IMPACT OF CITIZEN JOURNALISM ON

CONVENTIONAL MASS MEDIA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE

PAGE.............................................................................................

...........i

DECLARATION...........................................................................

......................ii

CERTIFICATION..........................................................................
....................iii

DEDICATION...............................................................................
.....................iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..............................................................
.....................v

TABLE OF
CONTENTS..................................................................................
vi
LIST OF
TABLES.........................................................................................
.....x

LIST OF
FIGURES.......................................................................................
.....x
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………
………………ix

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the

Study.................................................................. 1

1.2 Statement of the

Problem................................................................. 3

1.3 Objectives of
Study.......................................................................... 3

1.4 Research
Questions.......................................................................... 4

1.5 Research
Hypotheses........................................................................ 4

1.6 Scope of
Study.................................................................................. 4

1.7 Significance of the study……………………….

…………………. 5

1.8 Definition of key

terms……………………………………………. 6
1.9 Organization of the
study………………………………………….. 7

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Introduction………………………………………………………
… 9

2.2 Conceptual
Framework...................................................................... 9

2.3 Theoretical
Framework................................................................. ..... 10

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1

Introduction....................................................................................
.. 12

3.2 Research
Design............................................................................... 12

3.4 Population of
Study.......................................................................... 13

3.5 Sample of
Study................................................................................ 14

3.6 Types and Sources of

Data…............................................................ 16
3.7 Instrument of Data
collection............................................................ 17

3.8 Data collection……….

…………………………………………..… 17

3.9 Procedure for data

collection................................................................. 19

3.10 Method of Data

Analysis...................................................................

CHAPTER IV: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1
Introduction ...................................................................................
........

4.2 Data Analysis and Interpretation of

Results............................................... 22

4.3 Frequency/Percentage Distribution

Analysis......................................

CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1
Introduction ...................................................................................
............ 38

5.2 Summary of
Findings................................................................................ 38
5.3
Conclusion.....................................................................................
........... 39

5.4
Recommendations..........................................................................
........... 40

5.5 Limitations of the

Study………………………………………………… 41

5.6 Suggestions for further

studies................................................................... 42

REFERENCES…………………………………………………
…………… 42

ABSTRACT

This study examines the impact of citizen journalism on the

conventional mass media in Nigeria adopting a survey research
design. A sample of 400 respondents selected using a purposive
sampling technique was used in the study, while data was
collected from the respondents using a questionnaire. The
dataset was analyzed using frequency/percentage distribution
analysis and Chi-Square test with the aid of Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, Version 23.0. Findings
from the study revealed that Nigerians have good knowledge
and awareness of citizen journalism and that citizen journalism
have significant impact on conventional mass media in Nigeria.
Findings also revealed that citizen journalism has so many
benefits such as helping in the propagation of news, information
and events that are sometimes difficult for the conventional mass
media to gather and disseminate, and dissemination of news,
information and current happenings faster than the conventional
mass media, among others. Findings also showed that citizen
journalism also had some challenges such as the propagation of
news, information and events in unprofessional manner and
doing harm to the society such as inciting people to be violent
through the unprofessionally dissemination and reportage of
events, among others. The study recommended that conventional
mass media organizations in Nigeria should train and inspire
citizen journalists who are very valuable to them concerning the
gathering, reporting and dissemination of news, information and
events in the country, among other recommendations.
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The ABSTRACT

Water scarcity necessitates exploring alternative irrigation

sources. Treated sewage effluent (sewage effluent) emerges as a
potential solution, offering water conservation benefits.
However, concerns exist regarding its impact on groundwater
quality. Bacteriological and physiochemical parameters of
groundwater were investigated in six selected Communities of
Gombe Metropolis with the core aim of examine effect of sewage
on groundwater quality, water parameters such as: Bacteria,
Temperature, pH, Total dissolve solid, Turbidity, Conductivity,
Nitrate, Phosphate, Sodium, Hardness and Fluoride were
analysed. One way analysis of variance was employed to test the
spatial variation in the concentration of aforementioned water
parameters between low, medium and high density areas within
the study area. T- test was also used compared the result
obtained with WHO water quality acceptable standards. A total
of 12 samples were collected from borehole water in high,
medium and low density areas of the study area, afterward the
water sample were analysed using culture media for
bacteriology, while rest of the parameters were analysed in the
laboratory. Culture media laboratory result indicates the
present of bacteria in the water sample collected from all
locations and confirmatory test reveals the types of bacteria as
coliform bacteria. Analysis of variance conducted which shows
that the concentration of the coliform bacteria varies
significantly across low, medium and high density areas of the
study area, whereas T-test shows that concentration of bacteria
in all sample areas exceeded WHO permissible standard.
Physical parameters indicate that there is no significant
variation in the concentration of all the selected analysed
physical parameters between low, medium and high density area
of the study area and Temperature and turbidity fall within
WHO permissible standard while Total Dissolve solid exceed
WHO permissible standard limit. It is therefore, essential to
treat water from this kind of ground water sources to make it fit
for both drinking and domestic use. It is Paramount important
for government to embark on regular environmental sanitation
exercises within the study area and also provide refuse disposal
vehicle to populace of the study area to lessen indiscriminate
sewage disposal in the area. This will improve the general
health care and well being of the public in the study area.
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Water is an excellent natural resource in the entire

ecosystem, the critical bond to all spheres. It can be made to

serve various functions such as domestic, industrial, agricultural,

transportation and other uses. Water is also a universal solvent

which can neither be created no destroyed on the surface of the

earth. Man cannot survive very long without water neither can

plant or animals live without water. Water that is meant for

drinking should be of high quality, while the water for other

domestic purposes can be of good quality (Eziashi, 1995;

Jidauna et-al., 2013). Water scarcity is a growing concern on a

global scale, prompting agricultural communities to explore

alternative irrigation sources (Egbi, 2020). This scarcity is

driven by factors like population growth, increasing

urbanization, and the impacts of climate change. Traditional

freshwater sources for irrigation are becoming increasingly

limited, putting a strain on agricultural productivity and food

security.

In response to this challenge, sewage effluent, treated

wastewater from domestic and industrial sources, has emerged

as a potential solution (Egbi, 2020). Sewage effluent can be a

readily available source of water for irrigation, particularly in

arid and semi-arid regions. Repurposing treated wastewater for

irrigation offers a two-fold benefit: it conserves freshwater

resources for other uses, and it reduces the environmental

burden of discharging untreated wastewater into waterways.

However, while sewage effluent offers water

conservation benefits, its use for irrigation also presents

significant challenges. Improperly treated effluent can contain a

range of contaminants, including pathogens, excess nutrients,

and emerging contaminants like pharmaceuticals and personal

care products (Egbi, 2020). These contaminants can pose a

significant threat to groundwater quality if they migrate through

the soil and into underlying aquifers. Contaminated

groundwater can become unfit for drinking, agricultural use, and

other purposes, potentially leading to negative health and

environmental consequences.
 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The increasing use of sewage effluent for irrigation

raises concerns about groundwater contamination. Improperly

treated effluent can introduce pollutants like pathogens, excess

nutrients, and emerging contaminants (pharmaceuticals,

personal care products) into the groundwater. This

contamination can render groundwater unfit for drinking,

agricultural use, and other purposes.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 To what extent does irrigation with sewage effluent

contribute to groundwater pollution?

 What are the specific types of contaminants impacting

groundwater quality from sewage effluent irrigation?

 How do factors like treatment level, soil type, and

irrigation practices influence the risk of groundwater

contamination?

 What are the potential health and environmental

consequences of utilizing sewage effluent for irrigation?

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

This research aims to:

 Assess the impact of sewage effluent irrigation on

groundwater quality.

 Identify the key contaminants originating from sewage

effluent that pose a threat to groundwater.

 Evaluate the influence of various factors on the

migration of contaminants into groundwater.

 Analyze the potential health and environmental risks

associated with sewage effluent irrigation.

