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 Essentials of Geographic Information
Systems
Version 2.1

Michael Shin, Jonathan Campbell, and

Nick Burkhart

2574149

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 Essentials of Geographic Information Systems Version 2.1

Michael Shin, Jonathan Campbell, and Nick Burkhart

Cover photo: Created by authors, from map data © OpenStreetMap contributors

Published by:

FlatWorld
175 Portland Street
Boston, MA 02114

© 2018 by Boston Academic Publishing, Inc. d.b.a. FlatWorld

All rights reserved. Your use of this work is subject to the License Agreement available at
http://catalog.flatworldknowledge.com/legal.

No part of this work may be used, modified, or reproduced in any form or by any means except as
expressly permitted under the License Agreement.

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 Brief Contents
About the Authors
Acknowledgments
Dedications
Preface
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Data, Information, and Where to Find Them
Chapter 3 Map Anatomy
Chapter 4 Cartographic Principles
Chapter 5 Geospatial Data Management
Chapter 6 Data Models for GIS
Chapter 7 Spatial Analysis of Raster Data
Chapter 8 Spatial Analysis of Vector Data
Chapter 9 Web Mapping
Chapter 10 GIS Project Management
Index

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 Contents
About the Authors 1

Acknowledgments 3

Dedications 4

Preface 5

Chapter 1 Introduction 7
Stuff Happens… 7
Spatial Thinking 8
Geographic Concepts 11
Geographic Information Systems for Today and Beyond 17
Endnotes 21

Chapter 2 Data, Information, and Where to Find Them 23

Data and Information 23
Data about Data 26
Finding Data 28
Descriptions and Summaries 30
Endnotes 35

Chapter 3 Map Anatomy 37

Maps and Map Types 37
Map Scale, Coordinate Systems, and Map Projections 44
Map Abstraction 50
Endnotes 57

Chapter 4 Cartographic Principles 59

Color 59
Symbology 67
Cartographic Design 71
Cartographic Data Classification 75
Endnotes 80

Chapter 5 Geospatial Data Management 81

Geographic Data Acquisition 81
Data Quality 86
Geospatial File Formats 90
Geospatial Database Management 95
Searches and Queries 100
Endnotes 112

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 Chapter 6 Data Models for GIS 113
Raster Data Models 113
Vector Data Models 119
Satellite Imagery and Aerial Photography 124
Endnotes 129

Chapter 7 Spatial Analysis of Raster Data 131

Basic Geoprocessing with Rasters 131
Raster Operations 135
Surface Analysis 139
Terrain Analysis 142
Endnotes 145

Chapter 8 Spatial Analysis of Vector Data 147

Single Layer Analysis 147
Multiple Layer Analysis 150
Endnotes 158

Chapter 9 Web Mapping 159

Origins and Advancements 159
Tiled Images and Web Mapping Services (WMS) 164
Interactive Vector Graphics and Vector Tiles 168
Endnotes 175

Chapter 10 GIS Project Management 177

Project Management Basics 177
GIS Project Management Tools and Techniques 181
Endnotes 187

Index 189

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 About the Authors
MICHAEL SHIN
Michael Shin is associate professor of geography at the University of California,
Los Angeles (UCLA). He has over twenty years of experience in developing and
leading courses—both in-person and online—in geographic information sys-
tems (GIS) and geospatial technologies. Michael’s teaching materials draw from
his research interests in political geography, spatial analysis, and the social im-
pacts of geospatial technology. He has also applied his expertise in geospatial
analytics to various projects with McKinsey & Company, as well as with the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Michael earned his
PhD and MA in geography, and his BA in International Affairs, from the
University of Colorado at Boulder.

