that time. As a couple, they had
12 children, and the efficiency methods they used to raise their children while having
busy careers were the inspiration for the book and the movie Cheaper by the Dozen (the
1950 version of the movie). After Frank’s death in 1924 at the age of 55, Lillian continued
her consulting with industry, as the Great Depression forced companies to find ways to
reduce costs and be more productive. In 1935, she became a professor of management
and engineering at Purdue University, the first woman to hold such a position.
During these early years, I/O psychology thrived outside of the United States.
Prominent psychologists who applied psychology to problems in industry outside the
United States included Jules Suter and Franziska Baumgarten-Tramer in Switzerland;
Bernard Muscio and Alfred Martin in Australia; Walter Moede, William Stern, Otto

6 Chapter 1
 © Courtesy of Purdue University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections
Frank and Lillian
Gilbreth were two
pioneers in I/O
psycholog.

Lipmann, and Emil Kraepelin in Germany; Jean-Marie Lahy in France; Isaak Shipil’rein
in Russia; Edward Webster and Gerald Cosgrave in Canada; and Cyril Burt, Charles
Myers, and Sir Frederick Bartlett in Great Brittan (Feitosa & Sim, 2021, Vinchur &
Koppes Bryan 2021; Warr, 2007).
Zickar and Gibby (2021) note that the early years of I/O psychology were
characterized by four themes: an emphasis on production and efficiency, an emphasis
on statistical analysis, a focus on employee selection, and a balance between science and
practice Frederick Taylor pioneered the use of financial incentives to increase employee
job performance and productivity, as noted in his first article released in 1895, A Piece
Rate System, Being a Step Toward Partial Solution of the Labor Problem (Van De Water,
1997). His efforts in studying production and efficiency throughout the years led to his
nomination as president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in
1906, in which he presented his 26 years of research on increasing employee productivity.
In the early years of I/O psychology, psychologists were involved in the selection
process of a variety of jobs including apprentices, stenographers, streetcar drivers, tram
operators, teachers, clerical and office employees, military personnel, and ammunition
inspectors (Vinchur, 2021) Marion Almira Bills, who received her PhD from Bryn
Mawr College and developed a proficiency for personnel selection, examined the
effectiveness of selection tests and criteria used to hire stenographers through
predictive validity studies. She concluded that more measures would result in a higher
chance of successful personnel selection (Koppes, 1997).
In the 1930s, I/O psychology greatly expanded its scope. Until then, it had been
involved primarily in improving productivity through the selection and placement of
employees and the application of financial incentives. An exception to this emphasis was