 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The findings of this research will contribute to a better

understanding of the risks associated with using sewage effluent

for irrigation. By identifying the key contaminants and their

migration patterns, the study will inform the development of

improved treatment and management practices. This will ensure

sustainable water use while protecting groundwater resources,

safeguarding public health, and minimizing environmental

damage.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study will focus on the impact of sewage effluent

irrigation on shallow groundwater resources in agricultural

settings. The geographical setting will focus on Gombe

metropolis. It will analyze the types and levels of contaminants

migrating from the irrigated soil to the groundwater. The

research will consider factors like treatment level, application

methods, and soil characteristics. The health and environmental

risks associated with the identified contaminants will be

assessed based on relevant regulations and scientific literature.

1.7. THE STUDY AREA

1.7.1. Location, Position and Size

Gombe metropolis is located in about centre of

Gombe State, approximately within latitude 10 08 and 11024`N,

longitude 11022`E and 11024E (see figure:1). Gombe metropolis

is bounded with Kwami Local Government in the north, Akko

local Government in the south-west and Yamaltu- Deba Local

Government to the East. It is a capital of Gombe state, well

liked by roads to other regions such as Biu-Maiduguri,

Potiskum-Damaturu, Yola - Jalingo, and a single railway line on

Bauchi to Maiduguri route, in addition to an international Air

port on Bauchi - Jos road. Gombe metropolis has a land are

cover of 28000 hectares with 15Km radius (Gombe Master Plan

2030:2003).Gombe metropolis is located in North-eastern Part

of Nigeria. The metropolis is divided in wards and each the

ward can be regarded as community and they are as follows:

Jeka da fari, Herwagana, Dawaki, Pantami, G.RA, Fed Low

Cost/Buba Shango, Kumbiya Kumbiya, Nassarawo, Tudun

wada, Bolari. (See figure 1).

Figure: 1. Gombe State showing Gombe metropolis
Figure: 2. Gombe metropolis
 Figure 3: Gombe metropolis showing points
where samples were collected
 1.7.2. Historical Background

Gombe capital city started as a small settlement of few

tents inhabitants. It received its first impetus with the transfer of

Gombe divisional headquarter to Gombe Doma in 1919. Gombe

metropolises serve as the seed of admiration of Gombe State as

well as the State headquarter. This historical development and

associated landmark event enhanced its further growth in of the

town in population size and cosmopolitan composition. Most of

the indigene of Gombe belief to have migrated from Yemen

Middle East in the early 19 centaury

1.7.3. Geology, Relief and Hydrology.

Gombe metropolis is largely at the foot of Akko

escarpment, developments are taking place on the escarpment

and to the Tumfure plains as well as southward and up the

higher ground to the eat beyond Liji area.

 The relief of Gombe is developed on complex geologic

crystalline bedrock. Although, much of the area is underlain by

ancient crystalline basement complex, sedimentary formation

during the late cretaceous period has influenced the topography.

Subsequent dissection and steam incision in the area have

carved a landscape consisting of flat top to conical hills. The

study area has prominent land forms such as that of Gombe and

Liji hills, which falls within a stretch of Benue Trough Known

as Zambuk ridge. The stratorgrahy consist of alluvium, the kerri

kerri formation, Gombe formation, Pindiga formation, Yolde

formation, Bima formation and basement rocks as the oldest.

Alluvium includes most soils and comprises those deposit

formed in situ by the chemical and physical decomposition of

the bedrocks. Alluvium is generally poorly developed over

erinaceous member of cretaceous formation in the study area,

the extent of alluvium cover increases west ward but it can be

estimated that 10% of Gombe formation is cover by alluvium

(Obaje, 1999) the highest point of the build area of the town is

at the western gate way, about 610 meters above sea level

(ASL) and the lowest part is the BCGA are of the metropolis of

about 412.5m (ASL) (Gombe master plan 2030; 2003)

 Many rivers truncate the older part of the town flowing

eastward from their source at Akko escarpment. The rivers and

streams have their tributaries with active gully head particularly

at the north-eastern part of the town creating east station on the

landscape. A significant proportion of the population in Gombe

metropolis are without direct access to piped connections or

standpipes making the populist to rely on other informal service

providers such as tanker operators, vendors and independent

producers. About half the people in Gombe metropolis depend

on groundwater for their domestic water supply. The

groundwater is mostly tap through sinking boreholes and

digging hand dug wells.

1.7.4. Climate

Gombe metropolis is located within the sub-Sudan

climate zone. It is characterized by a tropical climate with two
distinct seasons, dry season (Nov- March) and a wet season
(April-October). Dry (Harmmattan) season become severe when
the north-east-trade wind over the region becomes established,
based on the vegetation classification of Nigeria, the study area
falls into Sudan savannah climate. The monthly mean
temperature records show a range from 180 to 390 0C and
annual rainfall of 954mm (Ileoje, 2001). Temperature becomes
lower at 24 0C (750F), particularly during the period from
December to February, due to hammattan. Average relative
humidity is lowest at 15% during the dry season. The
southwestern wind, which is moist-laden, originating from
Atlantic Ocean and blowing to the low pressure belt of Sahara
desert affects the wet season. Relative humidity level at Gombe
metropolis are quite high reading an average of 86% in July-
September which also experience more raining days than other
month. Rain is characterized by torrential thunderstorm heavy
runoff or storms that cause soil erosion. GASAD (2003) give an
average annual value of 122 cm of rainfall received over an
average of seven month. An average annual temperature for the
various months is generally high in March/April with about
340C (930F).

1.7.5. Vegetation

The vegetation of Gombe metropolis can be described as

Sudan savannah with open grass land which dries up during the

dry season. The natural vegetation has been greatly effect and
modified over most of the area by anthropogenic activities such

as over grazing, bush burning construction and agriculture. The

predominant trees species consist of apzelia-african, Parkia

biglobosa, Adamsonia dittitata and tamarindus indica. The

continuous grass cover is today interspersed with Agricultural

activities and urbanization.

1.7.6. Population and Settlement

According National Population Commission, Gombe

metropolis has a population of 319,875, as it was reported in

2006 census (FRN, 2007). Due to rapid population increase and

the current issue of insurgency that is experience in the north

eastern part of Nigeria. The metropolis has a lot of housing,

environmental and water problem. The inhabitant of Gombe

metropolis can be classified into two, the major inhabitant are

Tangale, Waja, Fulani, Tera and other non-indigenous ethnic

groups. The settlement pattern include nuclear pattern within the

dense core area such as Jaka da fari Herwagana, Pantami and

Bolari while liner pattern can be found in the sub-urban areas of

the metropolis such as the Nassarawo and Barunde. (Maina

2009)
 1.7.7. The Socio-economic Characteristics

Location of Gombe metropolis at the centre of the north

eastern State gives it an advantage of being the commercial

nerve center of north eastern part of Nigeria. More also the Sub-

Sudan savannah region makes it productive farming area,

producing large farm produced. Gombe metropolis is the

collection and distribution centre for cereal crops which are

transported to Niger, Chad and Cameroon, the study is also

important in animal house boundary because it produces hide

and skin for leather industries and other product which are

supplied to the southern part of Nigeria.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Water is a colourless, tasteless, and odourless liquid at

room temperature it has the important ability to dissolve many

other substances. Indeed, the versatility of water as a solvent is

essential to living organisms. Life is believed to have originated

in the aqueous solution of the worlds such as oceans, and living

organisms depend on aqueous solutions.

Contamination of drinking water sources by sewage can

occur from raw sewage overflow, septic tanks, leaking sewer

lines, land application of sludge and partially treated waste

water. Sewage itself is a multifaceted mixture and can contain

many types of contaminants. The greatest threats posed to water

resources arise from contamination by bacteria, nitrates, metals,

trace quantities of toxic materials, and salts. Seepage overflow

into drinking water sources can cause disease from the ingestion
of microorganisms such as Ecoli, Giardia, Cryptosporidium,

Hepatitis A, and helminths.