JONATHAN E. CAMPBELL
Dr. Jonathan E. Campbell is a GIS analyst and biologist based in Carlsbad, CA.
Formerly an adjunct professor of GIS, cartography, and physical geography
courses at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Santa Monica
College, Jonathan has extensive experience collecting, mapping, and analyzing
geospatial data on projects throughout the United States. He has over 15 years of
experience in the application of GIS and biogeographic services in conjunction
with the implementation of environmental policies and compliance with local,
state, and federal regulations. Jonathan holds a PhD in geography from UCLA,
an MS in plant biology from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, and a
BS in environmental biology from Taylor University.

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 2 ESSENTIALS OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS VERSION 2.1

NICK BURKHART
Nick Burkhart is the academic administrator for GIS at the University of Califor-
nia, Los Angeles (UCLA). Nick specializes in Web-based mapping technology,
spatial analysis, and geographic data visualization methods, and he teaches re-
lated courses in GIS and cartography. His research also includes the study and
development of pedagogy and instructional design methods for online teaching
of GIS courses. He is an active GIS software developer and a member of the open
source GIS community. Nick earned his PhD and MA degrees in geography
from UCLA, and he also holds a BS in geography from Arizona State University.

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 Acknowledgments
This book would not have been possible without the assistance of Michael Boezi, Melissa Yu, and Jenn Yee. Major thanks also goes
to Scott Mealy for the amazing artwork and technical drawings found herein.
We would also like to thank the following colleagues, whose comprehensive feedback and suggestions for improving the materi-
al helped us make a better text:
Rick Bunch, University of North Carolina Greensboro
Mark Leipnik, Sam Houston State University
Olga Medvedkov, Wittenberg University
Jason Duke, Tennessee Tech
I-Shian (Ivan) Shian, Virginia Commonwealth University
Peter Kyem, Central Connecticut State University
Darren Ruddell, University of Southern California
Victor Gutzler, Tarrant County College, Texas
Wing Cheung, Palomar College
Christina Hupy, University of Wisconsin Eau Claire
Shuhab Khan, University of Houston
Jeffrey S. Ueland, Bemidji State University
Darcy Boellstorff, Bridgewater State College
Michela Zonta, Virginia Commonwealth University
Ke Liao, University of South Carolina
Fahui Wang, Louisiana State University
Robbyn Abbitt, Miami University
Jamison Conley, East Tennessee State University
Shanon Donnelly, University of Akron
Patrick Kennelly, Long Island University—C.W. Post
Michael Konvicka, Lone Star College—CyFair
Michael Leite, Chadron State College
Victor Mesev, Florida State University
Scott Nowicki, University of Nevada—Las Vegas
Fei Yuan, Minnesota State University—Mankato
Michela Zonta, Virginia Commonwealth University

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
Dedications
SHIN
To my family.

CAMPBELL
To Walt, Mary, and Reggie Miller.

BURKHART
To Gaby, Ahchuri, and Galileo.