Introduction to I/O Psychology 7


Hawthorne studies A
series of studies,
conducted at the
Western Electric plant
in Hawthorne, Illinois,
that have come to
represent any change in
behavior when people
react to a change in the
environment.
Hawthorne effect When
employees change their
behavior due solely to
the fact that they are
receiving attention or are
being observed.
8 Chapter 1
a chapter in a book, Industrial Psychology, by Morris Viteles on work motivation in which
he called for the study of worker motives and attitudes (Latham & Budworth, 2021).
However, later in the 1930s, when the findings from the famous Hawthorne studies were
published, psychologists became more involved in the quality of the work environment,
as well as the attitudes of employees. The Hawthorne studies, which were conducted at
the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in the United States demonstrated
that employee behavior was complex and that the interpersonal interactions between
managers and employees played a tremendous role in employee behavior. The Hawthorne
studies were initially designed to investigate such issues as the effects of lighting levels,
work schedules, wages, temperature, and rest breaks on employee performance.
Much to the surprise of the researchers, the actual work conditions did not affect
productivity in the predicted manner. That is, there were times when productivity
improved after work conditions were made worse, and times when productivity decreased
after work conditions were made better. After interviewing employees and studying
the matter further, the researchers realized that employees changed their behavior and
became more productive because they were being studied and received attention from
their managers, a condition that is now commonly referred to as the Hawthorne effect.
Additionally, the six employees in the small test group received incentives for productivity
and were protected from layoffs, advantages that the other employees did not receive
(Highhouse, 2021). Perhaps the major contribution of the Hawthorne studies was that it
inspired psychologists to increase their focus on human relations in the workplace and to
explore the effects of employee attitudes (Olson, Verley, Santos, & Salas, 2004).
The 1940s brought World War II and with it, the extensive use of I/O psychologists
to support the war effort, especially in Germany and Great Britain. In addition to
cognitive ability and aptitude tests, I/O psychologists began using such selection
methods as life history, interviews, and leaderless group discussions (Vinchur, 2021).
Interest in identifying effective leaders, especially in the military, and finding ways
to motivate employees beyond the use of financial incentives also increased during
this decade (Latham & Budworth, 2021; Zaccaro, Day, & Hedrick, 2021) Training
methods, including job instructional training, were also emphasized greatly during
this time period, and companies and university-based centers began establishing R&D
departments for research and training (Katzell & Austin, 1992).
The 1950s were associated with further advancements in employee selection,
most importantly the assessment center and biodata. Interviews and application blank
data were the most popular selection methods (Vinchur, 2021). These methods are
discussed in detail in Chapters 4 and 5. New theories and subsequent research on
employee motivation and satisfaction continued to increase in the 1950s.
The 1960s were characterized by the passage of several major pieces of civil rights
legislation, which are discussed in Chapter 3. These laws focused the attention of HR
professionals on developing fair selection techniques. As a result, the need for I/O
psychologists greatly increased. The 1960s were also characterized using sensitivity
training and T-groups (laboratory training groups) for managers (Carson, Lanier,
Carson, & Guidry, 2000).
The 1970s brought great strides in the understanding of many organizational
psychology issues that involved employee satisfaction and motivation. The decade also
saw the development of many theories about employee behavior in organizations. B. F.
Skinner’s (1971) Beyond Freedom and Dignity resulted in the increased use of behavior-
modification techniques in organizations. The study of goal setting on employee
behavior was also a major component of the 1970s (Latham & Budworth, 2021).
The 1980s and 1990s brought four major changes to I/O psychology. The first
involved an increased use of fairly sophisticated statistical techniques and methods of
analysis. This change is evident if one compares journal articles written in the 1960s with
those written since 1980. More recent articles use such complex statistical techniques as
path analysis, structural equation modeling, meta-analysis, hierarchical linear modeling
(HLM), multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), and causal modeling. Prior to the
1970s, simpler statistical techniques such as t-tests and analysis of variance (ANOVA)
were used (unless you have taken a statistics course, these methods probably are not
familiar to you). This reliance on statistics explains why students enrolled in an I/O
psychology doctoral program take at least five statistics courses as part of their education.
A second change concerned a new interest in the application of cognitive
psychology to industry. For example, articles written about performance appraisal
in the 1970s primarily described and tested new methods for evaluating employee
performance. In the 1980s and early 1990s, however, many articles approached the
performance appraisal issue by examining the thought process used by managers when
they conduct such appraisals.
The third change was the increased interest in occupational health psychology, a field
that applies psychological principles to improve, “the quality of work-life and promoting
the safety, health, and well-being of people at work” (Hammer & Brady, 2021).
The final major change in the 1980s and 1990s came about when I/O psychologists
took a renewed interest in developing methods to select employees. In the 1960s and
1970s, the courts were still interpreting the major civil rights acts of the early 1960s, with
the result that I/O psychologists took a cautious approach in selecting employees. By
the mid-1980s, however, the courts became less strict, and a wider variety of selection
instruments was developed and used. Examples of these instruments include cognitive
ability tests, personality tests, biodata, and structured interviews. Other changes during
the 1980s and 1990s that had significant I/O psychology–related effects included
massive organizational downsizing, greater concern for diversity and gender issues, an
increasing older population in the workforce, increased concern about the effects of
stress, and the increased emphasis on such organizational development interventions
as total quality management (TQM), reengineering, and employee empowerment.
In the 2000s, perhaps the greatest influence on I/O psychology is the rapid advances
in technology. Many tests and surveys are now administered online, employers recruit
and screen applicants online; job seekers use such social media outlets as Twitter,
LinkedIn, and Facebook to find jobs; I/O psychologists increasingly focus on “big data”
and artificial intelligence, employees are being trained and meetings are being held
virtually rather than in person.
Another important factor impacting I/O psychology is the changing demographic
makeup of the workforce. Women are increasingly entering the workforce and taking
on managerial roles; Hispanics and Latino/as are now the largest underrepresented
groups in the United States; Asian Americans are the fastest-growing segment of the
U.S. population; and an increasing number of workers, vendors, and customers have
English as their second language. Thus, diversity and inclusion issues will continue to
be an important factor in the workplace.
The global economy is also affecting the role of I/O psychology. As many manufacturing
jobs are shifted to developing countries with lower wages, there will be an increased
emphasis on service jobs requiring human relations skills. As an increasing number
of employees work in other countries (as expatriates) and as rates of immigration (both
documented and undocumented) increase, efforts must keep pace to understand various
cultures, and training must be conducted so that employees and managers can successfully
work not only in other countries, but at home with expatriates from other countries.
Other factors that are impacting I/O psychology, especially due to the global
COVID-19 pandemic, include high unemployment rates, movements toward flexible