The problems associated with sewage disposal have

become a major problem of the urban world due to increase in

human population and urbanization. The commonality of

sewage related problems throughout the world is important since

these areas. Consequently, domestic wastewater discharges are

considered one of the most significant threats to human

environments worldwide (GPA 2001). Environmental effects

associated with domestic waste-water discharges are generally

local with trans-boundary implications in some areas.

This chapter is the review of the related studies to this

work and examine concept of sewage, water quality and

groundwater pollution as well as the physical, chemical and

biological characteristic of drinking water, there health

implication.
 2.2. QUALITY OF WATER

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological,

and radiological characteristics of water, it measure of the

condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more

biotic species and or to any human need or purpose. Diersing,

(2009)

It is most frequently used by reference to a set of

standards against which compliance can be assessed. Is the most

common standards used to assess water quality relate to health

of ecosystems, safety of human contact and drinking water.

Johnson et-al., (1997)

The water quality of rivers and lakes changes with the

seasons and geographic areas, even when there is no pollution

present. There is no single measure that constitutes good water

quality. For instance, water suitable for drinking can be used for

irrigation, but water used for irrigation may not meet drinking

water guidelines. The quality of water appropriate for

recreational purposes differs from that used for industrial

processes.

Although pure water is rarely found in nature (because of

the strong tendency of water to dissolve other substances), the

characterization of water quality (i.e., clean or polluted) is a

function of the intended use of the water. For example, water

that is clean enough for swimming and fishing may not be clean

enough for drinking and cooking. Water quality standards

(limits on the amount of impurities allowed in water intended

for a particular use) provide a legal framework for the

prevention of water pollution of all types.

Many factors affect water quality. The natural water

quality of groundwater in aquifers is related to the quality of

recharge water, the mineralogy of soils and aquifer sediments,

and the residence time in the ground water flow system, and the

presence of nearby saline water. However, the primary influence

on groundwater quality (as well as surface water quality) is the

contamination brought about by human activity. (IFAS

Extension 2007). Urban storm water, agricultural runoff,

domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, and hydrologic

modifications are the major sources of water pollution.

The quality of water is determined by making

measurements in the field or by taking samples of water,

suspended materials, bottom sediment, or biota, and sending

them to a laboratory for physical, chemical and microbiological

analyses. For example, acidity (pH), color and turbidity (a

measure of the suspended particles in the water) can be

measured in the field. The concentrations of metals, nutrients,

pesticides and other substances are measured in the laboratory.

Another way to obtain an indication of the quality of

water is biological testing. This test determines, for example,

whether the water or the sediment is toxic to life forms or if

there has been a fluctuation in the numbers and kinds of plants

and animals.
 TABEL: 1 Water Quality Parameters and Definitions

Parameters Reason for the analysis

Chemical
Parameters
Temperature can exert great control
over aquatic communities. If the overall
Temperature water
body temperature of a system is
altered, an aquatic community shift can
be
expected.
In water above 30oC, a suppression of
all benthic organisms can be expected. Also,
differenttemperatures.
under different plankton groups
For will flourish
example,
diatoms dominate at 20 - 25 degrees
C, green algae dominate at 30 - 35 degrees C,
and cyano-bacteria dominate above 35
degrees C.
pH is an indicator of the existence of
pH value biological life as most of them thrive in a
quite narrow and critical pH range.
Dissolved DO is essential for aquatic life. A low
Oxygen (DO) DO (less than 2mg/l) would indicate poor
water quality and thus would have
difficulty in sustaining many sensitive aquatic
life.
Colour Colour is vital as most water users, be
(Hazen) it domestic or industrial, usually prefer
colourless water. Determination of
colour can help in estimated costs related to
discolouration of the water.
Conductivity Conductivity indicates the presence of
 ions within the water, usually due to in
majority, saline water and in part,
leaching. It can also indicate industrial
discharges.
The removal of vegetation and
conversion into monoculture may cause run-
off to
flow out immediate thus decrease
recharge during drier period. Hence, saline
intrusion may go upstream and this
can be indicated by higher conductivity.
Turbidity may be due to organic
Turbidity and/or inorganic constituents. Organic
(NTU) particulates
may harbour microorganisms. Thus,
turbid conditions may increase the possibility
for waterborne disease. Nonetheless,
inorganic constituents have no notable health
effects.
The series of turbidity-induced
changes that can occur in a water body may
change
the composition of an aquatic
community. First, turbidity due to a large
volume of
suspended sediment will reduce
light penetration, thereby suppressing
photosynthetic activity of
phytoplankton, algae, and macrophytes,
especially those
farther from the surface. If turbidity is
largely due to algae, light will not penetrate
very far into the water, and primary
production will be limited to the uppermost
layers of water. Cyanobacteria (blue-
green algae) are favoured in this situation
 because they possess flotation
mechanisms. Overall, excess turbidity leads
to fewer
photosynthetic organisms available to
serve as food sources for many invertebrates.
As a result, overall invertebrate
numbers may also decline, which may then
lead to

a fish population decline.

If turbidity is largely due to organic
particles, dissolved oxygen depletion may
occur in the water body. The excess
nutrients available will encourage microbial
breakdown, a process that requires
dissolved oxygen. In addition, excess
nutrients
may result in algal growth. Although
photosynthetic by day, algae respire at night,
using valuable dissolved oxygen. Fish
kills often result from extensive oxygen
depletion.
High salinity may interfere with
the growth of aquatic vegetation. Salt
Salinity may
decrease the osmotic pressure, causing
water to flow out of the plant to achieve
equilibrium. Less water can be
absorbed by the plant, causing stunted growth
and
reduced yields. High salt
concentrations may cause leaf tip and
marginal leaf burn,
bleaching, or defoliation.
As per Conductivity, salinity (NaCl
content, g/kg) can be used to check for
possible
saline intrusion in future.
Source:
TOR SEIA
(2013).
 2.3 CONCEPT OF SEWAGE
Sewage are human and domestic waste matter from
buildings, especially houses, that is carried away through
sewers, also a water-carried waste, in solution or suspension that
is intended to be removed from a community. Also known as
wastewater, it is more than 99% water and is characterized by
volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical
constituents and the bacteriological organisms that it contains.
Classes of sewage include sanitary, commercial, industrial,
agricultural and surface runoff. The wastewater from residences
and institutions, carrying body wastes (primarily feces and
urine) wash water, food preparation wastes, laundry wastes, and
other waste products of normal living, are classed as domestic or
sanitary sewage. Liquid-carried wastes from stores and service
establishments serving the immediate community, termed
commercial wastes, are included in the sanitary or domestic
sewage category if their characteristics are similar to household
flows. Wastes that result from and industrial processes such as
the production or manufacture of goods are classed as industrial
wastewater. McGraw-Hill (2013).

Sewage Disposal
 Sewage Disposal or wastewater disposal is the various

processes involved in the collection, treatment, and sanitary

disposal of liquid and water-carried wastes from households and

industrial plants. Karadi,(2008) The predominant method of

wastewater disposal in large cities and towns is discharge into a

body of surface water. Suburban and rural areas rely more on

subsurface disposal. In either case, wastewater must be purified

or treated to some degree in order to protect both public health

and water quality. Suspended particulates and biodegradable

organics must be removed to varying extents. Pathogenic

bacteria must be destroyed. It may also be necessary to remove

nitrates and phosphates (plant nutrients) and to neutralize or

remove industrial wastes and toxic chemicals

Urban sewer mains generally discharge into interceptor

sewers, which can then join to form a trunk line that discharges

into the wastewater-treatment plant. Interceptors and trunk lines,

generally made of brick or reinforced concrete, are sometimes

large enough for a truck to pass through them.