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 Preface
Maps are everywhere—on the Internet, in your car, and even on your mobile phone. Moreover, maps of the twenty-first century are
not just paper diagrams folded like an accordion. Maps today are colorful, searchable, interactive, and shared. This transformation
of the static map into dynamic and interactive multimedia reflects the integration of technological innovation and vast amounts of
geographic data. The key technology behind this integration, and subsequently the maps of the twenty-first century, is geographic in-
formation systems or GIS.
Put simply, GIS is a special type of information technology that integrates data and information from various sources as maps.
It is through this integration and mapping that the question of “where” has taken on new meaning. From getting directions to a new
restaurant in San Francisco on your mobile device to exploring what will happen to coastal cities like Venice if oceans were to rise
due to global warming, GIS provides insights into daily tasks and the big challenges of the future.
Essentials of Geographic Information Systems integrates key concepts behind the technology with practical concerns and real-
world applications. Recognizing that many potential GIS users are nonspecialists or may only need a few maps, this book is designed
to be accessible, pragmatic, and concise. Essentials of Geographic Information Systems also illustrates how GIS is used to ask ques-
tions, inform choices, and guide policy. From the melting of the polar ice caps to privacy issues associated with mapping, this book
provides a gentle, yet substantive, introduction to the use and application of digital maps, mapping, and GIS.
In today's world, learning involves knowing how and where to search for information. In some respects, knowing where to look
for answers and information is arguably just as important as the knowledge itself. Because Essentials of Geographic Information Sys-
tems is concise, focused, and directed, readers are encouraged to search for supplementary information and to follow up on specific
topics of interest on their own when necessary. Essentials of Geographic Information Systems provides the foundations for learning
GIS, but readers are encouraged to construct their own individual frameworks of GIS knowledge. The benefits of this approach are
two-fold. First, it promotes active learning through research. Second, it facilitates flexible and selective learning—that is, what is
learned is a function of individual needs and interest.
Since GIS and related geospatial and navigation technology change so rapidly, a flexible and dynamic text is necessary in order
to stay current and relevant. Though essential concepts in GIS tend to remain constant, the situations, applications, and examples of
GIS are fluid and dynamic. The FlatWorld model of publishing is especially relevant for a text that deals with information techno-
logy. Though this book is intended for use in introductory GIS courses, Essentials of Geographic Information Systems will also appeal
to the large number of certificate, professional, extension, and online programs in GIS that are available today. In addition to provid-
ing readers with the tools necessary to carry out spatial analyses, Essentials of Geographic Information Systems outlines valuable car-
tographic guidelines for maximizing the visual impact of your maps. The book also describes effective GIS project management
solutions that commonly arise in the modern workplace. Order your desk copy of Essentials of Geographic Information Systems or
view it online to evaluate it for your course.
What’s new in Version 2.1?
The world of maps, mapping and GIS continues to advance, grow and expand at an ever-increasing pace. From the rise of open
(geospatial!) data sources to new web-based mapping platforms, knowing what to map, where to map and how to map, has never
been more important than in today’s world. Drawing from student and instructor feedback, Essentials of GIS, Version 2.1, maintains
its razor-like focus on mapping and GIS fundamentals, while surveying and integrating the latest developments in geospatial science
and technology. In particular, Essentials of GIS, version 2.1, contains:
< A revised chapter and content structure designed to improve the learning of geographic concepts, highlight the elements of
mapping, and reinforce the essentials of GIS;
< Updates throughout the text to reflect the state-of-the-art in geospatial technology and Web mapping techniques;
< The familiar focus on the foundations and fundamentals of GIS, and an approach that is GIS software neutral. Are you in-
terested in using open source GIS? Essentials of GIS, version 2.1, is for you! Do you need to get up to speed with mapping
and GIS for work? Essentials of GIS, version 2.1, is for you! Are you curious to learn about maps, mapping and
GIS? Essentials of GIS, version 2.1, is for you!
We hope that you find the updates and revisions constructive to learning more about maps, mapping, and GIS, and as always, we
welcome and encourage your feedback. Happy mapping!

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 6 ESSENTIALS OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS VERSION 2.1

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 CHAP TER 1
Introduction
STUFF HAPPENS…
What’s more is that stuff happens somewhere. Knowing something about where something happens can help us

to understand what happened, when it happened, how it happened, and why it happened. Whether it is an out-

break of a highly contagious disease, the discovery of a new frog species, the path of a deadly tornado, or the

nearest location of a supermarket, knowing something about where things happen is important to how we under-

stand and relate to our local environment and to the world at large.

A geographic information system—or GIS—is a special type of information technology that can help us under-

stand and relate to the “what,” “when,” “how,” and “why” of the world by answering “where.” Geographic informa-

tion systems are indeed about maps, but they are also about much, much more.

A GIS is used to organize, analyze, visualize, and share all kinds of data and information from different historical

periods and at various scales of analysis. From climatologists trying to understand the causes and consequences of

global warming, to epidemiologists locating ground zero of a virulent disease outbreak, to archaeologists recon-

structing ancient Rome, to political consultants developing campaign strategies for the next presidential election,

GIS is a very powerful tool with countless potential applications.