Introduction to I/O Psychology 9

 work schedules, family-friendly work policies, accommodation of an increasing number
of employees with childcare and older adult-care responsibilities, flatter organizational
structures with fewer management levels, population shifts from urban to suburban
locations, and increasing costs of health-care benefits. In addition, potential changes in the
retirement age for Social Security may result in employees working into their late sixties.
The long-term effects of the COVID-19 global pandemic are yet to be determined.
Many employees liked working from home and organizations realized that working
virtually has advantages for both the employee and the organization.

Employment of I/O Psychologists

It is useful to examine some of the broad areas in which I/O psychologists work. As
shown in Table 1.3, I/O psychologists typically work in one of four settings: colleges and
universities, consulting firms, the private sector, and the public sector. As one might
expect, I/O psychologists who work at colleges and universities typically teach and conduct
research, although some work as administrators (e.g., deans, provosts, vice presidents).
I/O psychologists who work in consulting firms help a wide variety of organizations
become more productive by helping them select a high quality and diverse workforce,
designing systems that will motivate employees while treating them fairly, creating
efficient and effective training plans for employees, and ensuring that organizations
treat applicants and employees in a legal and ethical manner. Consulting firms range
in size from one-person organizations to large consulting firms employing hundreds
of consultants. Some consulting firms specialize in one area of I/O psychology (e.g.,
employee selection, diversity, attitude surveys), whereas others offer a range of services.
I/O psychologists who work in the private and public sectors perform
similar duties as consultants, but they do so in vastly different environments. I/O
psychologists who work in the private sector work for a single company such as
IBM, Microsoft, and FedEx, whereas consultants work with many companies. I/O
psychologists in the public sector work for a local, state, or federal government
agency. Though the private sector historically paid more than the public sector, many
employees believe the higher job stability of the public sector offsets the potential
for lower pay. Though master’s- and doctoral-level graduates can be found in all
employment areas, Ph.D.s are much more likely to be employed in an academic
setting; master’s-level graduates are more often employed as HR generalists, data
analysts, trainers, and compensation analysts.
As you can tell by the job titles listed in Table 1.4, there are many careers in I/O
psychology, including entry-level jobs to presidents and CEOs of large companies.
Whether one wants to work in the public or private sector, work with data or work
with people, spend the day talking, writing, or analyzing, there is some job or the

Table 1.3 Employment Settings of I/O Psychologists

Highest Degree Obtained

Employment Setting M.A. Ph.D.
Education 3% 45%
Private sector 76% 43%
Public sector 8% 7%
Nonprofit 12% 6%
Source: SIOP (2020).