Domestic sewage

Domestic sewage originate primarily from kitchen,

bathroom, and laundry sources, waste from food preparation,

dishwashing, garbage-grinding, toilets, baths, showers, and

sinks. Domestic sewage results from people's daily activities,

such as bathing, body elimination, food preparation, and

recreation, averaging about 227 liters (about 60 gallons) per

person daily.

Domestic sewage is also a major source of plant

nutrients, mainly nitrates and phosphates. Excess nitrates and

phosphates in water promote the growth of algae, sometimes

causing unusually dense and rapid growths known as algal

blooms, (Sewa River 2011).

2.3.1. Composition of sewage

 The composition of wastewater is analyzed using several

physical, chemical, and biological measurements. The most

common analyses include the measurements of solids,

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand

(COD), and pH. The solid wastes include dissolved and

suspended solids (DSS). Dissolved solids (DS) are the materials

that will pass through a filter paper, and suspended solids (DS)

are those that do not. Human and animal excreta (faeces, dung,

urine, etc) contain a variety of pollutants inorganic, organic and

microbiological, which can affect ground water quality

adversely. Human and animal waste loaded with

microbiological pollutants may contain four types of pathogens

(disease causing bacteria) like eggs of helminthes (worms),

protozoa, bacteria (not of them pathogenic) and in case of

infected person, faecal matter may contain as high as 106

viruses/gram.

Table 2: Typical composition of untreated domestic

wastewater. Values for chloride and sulfate should be
increased by amount already present in the domestic
water supply.
 Con
centration
 W M S
Contaminants Unit eak edium trong

mg 3 7 1
Solids, total (TS) L-1 50 20 200
Dissolved, total mg 2 5 8
(TDS) L-1 50 00 50
mg 1 3 5
Fixed L-1 45 00 25
mg 1 2 3
Volatile L-1 05 00 25
Suspended solids mg 1 2 3
(SS) L-1 00 20 50
mg 2 5 7
Fixed L-1 0 5 5
mg 8 1 2
Volatile L-1 0 65 75
mg 1 2
Settle able solids L-1 5 0 0
mg 1 2 4
BOD5 at 20 C L-1 10 20 00
Total organic carbon mg 8 1 2
(TOC) L-1 0 60 90
Chemical oxygen mg 2 5 1
demand (COD) L-1 50 00 000
mg 2 4 8
Nitrogen (total as N) L-1 0 0 5
mg 1 3
Organic L-1 8 5 5
 mg 1 2 5
Free ammonia L-1 2 5 0
mg
Nitrites L-1 0 0 0
mg
Nitrates L-1 0 0 0
Phosphorus (total as mg 1
P) L-1 4 8 5
mg
Organic L-1 1 3 5
mg 1
Inorganic L-1 3 5 0
mg 3 5 1
Chlorides L-1 0 0 00
mg 2 3 5
Sulfate L-1 0 0 0
Alkalinity (as mg 5 1 2
CaCO3) L-1 0 00 00
mg 5 1 1
Grease L-1 0 00 50
CFU 1 1 1
Total coliform 100 mL-1 06-107 07-108 08-109

Volatile organic mg < 1 >

compounds (VOCs) L-1 100 00-400 400

SOURCE: G. Tchobanoglous and F.L. Burton (Eds.),

1820 pp. New York: McGraw-Hill. Adapted from Metcalf and
Eddy (1991) Wastewater Engineering Treatment Disposal
Reuse

2.4. GROUNDWATER
 The term groundwater refers to all water which is below

the surface of the ground in the saturated zone and which is in

direct contact with the ground or subsoil. The saturated zone is

where all the cracks in the rock and all the spaces between the

grains of rock or within the soil are filled with water. The upper

limit of the saturated zone may be thought of as the water table,

the zone above the water table, where pore spaces contain both

air and water, is known as the unsaturated zone.

Furthermore groundwater is water contained in

underground geologic formations called aquifers, is a source of

drinking water for many people. For example, about half the

people in the United States depend on groundwater for their

domestic water supply. Although groundwater may appear

crystal clear (due to the natural filtration that occurs as it flows

slowly through layers of soil), it may still be polluted by

dissolved chemicals and by bacteria and viruses.

2.4.1. Groundwater pollution

 Interactions between groundwater and surface water are

complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes

referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily

classified as surface water pollution (USGS, 1998)

By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible

to contamination from sources that may not directly affect

surface water bodies, and the distinction of point with non-point

source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of

chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away

from a surface water body) may not create point source or non-

point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below,

42
 defined as a toxin plume. The movement of the plume,

called a plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological

transport model or groundwater model. Analysis of groundwater

contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and geology,

hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminant

2.4.2. Causes and Effect of Groundwater pollution

Water pollution encompasses a diverse range of contaminants.

These include chemicals, pathogens, and physical alterations

like increased temperature and discoloration. Regulations often

focus on specific chemicals, even if they occur naturally in

water (e.g., calcium, sodium, iron). However, it's the

concentration that determines whether a substance is a natural

component or a contaminant. High levels of even naturally

occurring elements can harm aquatic life.

Examples include oxygen-depleting substances. These can be

natural, like decaying plant matter, or man-made chemicals.

Other natural and human-introduced contaminants can cause

turbidity (cloudiness) in water. This reduces light penetration,

hindering plant growth and potentially harming fish by clogging

their gills (as referenced in [EPA, 2005]).

When toxic substances enter a body of water, they will be

dissolved, become suspended in water or get deposited on the

bed of the water body. The resulting water pollution causes the

quality of the water to deteriorate and affects aquatic

ecosystems. Pollutants can also seep down and effect

groundwater deposits. Sewage and industrial wastes are

discharged into the rivers. Because of this, pollutants enter

groundwater, rivers, and other water bodies. Such water, which

ultimately ends up in our households, is often highly

contaminated and can carry disease-causing microbes.

 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter discuses types and sources of data required,

reconnaissance survey and sampling method, material and

procedure of data collection; instrument for data collection, and

data analysis, methods of sampling techniques, interview are

discussed in this section.

3.2. TYPES AND SOURCES OF DATA REQUIRED

The stated purpose of the study is to examine the

groundwater problems caused by irrigation with sewage effluent

and it requires preliminary information on field through

reconnaissance survey, field observation. Field interview and

laboratory analysis were also used to source first-hand

information in the study area. similarly Supporting data was also

sourced from relevant literature review; Journal, Tex books,

published and unpublished research papers were used to provide

information on the literature review on the study area, such as

Location position and size, climate, relieve, geology and

vegetation of Gombe metropolis. and consultation of official

sources, were employed to sought information on the standard

level of bacterial load and physiochemical status of groundwater

as well as common illnesses related to water pollution.

3.3. RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY AND

SAMPLING

Visual survey of the study area was carryout by the

researcher in other to familiarised himself with the study area

terrain, which also gave the researcher opportunity to ask

questions about water and sanitation issues, common illnesses

within the locality through participant observation. Background

information on then study area were also source on the current

water issues and sanitation situation. Samples point, locations,

method of working were also identified during the survey.

The approach employed in the collection of samples is

purposive sampling technique. Gombe metropolis consists of

eleven (11) wards which can also be regarded as communities.

See figure 2. In order to ensure spatial coverage of the study

area purposive sampling technique was adopted for the purpose

of this research, to select six (6) wards out of the total eleven

(11) wards. See figure 3. Out of the six (6) selected Locations

two (2)

areas located within the densely populated areas and two

(2) are located within the Medium populated area while the

remaining two (2) are located in the peripheral low populated

part of the study area which is characterise with good drainage

system. See table 3.

3.4. METHODS, MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE

OF DATA COLLECTION
 3.4.1. Field work: Observation and measurements

A Field survey is another method used in data gathering

used during the research work; observation survey was

conducted by the researcher in order to identify various sources

of water available in the study area. Mapping of the sampled

areas were done with the aid of GPS. See figure 3. Geographical

coordinate of each of the sample area were measure and

recorded.

Observation reveal that borehole is the major source of

water in the study area and most of the boreholes are located

near inbuilt or unsaved sewage system of not less than 5- 6

meters.