More important, GIS is about geography and learning about the world in which we live. As GIS technology de-

velops, as society becomes ever more geospatially enabled, and as more and more people rediscover geography

and the power of maps, the future uses and applications of GIS are unlimited.

To take full advantage of the benefits of GIS and related geospatial technology both now and in the future, it is

useful to take stock of the ways in which we already think spatially with respect to the world in which we live. In

other words, by recognizing and increasing our geographical awareness about how we relate to our local environ-

ments and the world at large, we will benefit more from use and application of GIS.
The purpose of this chapter is to increase our geographical awareness and to refine our spatial thinking. First, a

simple mental mapping exercise is used to highlight our geographical knowledge and spatial awareness, and the

limitations thereof. Second, fundamental concepts and terms that are central to geographic information systems,

and more generally geography, are identified, defined, and explained. This chapter concludes with a description of

the frameworks that guide the use and application of GIS, as well as its future development.

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 8 ESSENTIALS OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS VERSION 2.1
mental maps
Maps of the environment
stored in our brains.
© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
1. SPATIAL THINKING
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E
1. The objective of this section is to illustrate how we think geographically every day with mental
maps and to highlight the importance of asking geographic questions.
At no other time in the history of the world has it been easier to create or to acquire a map of nearly
anything. Maps and mapping technology are literally and virtually everywhere. Though the modes and
means of making and distributing maps have been revolutionized with recent advances in computing
like the Internet, the art and science of map making dates back centuries. This is because humans are
inherently spatial organisms, and in order for us to live in the world, we must first somehow relate to it.
Enter the mental map.
1.1 Mental Maps
Mental or cognitive maps are psychological tools that we all use every day. As the name suggests,
mental maps are maps of our environment that are stored in our brain. We rely on our mental maps
to get from one place to another, to plan our daily activities, or to understand and situate events that we
hear about from our friends, family, or the news. Mental maps also reflect the amount and extent of
geographic knowledge and spatial awareness that we possess. To illustrate this point, pretend that a
friend is visiting you from out of town for the first time. Using a blank sheet of paper, take five to ten
minutes to draw a map from memory of your hometown that will help your friend get around.
What did you choose to draw on your map? Is your house or your workplace on the map? What about
streets, restaurants, malls, museums, or other points of interest? How did you draw objects on your
map? Did you use symbols, lines, and shapes? Are places labeled? Why did you choose to include cer-
tain places and features on your map but not others? What limitations did you encounter when making
your map?
To reinforce these points, consider the series of mental maps of Los Angeles provided in Figure
1.1 and Figure 1.2.
 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 9

FIGURE 1.1 Mental Maps of Los Angeles A and B

This simple exercise is instructive for several reasons. First, it illustrates what you know about where
you live. Your simple map is a rough approximation of your local geographic knowledge and mental
map. Second, it highlights the way in which you relate to your local environment. What you choose to
include and exclude on your map provides insights about what places you think are important and how
you move through your place or residence. Third, if we were to compare your mental map to someone
else’s from the same place, certain similarities and differences emerge that shed light upon how we as
humans tend to think spatially and organize geographical information in our minds. Fourth, this exer-
cise reveals something about your artistic, creative, and cartographic abilities. In this respect, not only
are mental maps unique, but also the way in which such maps are drawn or represented on the page is
unique too.