10 Chapter 1
Another random document with
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 Fig. 11
The Swing is Made upon One Ski Instead of Using Both as in the
Christiania Swing

Closely akin to side-slipping is the Christiania swing with the stick,

which is accomplished by pressing with both heels at the same time,
while the stick digs well into the snow above. This variation of the
side slip is easily done, and the skier is turned sharply uphill to come
to a quick stop. When a sharp hill is met with, that is considered a bit
too steep to take straight, this swing with the stick may be made by
taking a zigzag course down grade steering clear of any obstacles
by snowplowing, stemming, or side-slipping; and turning the corners,
or “tacking,” by making use of the Christiania swing and the stick, as
shown in Fig. 10.
The “S”-turn may likewise be used for turning corners, without the
necessity for stopping to make the ordinary kick turn. A good way to
learn this useful movement is to run straight downhill in a snowplow
position, reduce the speed to a comfortable walking pace with the
stick, and stem with the ski. If this is done with the right ski, the “S”-
turn is made by throwing practically the whole weight of the body on
the right ski, at the heel, and pressing it outward while the stick is
carried ahead and below the skier. If the heels are kept well apart,
and the toes close together, the skier will have no trouble about
swinging around in a curve and be off on the other tack. About the
only difficulty in making the “S”-turn is the position of the body, which
must be thrown somewhat out and away from the hill. To the novice
this at first seems to invite a fall, but a few trials will soon prove that
the weight of the body must be thrown on the foot which circles on
the outside of the curve, hence the apparently unnatural position of
the body is essential for a good turn. By bringing the stick well
forward and downhill, the skier uses his staff as a pivot upon which
the turn is made.
The Christiania swing, made without the stick, is a favorite with
expert ski runners when running on rough and steep ground and is a
good way of stopping. The swing may be made both to the right and
left. To make it to the right, keep the skis close together, the right a
trifle in advance, with the weight of the body equally on both feet and
with knees slightly bent. Now throw the weight more forward and
upon the toes, while the heels are carried forward and outward to the
left. The body must lean to the right—the direction in which the swing
is made—and twisted somewhat at the waist; and the sharper the
turn, the more the body must lean sideways to keep the balance.
The swing to the left is made in the, same fashion, only the left ski
should be a trifle advanced and the body thrown to the left.

Fig. 12
To Make the Jump the Skier Assumes the Easy Position Required for
Coasting Downhill

The Telemark swing is more difficult to master than the Christiania

swing, because it is done on one foot, or ski, instead of using both,
and as it is less powerful than the latter, it is of far less use for
stopping. To make the Telemark swing to the right, assume the
regular position for downhill coasting, and, advancing the left foot,
turn the ski so that it rests on its edge as when making the
snowplow, throw the body to the right and lean in toward the slope to
keep the balance. To make the swing to the left, advance the right
foot, turn the body to the left and lean as before. This is shown in
Fig. 11. The Telemark turn is, in fact, made in the same manner as
stemming, and the sharpness of the swing rests altogether upon the
quickness with which the heel is thrown outward and the body turned
in the direction the skier desires to swing. The swing is made upon
one ski, and the key to the whole swing is the knack of raising the
heel of the other foot off its ski until it rests upon the toes. That this is
hard to do goes with the telling, and the novice should first acquire
the knack of balancing by running straight downhill with the weight
thrown on one foot. When this can be done, and not before then, the
skier is ready to practice the turn. The Telemark swing, like all other
turns, is easily acquired at slow and moderate speeds, and becomes
more and more difficult to make as the speed is increased and the
turn is made more sharply and quickly.
Jumping on skis is one of the most exhilarating winter sports, and
it is a pity that it is not more popular wherever a medium-heavy fall of
snow occurs. While touring on skis across a hilly country, there will
be many natural jumps to encounter, for drifts, stumps, rocks, and
other rises in the ground, when well covered and padded with snow,
make good jumping-off places. While but a few skiers may have
attempted such high leaps as the famous Holmenkollen,
Fiskertorpet, or Foldberg, all who have done much ski running have
done a little jumping, since, when running downhill, an unexpected
dip is often encountered, and a rise in the ground causes the skier to
leave the ground for a short distance and alight several feet below.
Doubtless the skier has enjoyed the flying-like sensation of this brief
moment, and very likely he has climbed the hill to repeat the jump.
Moreover, this has very likely demonstrated that the distance of the
jump depends upon the height of the dip, the speed of the skier
passing over it, and likewise upon the spring of the body on the take-
off. In making a jump of any height, the take-off may be level,
pointing up or even downhill, and constructed with framework
extending out from the hillside, or consist merely of a large boulder,
or a pile of logs, well padded with snow. The height of the slope
chosen will, of course, regulate the distance of the jump, and the
place where the jumper alights should be fairly steep, since, if the
skier lands upon a level place great difficulty will be experienced in
keeping the balance, therefore the usual jumping hill, where jumping
competitions are held, is provided with a 30°, or steeper, landing
place, and this merges gradually into the outrun, or slope,
connecting the hill with the level ground below.
 Fig. 13
Each Member of the Party should be Provided with a Ruck Sack of Good
Capacity