3.4.2. Field work: Water samples collection

The samples were collected in clean 1.5 litres of plastic

containers and total of twenty four (12) samples were collected

from six (6) locations of the total eleven (11) wards in the study
area, comprising of GRA, Barunde, Nassarawo, Pantami, Herwa

gana and Hammadu kafi. In each of the six locations, two (2)

boreholes are randomly selected and one (2), water samples are

collected from each borehole. Sampled areas were mapped using

GPS. (See figure 3) after which water samples were taken to

Biochemistry laboratory GSU

 for test. Optimum sample-holding depend on the

parameters observed. For example, temperature was determined

in the field while other parameters was analysed in the

laboratory.

The following tools and materials were used in data

collection: Global Positioning System was used in determine

positions were sample were collected, Base Map of the study

area, Digital camera, writing materials, sterilized one (1) litre

sample containers, hand gloves, thermometer, tests tube, conical

flask and staining rack.

The following precautions were taken and observed

during and after the sample collection. Sample bottle was rinsed

with the sample water before usage. The bottles were held at the

bottom while filling, to avoid contamination of water from the

hands or fingers. All the sample containers will be kept in ice

boxes and be taken to the laboratory for analysis.

3.4.3. Interview schedule

 In other to drive information on the common illnesses

within the study area, informal interview were used across the

study area and the following information were reveals.

Responded level of awareness on water pollution was also tested

during the interview. The result indicated that most of the

respondents are not aware that groundwater can be polluted by

sewage and they are ignorant about water bone illnesses.

3.4.4. Laboratory work: Laboratory Analysis of

Water Samples collected

Laboratory analysis was conducted to assess bacterial

status and physiochemical parameters of the collected samples

in the study area. Culture media method was employed to

determining bacterial load in the groundwater and

physiochemical parameters of the sample such as temperature

was taken using a mercury thermometer, see plate. 3 other

parameters such as pH, conductivity and turbidity were

investigated in the laboratory. Using potable pH meter. Analysis

of the quality of water sample was carried out in the

biochemistry laboratory of GSU. The water samples were tested

for bacteriological, physical and chemical properties.

3.5 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF DATA

ANALYSIS

3.5.1. Data summary and Presentation

The study employed the use of statistical analysis to test

the laboratory result. The student t-test and ANOVA analysis of

variance were the statistical method used to calculated the data

from the laboratory result as shown in chapter five. Chemical

content of water sample were compare with the World Health

Organisation WHO water quality standard while Culture media

method was employed to ascertain the bacterial concentration in

each sample

3.5.2. Data Analysis

 Results of the laboratory tests were compared with the

World Health Organisation (WHO) guideline standards and this

is done using one-sample statistical test. More so, the water

quality results were analyzed using SPSS software and

descriptive statistics.

One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to

show the variations in the concentrations of water quality

parameters which will answer hypothesis one (2) which states

that the concentration of some selected physicochemical

parameters does not varies among low, medium and high

density areas of the selected communities.

3.5.3. Testing of the first hypothesis

One sample statistics (T-Test) was also used to examine

if there is no significant difference between the water samples in

the study area with the World Health Organisation permissible

water quality standards.

 3.5.4. Testing of the Second hypothesis:

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed

to examine if there is significant spatial variation between the

concentrations of water parameters among low, medium and

high density areas in the study area.

Simple descriptive statistics were used such as bar chat,

line graph, pie chat, percentages, and correlation metrics to

interpret result on the bacteriological and physiochemical

parameters generated in the cause of the investigation. Samples

collected from selected boreholes within the study area are taken

to the laboratory for analysis, in relation with the WHO Water

quality Standard. The following water quality parameters is

investigated; Bacteria, temperature, pH, colour, odour,

conductivity, and turbidity, etc. with the aim of finding out

whether the present situation of poor drainage system and

indiscriminate dumping of waste has effect on the major sources

of water consume by the populace.

 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Bacteriological and physiochemical parameters of

groundwater in Gombe Metropolis were investigated from

six (6) selected Communities, comprising Pantami,

Hammadukafi Herwagana, Nassarawo, Barunde and GRA.

The core aim of the study were to examine effect of sewage

on groundwater quality through the analysis of Biological

and Physicochemical water parameters such as: Bacteria,

Temperature, pH, Total dissolve solid, Turbidity,

Conductivity, Nitrate, Phosphate, Sodium, Hardness and

Fluoride, furthermore to analyse the relationship of

groundwater quality between low density medium and high

density areas within Gombe metropolis, as well as to

compared the result obtained with WHO water quality

acceptable standards.
 Base on the laboratory analysis of culture media

conducted indicate the present of bacteria in all the water

samples collected, See Plate 1 and 2 and a confirmatory test was

perform to determine the type of bacteria present in the water, as

it turn acid turn to yellow indicate coliform bacteria.

Furthermore the total coliform bacteria in the water

sample exceeded general standard for coliform bacteria

acceptable limit of <1 colony per 100ml.

 Plate 1: Slide showing Colony in High
density area.

Plate 2: Slide showing Colony in low density

area
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATION

5.1 MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

This research focused on groundwater problems caused

by irrigation with sewage effluent. Bacteriological and

physiochemical parameters of groundwater in Gombe

Metropolis were investigated from six (6) selected

Communities, water parameters such as: Bacteria, Temperature,

pH, Total dissolve solid, Turbidity, Conductivity, Nitrate,

Phosphate, Sodium, Hardness and Fluoride, were investigated to

find out if their concentration varies between low, medium and

high density areas of the metropolis. A total of 12 samples were

collected two, samples from the high, medium and low density

areas, afterward the water sample were analysed using culture

media in other to determine the present of bacteria and also to

find out if sewage disposal has affected groundwater quality in

the study area.

Base on the laboratory analysis of culture media

conducted, indicate the present of bacteria in all the water

samples collected, See Plate 1 and 2 and a confirmatory test was

perform to determine the type of bacteria present in the water,

result indicate present of coliform bacteria. See Plate 8. In

addition the total coliform bacteria in the water sample

exceeded general standard for coliform bacteria acceptable limit

of <1 colony per 100ml.

5.2. CONCLUSUION

This research focused on groundwater problems caused

by irrigation with sewage effluent. Bacteriological and

physiochemical parameters of groundwater in Gombe

Metropolis were investigated and the result of the study

revealed that coliform bacteria present and it varies significantly

between low medium and high density areas of the study area,

the bacteria concentration found exceeded WHO permissible

standard. Physical parameters investigate shows that of all the

physical parameters studied do not varies significantly between

low, medium and high density areas of the study area, whereas

total dissolve solid and turbidity are in conflict with WHO

standart. On chemical parameters analysed i.e. pH,

Conductivity, Fluoride, Nitrate, and phosphate do not

significantly vary spatially between low, medium high density

areas, as a only fluorite and ph coincide with WHO stand while

all the rest of the chemical parameters are in conflict with WHO

permissible standard.

This implies that the underground water in the study area

has been affected by some anthropogenic factors such as

indiscriminate sewage disposal, laundry and car wash which

help in altering the quality.

More so, Hardness of water brings about poor lather

when using soap and detergents also it causes rust and brittle in
kettles or scales on boilers. The result also indicated that all the

parameters from all the sampling points do not tally

significantly from the general water quality permissible limits.

This implies that the water is good for other domestic uses

except drinking or consumption.

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practice of journalism globally is constantly changing and evolving. The rate of reading of

newspapers has continued to diminish and print media organizations are looking for alternative

means of getting to their audience (Deuze, Bruns, & Neuberger, 2007). This has stirred an

increase in their technological presence, with many of them presently making publications on

interactive websites coupled with printed news (Boczowski, 2004). These online media now

grant readers the opportunity of participating in the news reportage and coverage of their own

society or community (Chung & Nah, 2009). Newspapers are now giving readers the opportunity

to make their personal contributions through the submission of photos, making commentaries on

published and printed stories, and in some situations, websites do feature blogs to which readers

are permitted to upload original reporting (Lewis, Kaufhold, & Lasorsa, 2010). This brand or

model of journalism is known as ‘citizen’, ‘participatory’, ‘democratic’, or ‘street’ journalism.