FIGURE 1.2 Mental Map of Los Angeles C

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 10
geographic location
The position of a
phenomenon on the surface
of the earth.
geographic distribution
Describes how phenonmena
are spread across the surface
of the earth.
geographic association
Refers to how things are
related to each other in
space.
geographic interaction
Describes the linkages and
relationships bewteen places.
© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
ESSENTIALS OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS VERSION 2.1
Take a moment to look at each map and compare the maps with the following questions in mind:
< What similarities are there on each map?
< What are some of the differences?
< Which places or features are illustrated on the map?
< From what you know about Los Angeles, what is included or excluded on the maps?
< What assumptions are made in each map?
< At what scale is the map drawn?
Each map is probably an imperfect representation of one’s mental map, but we can see some similarit-
ies and differences that provide insights into how people relate to Los Angeles, maps, and more gener-
ally, the world. First, all maps are oriented so that north is up. Though only one of the maps contains a
north arrow that explicitly informs viewers the geographic orientation of the map, we are accustomed
to most maps having north at the top of the page. Second, all but the first map identify some prominent
features and landmarks in the Los Angeles area. For instance, Los Angeles International Airport (LAX)
appears on two of these maps, as do the Santa Monica Mountains. How the airport is represented or
portrayed on the map, for instance, as text, an abbreviation, or symbol, also speaks to our experience
using and understanding maps. Third, two of the maps depict a portion of the freeway network in Los
Angeles, and one also highlights the Los Angeles River. In a city where the “car is king,” how can any
map omit the freeways?
What you include and omit on your map, by choice or not, speaks volumes about your geograph-
ical knowledge and spatial awareness—or lack thereof. Recognizing and identifying what we do not
know is an important part of learning. It is only when we identify the unknown that we are able to ask
questions, collect information to answer those questions, develop knowledge through answers, and be-
gin to understand the world where we live.
1.2 Asking Geographic Questions
Filling in the gaps in our mental maps and, more generally, the gaps in our geographic knowledge re-
quires us to ask questions about the world where we live and how we relate to it. Such questions can be
simple with a local focus (e.g., “Which way is the nearest hospital?”) or more complex with a more
global perspective (e.g., “How is urbanization impacting biodiversity hotspots around the world?”).
The thread that unifies such questions is geography. For instance, the question of “where?” is an essen-
tial part of the questions “Where is the nearest hospital?” and “Where are the biodiversity hotspots in
relation to cities?” Being able to articulate questions clearly and to break them into manageable pieces
are very valuable skills when using and applying a geographic information system (GIS).
Though there may be no such thing as a “dumb” question, some questions are indeed better than
others. Learning how to ask the right question takes practice and is often more difficult than finding the
answer itself. However, when we ask the right question, problems are more easily solved and our un-
derstanding of the world is improved. There are five general types of geographic questions that we can
ask and that GIS can help us to answer. Each type of question is listed here and is also followed by a few
examples (Nyerges 1991).[1]
Questions about geographic location:
< Where is it?
< Why is it here or there?
< How much of it is here or there?
Questions about geographic distribution:
< Is it distributed locally or globally?
< Is it spatially clustered or dispersed?
< Where are the boundaries?
Questions about geographic association:
< What else is near it?
< What else occurs with it?
< What is absent in its presence?
Questions about geographic interaction:
< Is it linked to something else?
 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 11

< What is the nature of this association?

< How much interaction occurs between the locations?

Questions about geographic change:

geographic change
< Has it always been here? Refers to the persistence,
< How has it changed over time and space? transformation, or
disappearance of
< What causes its diffusion or contraction? phenomena on the earth.
These and related geographic questions are frequently asked by people from various areas of expertise,
industries, and professions. For instance, urban planners, traffic engineers, and demographers may be
interested in understanding the commuting patterns between cities and suburbs (geographic interac-
tion). Biologists and botanists may be curious about why one animal or plant species flourishes in one
place and not another (geographic location/distribution). Epidemiologists and public health officials
are certainly interested in where disease outbreaks occur and how, why, and where they spread
(geographic change/interaction/location).
A GIS can assist in answering all these questions and many more. Furthermore, a GIS often opens
up additional avenues of inquiry when searching for answers to geographic questions. Herein is one of
the greatest strengths of the GIS. While a GIS can be used to answer specific questions or to solve par-
ticular problems, it often unearths even more interesting questions and presents more problems to be
solved in the future.