For the safety of the skier, the snow should be firm but not icy or
hard, and this is easily done by packing the snow down well by
means of the skis. A good, thick padding of snow is of course
essential, and a thickness of 2 ft. is really needed at the landing
place and at the take-off. In our more northerly sections, plenty of
snow usually falls, but wherever a few sportsmen get together, it is
an easy matter to shovel sufficient snow to prepare a good and safe
jumping hill.
To gain confidence and acquire some useful experience in
jumping, the novice should practice leaping from a 2-ft. rise and
gradually increase the height of the take-off by piling more snow
upon it to increase its height. One or two packing cases firmly placed
upon a smooth, steep hillside, and well padded with 2 ft. of well-
trodden snow, will make a nice take-off. For the beginning the take-
off may point slightly downhill or be fashioned level, and as the skier
becomes more proficient, snow may be added to the edge so that
the take-off will send the jumper well up into the air.
The knack of jumping is nothing more than balancing the body
upon alighting, and the steeper the landing place the easier it is to
keep the balance. To make the jump in good form, the skier assumes
the easy position required for coasting downhill, as shown in Fig. 12.
When within a dozen yards of the take-off the body is lowered until
the skier is in a crouching position with the arms extending back as
in the act of jumping. Arriving within a couple of yards of the dip the
body and arms are thrown forward, which transfers the weight of the
body upon the toes, and the body is straightened up and the arms
are raised not unlike the wings of a bird, to keep the perfect balance
of the body. The straightening up of the body, known to skiers as “the
sats,” is the leap proper and must be timed so that the body
assumes an erect position when the jumper is not less than 12 ft.
from the edge of the take-off. The beginner will invariably jump too
late, but after a little practice, and profiting by numerous mistakes,
the take-off will be timed correctly. Alighting after a jump is best done
by advancing one ski a trifle to keep the balance, and bending the
knees a bit to lessen the impact. The jumper ends with the Telemark
or Christiania swing.
When taking tours of any length on skis, each member of the party
should be provided with a ruck sack of good capacity. That of the
expanding type, made with two outside pockets, and with gores at
the sides, is a good, sensible pack. It should be made of 8-oz.
waterproof khaki and fitted with shoulder straps of good width, to
prevent chafing the shoulders. Leather ruck sacks are sometimes
used, but are heavier in weight and more expensive but no better.
One member of the party should carry some kind of repairing outfit,
consisting of an awl, a length of leather thong, a few spare straps
and a stout cord, or string. These sacks are shown in Fig. 13.
 Knife, Fork, and Spoon Holder