Bowman and Willis (2003) defined citizen journalism as ‘the act of a citizen or group of citizens

of a particular society or municipal assuming active roles in the process of collecting, reporting,

analyzing and propagating news and happenings about their societies and communities’. The

purpose or intent of citizens’ participation in the reportage and coverage of news disseminating

from their societies or communities is to deliver independent, consistent, precise, inclusive and

pertinent information that a democracy needs. Gillmor (2004), Reich (2008), and Rosen (2008)

stated that the mobilization of ordinary readers in citizen journalism allows for untrained citizens

to play active roles in the reportage and coverage of news and happenings emanating from their

75
societies or communities through different media (print, electronic and internet). This added

ability for community obligation offered to persons that lack professional training on journalism,

nevertheless, does not come without earlier unsubstantiated concerns; the greatest of these being

the lifting of the ‘gate’ and allowing anyone with internet access the ability to instantly share

information (Braun & Gillespie, 2011). Globally, the gatekeeping role of journalism that existed

for centuries regarding the control of the quality and type of information that is propagated by

professional journalists’ is now facing a likely threat as power has been given to citizen

journalists to post on newspaper websites and other online social media websites (Lewis, et al,

2010). Nigeria is no exception to this global trend in the increase of online presence of

newspapers, electronic media and other social media where citizen journalism have been given

rights by these media to report news and events in their localities and communities on both their

print and online versions.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Citizen journalism generally characterizes the belief that the experiences of persons directly

involved with a particular issue in a particular locality or community provides a distinct and

often more comprehensive image of the issue than what is shared by persons not directly

involved or persons not residing in that locality or community. Due to the limitation of access to

some events or information, insufficient time and in some cases ulterior motives by reporting and

disseminating only one side of an event or story, conventional reporting of events, news and

information may be perceived by audience as biased or skewed. By permitting anybody to cover

76
and report news and events, citizen journalism provides a more personal and subtle variant view

of events, and has the potential of developing people with a common interest. Through blogs (a

regularly updated website that is run and managed by one person or a group of persons) and

other online interactive social media, citizen journalists have been able to report and cover stories

on politics, corruption, religious conflicts, police brutalities, human rights abuse issues, and other

issues of concern within Nigeria to the local, national, and international communities.

However, in spite of the evolution of independent persons who are not trained or professional

journalists covering, reporting and disseminating news, information and events about their

localities, states and country at large, many Nigerians are still not knowledgeable or aware of

what citizen journalism is and what a citizen journalist does. More so, the activities and

operations of citizens journalist is felt in all nooks and corners of the country as Nigerians

now have access to news, information and events as they are happening live without having to

read newspapers, watch television or listen to radio. Even the news on the pages of

newspapers, television and radio are mostly covered or provided by citizen journalists. It is

alleged that citizen journalism has impact on conventional mass media in Nigeria. In view of

the aforesaid, this study seeks to investigate the level of knowledge and awareness of citizen

journalism amongst Nigerians as well as the impact of citizen journalism on the conventional

mass media in Nigeria.

77
1.3 Research Questions

Based on the problem statement above, this study attempts to provide answers to the following

questions:

1. What is the level of knowledge and awareness of citizen journalism among Nigerians?

2. What is the impact of citizen journalism on conventional mass media in Nigeria?

3. What are the benefits and challenges of citizen journalism?

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to examine the impact of citizen journalism on the

conventional mass media in Nigeria. However, the specific objectives of the study are:

1. To assess the level of knowledge and awareness of citizen journalism among Nigerians.

2. To evaluate impact of citizen journalism on conventional mass media in Nigeria.

3. To determine the benefits and challenges of citizen journalism.

1.5 Research Hypotheses

In view of the research questions and objectives, the following null and alternative hypotheses

were formulated in the study:

H01: Most Nigerians do not have good knowledgeable and awareness of citizen journalism.

78
H11: Most Nigerians have good knowledge and awareness of citizen journalism.

H02: Citizen journalism does not have significant impact on conventional mass media in Nigeria.

H12: Citizen journalism has significant impact on conventional mass media in Nigeria.

1.6 Scope and Delimitations of the Study

This study which seeks to examine the impact of citizen journalism on conventional mass media

in Nigeria is limited to Abuja metropolis (Abuja Municipal Area Council) only. Due to time

constraint and limited resources available to the researcher, other cities in the country were not

included in the study. Also, only residents of Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC) who are

Nigerians were included in the study. Residents of AMAC who were non-Nigerians by

nationality were not allowed to participate in the study.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study is significant to Nigerians and nationals of other countries in the following ways:

i.) This study is important and useful to researchers and people in the academic sector as

well as those engaged in journalism and mass media as it will help enhance their

knowledge of citizen journalism and how effective it is in the country.

ii.) There is dearth of research on citizen journalism and its impact on conventional

journalism in Nigeria at the moment. This implies that this study will serve as literature

79
 material to students and researchers on the relationship between conventional journalism

and citizen journalism.

iii.) The study will also serve as reference material for studies similar to or related to

conventional journalism or citizen journalism in Nigeria or other countries. The study

will also increase the knowledge base of scholars/academicians who will ultimately

impart this on their students.

iv.) This study will help Nigerians at all levels to understand the concept of citizen

journalism and its importance especially by way of using this form of journalism to keep

up with events and getting information about current occurrences in the local community

and larger society.

v.) The study also has the potential of stimulating ordinary citizens in the community to

participate in the collection and dissemination of news and events happening in their

immediate localities and larger societies.

vi.) The results of this study will help Nigerians to understand the extent to which locals rely

on the news and information provided by citizen journalists, which are sometimes made

available on websites and online newspapers. The study will also enhance the

understanding of students and researchers about the relationship between reporting and

coverage through citizen journalism and by conventional mass media in Nigeria.

80
vii.) Finally, this study will also provide practical indicators for developing citizen

journalism/journalists among Nigerians, in the light of the rapid growth of the internet

and its numerous applications.

1.8 Definition of Key Terms

Blog: This refers to a regularly updated website or web page that is normally run by one person

or a group of persons, and operates in an interactive discussion or conversational mode.

Citizen journalism: This refers to the process of collecting, analyzing, reporting and

disseminating of news, information and events about a locality or community by public citizens

who are not trained or professional journalists, and who may be residing in the locality or

community.

Mass Media: This refers to channels of communication used in transmitting information in some

ways, shapes or forms to large numbers of audience.

Web: This refers to a system of internet servers that support specially documents formatted in a

mark-up language called Hyper Text Mark-up Language (HTML).

Website: This refers to a central location that contains more than one web page or a series of

web pages about a particular subject or phenomenon that are identified by a common domain

name.

81
1.9 Organization of the Study

This study with the main objective of assessing the impact of citizen journalism on conventional

mass media in Nigeria is structured into five main chapters for easy comprehension and orderly

presentation.

Chapter one is the introduction of the study. It comprises of background to the study, statement

of the problem, research questions, objectives of the study, research hypotheses, scope and

delimitations of the study, significance of the study, definition of key terms, and organization of

the study.

Chapter two is the literature review chapter of the study. It comprises of three sub-chapters -

conceptual review, theoretical framework, and empirical review. This chapter will also discuss

the ‘gaps’ identified in prior studies on this subject matter which this study wants to fill.

Chapter three is the methodology chapter of the study. Sub-sections in this chapter are; research

design, population of the study, sample size for the study, sampling technique, inclusion and

exclusion criteria, sources of data for the study, data collection instrument, validity of the

instrument, reliability of instrument, procedure for data collection, and methods of data analysis.