K E Y T A K E A W A Y S

< Mental maps are psychological tools that we use to understand, relate to, and navigate through the
environment in which we live, work, and play.
< Mental maps are unique to the individual.
< Learning how to ask geographic questions is important to using and applying GIS.
< Geographic questions are concerned with location, distributions, associations, interactions, and change.

E X E R C I S E S

1. Draw a map of where you live. Discuss the similarities, differences, styles, and techniques on your map and
compare them with two others. What are the commonalities between the maps? What are the
differences? What accounts for such similarities and differences?
2. Draw a map of the world and compare it to a world map in an atlas. What similarities and differences are
there? What explains the discrepancies between your map and the atlas?
3. Provide two questions concerned with geographic location, distribution, association, interaction, and
change about global warming, urbanization, biodiversity, economic development, and war.

2. GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E

1. The objective of this section is to introduce and explain how the key concepts of location, dir-
ection, distance, space, and navigation are relevant to geography and geographic information
systems (GIS).

Before we can learn how to work with a geographic information system (GIS), it is first necessary to re-
view and reconsider a few key geographic concepts that are often taken for granted. For instance, what
is a location and how can it be defined? At what distance does a location become “nearby”? Or what do
we mean when we say that someone has a “good sense of direction”? By answering these and related
questions, we establish a framework that will help us to learn and to apply a GIS. This framework will
also permit us to share and communicate geographic information with others, which can facilitate col-
laboration, problem solving, and decision making.

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
 CHAP TER 2
Data, Information, and
Where to Find Them
To understand geographic information systems (GIS) and digital mapping, it first is necessary to examine the

context of GIS within computing and information technology. This chapter provides an introduction to geographic

data—the building blocks of digital maps and GIS—with particular emphasis placed upon how data and

information are stored as files on a computer. Second, key issues and considerations as they relate to data

acquisition and data standards are presented. The chapter concludes with discussions of where data for use with a
GIS can be found and how these data can be described and summarized. This chapter serves as the bridge

between the conceptual materials presented in Chapter 1 and the chapters that follow, which contain more formal

discussions about the use and application of a GIS.

1. DATA AND INFORMATION

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E

1. The objective of this section is to define and describe data and information and how it is organ-
ized into files for use in a computing and geographic information system (GIS) environment.

To understand how we get from analog to digital maps, let’s begin with the building blocks and found-
data
ations of the geographic information system (GIS)—namely, data and information. As already noted
on several occasions, GIS stores, edits, processes, and presents data and information. But what exactly Facts, measurements, and
characteristics of something
is data? And what exactly is information? For many, the terms “data” and “information” refer to the of interest.
same thing. For our purposes, it is useful to make a distinction between the two. Generally, data refer
to facts, measurements, characteristics, or traits of an object of interest. For you grammar sticklers out information
there, note that “data” is the plural form of “datum.” For example, we can collect all kinds of data about Knowledge and insights that
all kinds of things, like the length of rainbow trout in a Colorado stream, the number of vegetarians in are acquired through the
Alaska, the diameter of mahogany tree trunks in the Brazilian rainforest, student scores on the last GIS analysis of data.
midterm, the altitude of mountain peaks in Nepal, the depth of snow in the Austrian Alps, or the num-
ber of people who use public transportation to get to work in London.
Once data are put into context, used to answer questions, situated within analytical frameworks, or
used to obtain insights, they become information. For our purposes, information simply refers to the
knowledge of value obtained through the collection, interpretation, and/or analysis of data. Though a
computer is not necessary to collect, record, manipulate, process, or visualize data, or to process it into
information, information technology can be of great help. For instance, computers can automate repet-
itive tasks, store data efficiently in terms of space and cost, and provide a range of tools for analyzing
data from spreadsheets to GIS, of course. The incredible amount of data collected each and every day
by satellites, grocery store product scanners, traffic sensors, temperature gauges, and your mobile
phone carrier, to name just a few, would be impossible to collect and retain without the aid and innov-
ation of information technology.