The Holder Keeps the Cutlery in a Position for Easy Selection and Grasping

The holder is made of a piece of sheet copper of sufficient

thickness to support the number of pieces of cutlery used. The piece
is notched to admit the different pieces, and its back edge is bent at
right angles to provide means of fastening it to a support, a wall or
the back of the kitchen cabinet. It will save space, as well as time,
since it is much easier to grasp one of the articles when wanted than
if they are kept in a drawer.—Contributed by L. E. Turner, New York
City.
 Making Round Rods for Fish Poles
In looking forward to the enjoyment that may be had in the spring,
it is well to prepare and overhaul the fishing apparatus or the
shooting equipment. In doing so, it may be necessary to make a joint
for the fish rod or perhaps a rod for the gun. These can be easily cut
if they are sized and run through holes made in a piece of thin metal
as follows: Make several holes of the desired sizes in a steel plate,
and ream them out with a rather dull taper reamer, so as to leave a
bur on one side. This bur should be filed down almost level with the
surface of the metal, leaving the edges flat and sharp. If a rod of
wood from which the article is to be made is put in a hole and drawn
through from the opposite side to the bur, a nice round rod will result.
As the rod becomes smaller, use a smaller hole until the required
diameter is obtained. A saw plate that is not too thin is about the
proper thing to use for the steel plate. It will be necessary to draw the
temper to make the holes, but it is not necessary to retemper it after
the holes are made.

¶Celery keeps well in a small box of dry sand.

 A Ski Sled
By GEORGE J. EGELBERG

T he sled is built low and wide so that it will not tip easily. The skis, or
runners, are cut 10 ft. long and 6 in. wide, from 1-in. ash boards
that are straight-grained. At the points where the curve is to be
formed, plane off about ¹⁄₄ in. on the upper side, but do not plane off
any at the very tip end. This will allow the skis to be more easily
bent. If it is not handy to steam the skis, put them in boiling water,
and be sure that at least 1¹⁄₂ ft. of the points are covered. Provide a
cover for the vessel, so that only very little steam may escape. Let
them boil for at least one hour. A good method of bending the points
is shown. When the skis are taken from the water, put them as
quickly as possible in the bending blocks, side by side, and bend
them with a slow, even pressure. Weight the extending ends and
leave the skis in the blocks 8 or 10 hours to dry. Sharpen the points
after they are bent.
The Runners are Shaped Like a Ski and are Joined Together with Knees for
the Top Board

The sled will run easier if the skis have a slight rocker curve. To
make this curve, have the center block 6 in. while the two end blocks
are 5¹⁄₂ in. high. A ¹⁄₄-in. flat-head bolt is run through the ski, the
block, and the cross strip. The holes are countersunk in the surface
for the heads of the bolts. The top is made of three 6-in. boards,
fastened to the crosspieces. It is a good plan to brace the tips of the
skis with a 2-in. strip.
 Clocks for the Craftsman

An Ordinary Alarm Clock Mounted in a Wood Base Made in Elaborate

Designs to Resemble a Timepiece of High Value; yet Inexpensive to Make

Three designs of clocks are shown, which can be easily made in

oak, or other wood, that will match other furniture. The sizes of the
pieces required are given by the dimensions in the drawings.
The clock is a matter of choice. Prices in most stores range from
75 cents up and the works are of the ordinary alarm-clock variety.
After selecting the clock the small legs as well as the back plate are
removed. The hole cut in the wood for the clock must be a snug fit,
and after placing it in position, the back plate is replaced.
The finish may be a wax or gloss, as desired, and directions for
applying it will be found on the can containing the material.
 A Compact Galvanometer
A small portable galvanometer is one of the most useful
instruments to the electrical experimenter. There are continually
arising instances where it is necessary to test through and identify
certain wires, for which purpose a small galvanometer and a dry cell
are quite sufficient. For comparing the resistances by the well-known
Wheatstone-bridge method, a galvanometer is, of course,
indispensable. If the winding is made suitable, or by placing a shunt
across the terminals to reduce the deflection, a small galvanometer
will roughly indicate the current passing and thus enable one to
compare his dry cells and eliminate the weak ones. Rough voltage
comparisons may also be made by placing a resistance in series
with the galvanometer.
For constructing this instrument, a good pocket compass, of about
2-in. diameter, must be procured. Prepare a neat little box with the
four edges accurately beveled off. On the under side of this, carefully
cut a channel, about ¹⁄₂ in. wide and 2¹⁄₂ in. long, to a depth that will
bring the bottom of the slot within ¹⁄₈ in. of the top of the base block.
Place two binding posts on the base, as indicated, and secure the
compass in place with cement, or by two very small nails put through
the bottom. If the glass cannot be removed, it will be necessary to
solder the nail heads to the bottom of the compass box, after having
carefully removed the lacquer.
The correct wiring will depend on the strength of the current
handled. It is, however, very easy to get an idea of what the
deflection will be under certain conditions by merely making a
preliminary trial, after winding a few turns of any magnet or bell wire
at hand around a small piece of wood, and slipping the coil so
formed into the slot on the under side of the base block. The winding
may be from two or three turns of heavy wire up to several hundred
turns of fine magnet wire, but after one or two trials, the maker will
have no trouble in determining his particular requirements.
 Galvanometer Made of a Compass Set on a Wood Base, with Coil and Wire
Connections