Chapter four is the data analysis, presentation of results and discussion of findings chapter in this

study. It is in this chapter that data gathered in the study through a data collection instrument is

analyzed using relevant statistical tools, results presented and appropriately interpreted to get

findings for the study. This chapter also provides platform for testing the research hypotheses in

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the study as well as discussing findings of the study based on the results of the data analyses and

tests of hypotheses.

Chapter five is the final chapter of the study. It is in this chapter that the findings of the study are

summarized, conclusions made as well as recommendations based on the findings.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter of the study reviews related literatures on citizen journalism and conventional mass

media. Literature review refers to the process of discovering from previous studies what different

individuals have written down on a particular subject matter or research works that have been

carried out on a particular occurrence (Sommer, 1980). Blank (1998) observed that there are

three main components of literature review in research studies. These components are;

conceptual review, empirical review and theoretical framework. Going by this, the literature

review chapter of this study is discussed under the following sub-chapters; conceptual review,

theoretical framework, and empirical review.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of this study is aimed at having proper understanding of the concept

of mass media, conventional mass media, citizen journalism and the impact of citizen journalism

on conventional mass media. Based on the aforementioned, the following sub-heads are

discussed in the conceptual review sub-section of the literature review chapter in this study;

concept of mass media, conventional mass media, citizen journalism, types of citizen journalism,

importance of citizen journalism, criticisms of citizen journalism and impact of citizen

journalism on conventional mass media.

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The Concept of the Media

The concept of media has been variously defined by different authors. Despite the variance in the

definitions, the primary meaning which media stands for as a major device of communicating

with large number of Respondents is not diluted. This possibility of reaching out to large

Respondents at the same time qualifies the device as “Mass Media”. McQuail (2005) describes

media as “mass media” because it makes mass communication possible through organized

technologies through which as noted by Bamidele (2015) and Quaribu (2016) the general public

kept informed about the daily happenings in the human society.

The mass media refers to organized means of dissemination of fact, opinion, entertainment and

other mass media includes newspapers, magazines, radio, television, internet, books and other

forms of published materials. Hassan (2013), notes that the term “mass media” refers to the

means of public communication reaching a large audience. In sense, mass media are the tools or

technologies that facilitate dissemination of information and entertainment to a vast number of

consumers. Mass media reaches large numbers of people for information, education, persuasive

and entertainment reasons. It is a means of communication for interchange of thoughts or ideas.

The mass media plays a pivotal role as agenda setters and also provides avenues for raising

conflicts to the level of discussion in a democratic setting. It also functions as a watchdog of a

democratic society by bringing to the people the information they need to exercise independent

judgment in electing public officials of their choice (www.thetidenewsonline.com). Media and

democracy are like Siamese twins because one cannot meaningfully function without the other.

The media refers to all the avenue through which information can be passed from one person to
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numerous, scattered and heterogeneous audiences. They also mean the vehicles through which

messages, information, ideas, knowledge and culture are transmitted to a large audience.

According to Nwosu (1996:11), cited in Afamuefuna (2007), media are a technical

communication concept which refers to the devices employed by anyone involved in a mass

mediated communication situation for moving messages across distance or time. Thus, the media

are the major modern means of communicating simultaneously and sometime instantaneously

with a large scattered heterogeneous and anonymous audience. These include radio, television,

newspaper, magazine, and the internet.

In a democratic society, the media, which is synonymous with the press is expected to function

as the Fourth Estate of the Realm. Every civilized society or nation has functional media to

sustain its democratic system. The economic and technological sector, the political sector, legal

and administrative sector, cultural sector has their communication needs upheld through the

media (Ndolo, 2011). The media as a means of political communication facilitates dissemination

of facts and opinions through the newspapers, magazines, books, films, radio, television, the

World Wide Web and other form of publishing (Ndolo, 2011). However, due to the mass media

being the only source of news for most individuals, the presence of democratic or special bias in

the media may have profound effect. Public dependence on the media also gives them the power

to set political or democratic agenda and determine which issues will be the subject of public

debate. Through the mass media, the citizens are educated on their rights and privileges so as to

participate meaningfully in the democratic process (Mile, 2009).

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The functions of the media in society encompass information dissemination, cultural

transmission, entertainment and mobilization. In a democratic setting, the media provides

information about local, national and international events and conditions, creates awareness;

explains, interprets and comments on the meaning of political events; communicate democratic

values, rules and norms of the society to the citizen. This means that the mass media helps

politicians to relax by providing amusement, diversion to escape from daily political turmoil and

concerns, thereby, reducing political tension that would have been created without information

about government policies and programmes. The category of media in Nigeria that has

continuously influenced political system is the elite media. The elite mass media comprises

newspapers, magazines, radio and television that are widely circulated and read, listened to or

watched by decision makers in Nigeria.

Moreso, the view of Bamidele and Quaribu on media above is broaden by Walter (1992) that

media is not only a device to keep public informed about happenings, it is also a basic source of

those pictures in our heads concerning the larger world of public affairs, a world for most people

that is out of reach, out of sight and out of mind.

From the above definitions, media is a bridge that links both the government and its subjects, and

the platform in which both the government and the people express and articulate their views for

attainment of national goals. So, the media is an extra-ordinary people’s parliament in ensuring

democratic governance.

Nature and Roles of the Media in Relation to Democratic governance

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The question of whether or not the media can promote Democratic governance depends on the

media themselves. UNESCO (2005) publication on Media and Democratic governance clearly

reveals what the media should be, and should have, in order to perform their duty effectively.

According to the UNESCO document the preconditions for the media to effectively contribute to

Democratic governance depend on these three elements: media freedom, independence and

pluralism. Interestingly, the Center for Development Communication (2006) document echoed

similar argument this way: To contribute to democratic governance, media should be editorially

independent, free from any pressure and external interferences, and reflect the plurality of

opinions and perceptions in order to truly help citizens to be informed, understand the issues at

stake, make up their minds, and finally, judge events by themselves.

The media plays a crucial role in shaping a healthy democracy and ensuring democratic

governance. According to Norris and Odugbemi (2009) the media has three key roles that can

have tremendous impact on democratic governance and accountability if effectively fulfilled. As

watchdogs, the news media protect public interests by monitoring society’s powerful sectors to

uncover corruption and misinformation. As agenda sellers, media raise awareness of social issues

and specifically major global crises that call for action; and finally as gate keepers, they write a

plurality of perspectives and voices to debate issues of concern (Norris, & Odugbemi, 2009).

The roles of the media, including the social media, in promoting Democratic governance are

being recognized by the governments and policy-makers in various countries. In the UK, a

“Survey of Policy Opinion on Governance and the Media” published by BBC (2009) reveals that

88
although the emphasis on Democratic governance in the development agenda is questionable,

“there seems to be increasing recognition of the media’s role in governance in the development

community. There are also some indicators that media are being more recognized by the policy-

makers as having a central role in development.” The role of the media in promoting Democratic

governance is obvious. All aspects of Democratic governance are facilitated by the existence of a

strong, pluralistic and independent media within the society (UNESCO, 2005). Fortunately, the

Nigerian media terrain largely could be adjudged to qualify.

The following are the ways Nigerian media encourage and promote democratic governance in

Nigeria;

• Participation: Participation as component of democratic governance advocated

for involvement of citizens in decision-making process which promotes transparency in

government confers legitimacy on government and such decision reached can be adopted

to meet the needs of the people (UNESCO, 2005). The media in Nigeria often times serve

as platforms to facilitate the provisions of accurate and adequate information that aid

Nigerians to make rational and informed decisions that are beneficial to Nigerians as well

as express their feelings publicly of their approval or disapproval concerning (national)

issues as observed in the disapproval of president Obasanjo third tenure bid by the

National Assembly due to the Nigerians criticism (Akanji,

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2006; Asuoquo, 2006; Anaza, 2006; Suleiman, 2006) as well as the displeasure expressed

by “Bring Back Our Girls” (Chibok Girls) organization over the poor attitude of the

government to the release of the girls (Agande, 2014).