© 2018 Boston Academic Publishing, Inc., d.b.a FlatWorld. All rights reserved.
Another random document with
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 Fig. 1
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The post should be sunk into the ground about 2¹⁄₂ ft. and set into
a concrete foundation, if convenient. This will insure a more nearly
permanent as well as a more rigid support. Care should be taken
that the post is set plumb and this can be accomplished if a plumb
bob is used. The post should be braced to keep it vertical,
particularly if a concrete foundation is poured and tamped around it.
The construction should be painted two coats, inside and out, of a
color to harmonize with buildings or other surroundings.
The cost of building the house shown in the illustration was $3.50
and by using tar paper for the roof and discarded wire mesh, hinges,
and other fittings, this may be reduced considerably.

¶In matching molding into corners it is often difficult to make miter

joints. The molding may then be “coped” together by matching the
end of the piece to be joined to it with the curves or surface of the
molding. A coping saw is used in sawing the irregular end.
 Roses Tinged Blue by Chemicals

Roses may be colored without any detrimental effect by placing

their stems in a solution of 100 cubic centimeters of water, 2 grams
of saltpeter, and 2 grams of an aniline dye. A centerpiece of roses
colored to represent the national colors was made in this way and
proved very effective as a table decoration. A convenient way to
color the flowers is to place their stems in a test tube containing the
mixture.—Contributed by Chester Keene, Hoboken, N. J.
 Making Photographic Trays
Serviceable trays for use in developing and printing photographs
may be made quickly of cardboard boxes of suitable sizes. Where
one is unable to transport readily a full photographic equipment
these trays will prove convenient as well as inexpensive. They are
made as follows:
Procure boxes of proper sizes and see that they have no holes or
openings at the corners. Melt paraffin and pour it into the box,
permitting it to cover both outside and inside surfaces. If the paraffin
hardens too rapidly the box may be heated and the work completed.
—Contributed by Paul A. Baumeister, Flushing, N. Y.
 Camp Lantern Made of a Tin Can

Campers, and others who have need of an emergency lantern,

may be interested in the contrivance shown in the sketch, which was
used in preference to other lanterns and made quickly when no light
was at hand. It consists of an ordinary tin can, in the side of which a
candle has been fixed. A ring of holes was punched through the
metal around the candle and wires were placed at the opposite side
for a support. The glistening interior of the can reflects the light
admirably.—Contributed by F. H. Sweet, Waynesboro, Va.
¶Interior woodwork may be made proof against ordinary flame by
coating it with silicate of soda, known as water glass.
 Sidecar for a Parcel-Delivery Bicycle
By P. P. AVERY

Q uick delivery of small packages within a two-mile radius can be

accomplished with a bicycle by a sturdy boy. An ordinary bicycle
is used, preferably one with coaster brake and mudguards. Iron
braces, ¹⁄₄ by 1¹⁄₄ in., are shaped to make the framework, and the
ends are looped to fasten around the frame of the bicycle and the
supporting fork of the third wheel. This wheel is a bicycle front wheel
with a fork. A mudguard on the third wheel is desirable. Make the
iron parts as detailed, and fasten them into place. The body is made
of ⁷⁄₈-in. wood, preferably oak. The upper portion of the body is cut to
receive the top brace, which is not in the way in loading or unloading
the packages. Fasten the box with ¹⁄₄-in. carriage bolts, using a
spring washer under the nut wherever a joint is made between wood
and iron. A canvas cover can be cut to fit the top and secured at one
end only, with three catch knobs on the sides and corresponding
eyelets in the canvas, keeping the dust and rain from the interior of
the body.
 An Ordinary Strong Bicycle can be Made into a Substantial Delivery Car by
the Addition of a Body and a Third Wheel