The final coil should be wound lengthwise on a wood core, and the
whole packed neatly into the slot. Connect up the ends to the binding
posts, and then glue in a thin piece to hold the coil in place.
By drilling a small horizontal hole through the base, as indicated
by the two dotted lines in the top view of the working drawings, and
inserting a small bar magnet, ¹⁄₈ in. in diameter, or less, the
instrument may be rendered independent of the earth’s magnetism
and used without reference to the north point. Such a controlling
magnet reduces the time required to bring the needle to rest after it
has been violently reflected.

¶Woodwork about a house, when primed with white lead made quite
thin in raw linseed oil, will never blister unless moisture gets back of
it. Yellow-ocher priming will cause blistering at any time up to 20
years.
 A Perpetual Calendar

It is Only Necessary to Change the Sliding Pieces to Set the Calendar for
Each Month

It is only necessary to set this calendar the first of each month, by

sliding the insertions up or down, to get the proper month or week.
The calendar, as it is shown, is set for January, 1916. Saturday is the
first day and Friday the seventh, and so on. It is not confusing and
can be read either by the day or date. If the day is known it will show
the date, and if the date is known it will show the day. The illustration
clearly shows the parts, which can be cut from heavy paper or
cardboard.
 Heater for the Experimenter
A convenient small heater for heating liquids in experimental work,
and even in making a hot drink where there is no gas, can be readily
made from an ordinary oil lamp and a small round can, having a
crimped-on head or bottom. The can should be of such diameter that
the prongs of the lamp burner will hold it firmly in place. A hole
should be made in the bottom of the can. It is then placed, upside
down, on the lamp burner. If the top comes too far from the flame,
cut off a strip around the edge.—Contributed by Clarence S. H.
Anderson, Worcester, Massachusetts.
 A Camp Chair Constitutes the Body of the Sled and the Legs are Equipped
with Runners

A Folding Ice Sled

On a smooth ice surface, or on hard snow, the sled shown will run
easily, and a skater can push another with surprising speed by a light
push on the shoulders while the rider rests his feet on the front of the
runners. The sled is light, and it can be folded up and carried under
the arm. It is also handy for putting on the skates, or for use in a
crowded car.
 Any camp stool will do for the main part of the sled. Holes are
bored in the ends of the legs to receive the lugs on the runners
snugly. If the builder is not equipped with a forge, a blacksmith will
make the runners cheaply. The sliding surfaces of the runners are
smoothed with a file.—Contributed by Thomas Lappin, Portland,
Ore.

¶A column of water 27.6 in. will have a pressure of 1 lb. per square
inch.
 Cleaning Tinware with Milk
Some housewives advise a system of dry-cleaning for tinware for
the reason that it insures a surface free from rust which is less liable
to burn. Where washing is preferred, however, a little milk added to
the water proves more satisfactory than either soap or soda, its
peculiarly solvent effect upon grease obviating all necessity for hard
scouring, which latter will wear the tin coating and gradually cause
the article to become useless for holding food and more apt to rust
into holes.—Contributed by J. E. Pouliot, Ottawa, Can.