It is a good plan to stiffen the body with corner braces, using ¹⁄₈ by
³⁄₄-in. band iron. The floor of the body should be strongly fastened,
tongue-and-groove boards being used, and the side corners should
be fitted with iron braces at the bottom. The body may be extended
farther over the rear, if more loading space is required.
One coat of priming and one of paint finishes the box, and with the
name of the merchant on the front and rear, the whole makes a neat
advertising feature. Regarding the selection of a bicycle, since great
speed is not essential, the lower the gearing is, the easier it will be to
propel the load, and for ordinary work, where only small grades are
covered, a gear of about 65 will be found efficient.
 Handy Use for Adhesive Tape
Adhesive tape is useful in the shop and for the home mechanic,
for many purposes: to mend broken handles temporarily; to bind up
a cut finger; to prevent a hammer or ax handle from slipping in the
hands, by applying tape around the handle; for making a ferrule for
an awl, chisel, etc.; around the nail set it will keep that tool from
jarring the hand; around a lead pencil in the vest pocket as a guard.
A Toy Machine Gun That Fires Wooden Bullets
 For use in the mimic battles which most boys like to stage in this
war time, an interesting mechanical toy that a boy can easily make of
materials picked up in the workshop, is a machine gun having a
magazine for wooden bullets, and which can be made as a single or
a double-barrel gun. The construction of the single-barrel
arrangement is detailed in the sketch and the modification for a
double-barrel gun is shown in the smaller diagram. It is a duplicate of
the first type, suitably mounted as shown. The gun is fired by turning
the crank on the wheel and the bullets can be quickly replaced in the
magazine at the top.
The Machine Gun is Fired by Turning the Crank at the Wheel, the Pins on the
Latter Drawing Back the Hammer, Which is Hooked Up with a Rubber Band

The support for the gun is made of wood and braced strongly at
the base. The gun proper is set into the top of the vertical piece, as
shown, and the magazine, which is bent from a piece of tin to the
shape detailed in the sectional view, fits on top of the breach of the
gun. The hammer, which drives the bullets, is made of a piece of stiff
wire bent to the shape shown. The lower curved end is connected to
a small nail set on a block at the shaft of the wheel. To fire the gun,
the hammer is drawn back by contact with the small nails set into the
side of the wheel. As the wheel is turned, the nails grip the hammer
and then suddenly release it, driving out the lowest bullet each time.
The bullets are piled in the magazine, as shown in the detailed view
at the right, where the rear view of the gun barrel is indicated.—
Edward R. Smith, Walla Walla, Washington.
 Using Plate Holder as Printing Frame
A cumbersome part of a commercial photographer’s equipment
when “on the road” is his set of printing frames. Amateur
photographers who have cameras using plates of more than one
size find these frames an expensive part of their outfits. A method
that is practical and inexpensive for these requirements in many
cases, is as follows: Place the sensitized paper in the plate holder
with the emulsion side up. Then put the plate in the holder in the
same way as if about to expose it in a camera, but with the emulsion
side down, so that the sensitized side of the paper and the emulsion
side of the plate are in contact. The paper and plate are thus held in
close contact without the use of springs, as in the regular printing
frames. The plate and paper can be removed by pressing the spring
catch at the bottom of the holder, and the plate is not easily moved
while in place.—Francis W. Clinton, Brooklyn, New York.

¶Leaks in garden hose may be repaired by wrapping several layers

of adhesive tape over the break, lapping the edges carefully.
 Wire Clips Weight Paper in Typewriter
Three wire paper clips linked together make a good weight for
typewriter sheets that keep rolling or blowing back over the carriage,
into the operator’s way, in a breezy office or where a fan is not
properly stationed. They may be quickly applied to the end of the
sheet, or batch of paper and carbon sheets, and removed as easily,
saving time and annoyance.—H. P. Roy, Kansas City, Mo.
 Chain Weight Prevents Whipping of Flag
A length of chain, sewed into a hem at the lower edge of a flag
makes an inconspicuous and effective weight to prevent whipping of
a flag suspended from a horizontal staff. A piece of cord can be
threaded through the links of a chain to prevent it from rattling, if
necessary.
Poultry-Fence Construction Economical of
Netting