• Consensus Oriented: Nigeria is a multicultural/ethic country (Sokoh and Ojo,

2015), with different interests in line with her multi-ethnic nature. Democratic

governance needs mediation between various interests in a society to reach in broad

consensus on what is the best interest of the entire society and way(s) it can be achieved.

The Nigeria media play mediating role by provision of platforms for discourse and

discussions on contending issues to be discussed by either the representatives of the

contesting groups or experts and the best decision(s) is reached as observed mostly in the

broadcasting media, among others in Coretv, Nigeria and Galaxytv Nigeria. Moreso,

Nigeria media played unforgettable role through the provision of informative and

educative programmes/platforms aimed at arriving consensus for the emergence of

Goodluck Jonathan as Nigeria President (Agbaegbu and Anza, 2010) and as the first

indigene of the South-South region to became President (Mojaye and Oboh, 2017)

through the 2011 general election after the death of President Musa Yar’Adua in Nigeria.

• Accountability: This is a key criterion and requirement of democratic governance

because government is expected to be accountable to the people that established it.

Jobarteh (2012) observes that accountability includes how individual functionary and

institutions are managing public funds, and whether there is fairness and performance in

all aspects in line with agreed rules, contract, standards and fair, and accurate reporting
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on performance results vis-a-vis mandated role and/or plans. Accountability aimed at

reducing if impossible, to eradicate the irregularities in governance, because as noted by

Ossai (2015) accountability is a core ethical value that is required of all leaders and

public officials in bringing about governance that is in the public interest which

(emphasis) Nigeria media is making concerted efforts to achieve. Access to information

by the media is a tool to achieve accountability because it promotes transparency (sellin

cited in Mwantok, 2016) It is then safe to say that Nigeria government recognition of the

chain linkage between information, accountability and transparency spurred the

government to passed the Freedom of Information (FOI) bill into law. The bill was signed

into law in 2011 by Jonathan Goodluck administration (Ogbeni, 2017) to provide

enabling environment for Nigeria media to promote and facilitate transparency and

accountability of government to the people.

• Transparency: Transparency and accountability are like two sides of a coin;

usually go together as discussed under accountability. Olori (2015) noted that

transparency means that information is freely available and directly accessible to those

who will be affected by such decision and their enforcement. The FOI Act of 2011 is to

strengthen access to information (Ogberu, 2017) which media it transmit to inform and

educate Nigerians to make informed decisions and act accordingly as evident in the

telecast of the Lagos State Land use charge which Nigeria Bar Association (NBA) Lagos

State Chapter mobilized civil societies and Lagosians to protest against (DEJI360, 2018).

Besides, the media efforts in ensuring transparency in governance in Nigeria is been

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carried out in their investigative and informative role, e.g the investigation of some of the

accused judges and chief judges of the federation accepting gratifications from litigants

before their courts as they were recommended by National Judicial Council (NJC) for

sack (Nnochiri, 2016). The Nigeria media aides the campaign of the whistle blows policy

of the president Buhari administration against corrupt practice. Transparency requires

availability of information to be used to adjudge the authorities’ performance and guard

against any feasible misuse of powers.

• Responsiveness: Democratic governance requires responsive government and its

institutions to the needs of all stakeholders within a reasonable time frame. The media

provides the widest and fastest channel of reaching out to people (Ijeoma, 2010), thus, the

Nigeria media help in this direction. The media helped Goodluck Jonathan government to

reach out to Nigerians within reasonable time frame informatively and educatively on the

Ebola outbreak, and the possible solutions in Nigeria. (Aghulor and Osakwe, 2014) Also,

the review of the Lagos state Land use charge was facilitated by the media (DEJI360,

2018; Serious Matta, 2018). However, the response of Nigeria government towards the

plights of the people is not commensurate with the expressed needs of the people.

• Effective and Efficient: These two concepts are essential to democratic

governance because as asserted by Olori, (2015) the two concepts require governmental

institutions and processes to judiciously utilize the available resources to meet the needs

of the people. The aforesaid concepts also advocate how to sustain the use of natural

resources and secure the environment (Ossai, 2015). The Nigeria media investigate and

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constantly inform the government of the need of Nigerians (Ogwuda, 2014, Enyosa,

2014) and reports the use of available resources by the government e.g the claimed 16

billion US dollars

in various electricity projects without nothing to show for it under president Obasanjo

administration (Oloya, 2015) and Niger Delta environmental degradation jingle(s) by the

media due to oil exploration in the region to attract government attention to the

environmental problems.

• Equity and inclusiveness: This component of democratic governance depends on

creation of opportunities in which all citizens feel that they have a stake in the

mainstream of activities without be excluded (Agidi, 2012). The most vulnerable in the

society should be given opportunities to improve and maintain their well-being. In

Nigeria, the civil societies and the media in their programmes remind the government of

equal treatment and inclusion of the most vulnerable through policy in Nigeria.

• Rule of Law: It was the search to curtain arbitrary power(s) that is not tolerated in

the society that led to the evolution of rule of law (Okonkwo, 2014, Bamgbose, 2002).

Rule of law needs full protection of human rights and impartial enforcement of laws by

concerned authorities/institutions. The media also reported the scene of human right

abuse by some Nigeria soldiers that brutalized a crippled civilian at Onitsha (Obaze,

2017). The Nigeria media plays crucial role in promoting enforcement of rule of law and

in ensuring that rule of law is adherent in Nigeria. The media provides informative and

educative platforms aimed at the promotion of principles adherent to rules of law, equity,
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 and transparency, active participation of Nigerians in government, government

responsiveness and accountability which are components of democratic governance.

Governance and communication is inseparable in administration of a state. A strong link of

communication between the government and its citizens is not only necessary; it also compulsory

means to drive the government to the destination of democratic governance. The media is a

platform for communicating opinions, ideas, feelings or information to a large Respondents

either by an individual, a group of persons, organization or government. The mass media are

essential devices in the modern society as a conduit through which people express their feelings

and desires to the government as well as feedback mechanism of government to informed and

educate the people about its actions and inactions (policies). That is why Pate (2011) argued for

the media that they remained in the forefront in the struggle to promote the rights of Nigerians

through a credible democratization process in Nigeria.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

2.3.1 Democratic Participant Media Theory

This study is anchored on the ‘democratic participant media’ theory which allows for plurality

and diversity in the media, multiplicity of ideas as well as a democratic participation by ordinary

people in a society. The main proponent of the theory was Professor Denis McQuail (1935-2017)

and it started by grass-root level media in the 1960s. The theory emerged as a result of the

94
discontentment with prior models such as Libertarian theory, social responsibility theory, and so

on. For people who were often ignored by the media, this theory provided them with the

opportunity to keenly relate with the public through participating in political, economic, social

and cultural discussions for developmental reasons. The main drive of the theory lies in its

steadfastness that the existing system of administration as well as commercial and professional

domination in media systems be broken down, in order to facilitate stress-free media access for

all potential users and clients (Folarin, 2005). This implies that the emphasis of the ‘democratic

participant media’ theory was on the basis of the society and on the significance of horizontal

communication rather than vertical (top to down) communication, as it took account of many

ideas uttered to take care of the needs of locals (McQuail, 1987).

McQuail (1987) observed that the key to applying this theory laid on the technological

development at that time and was to favour media that would be small in scale, non-commercial

and mostly dedicated to a cause. Participation and interaction in the production, reporting and

dissemination of news and information were crucial ideas. The theory has been against the

system of parliamentary democracy which then appeared to be disconnected from its grassroots

origins, hindering rather than facilitating movement in political and social life. It also took

exception to a ‘mass society’ which is over-structured, over-consolidated and failed to offer

convincing opportunities for individual and minority countenances. McQuail (1987) stated that

the ‘the central point of a democratic participant media theory laid with the desires, interests and

hopes of the active ‘receiver’ in a political society. This implies that, it has to do with people’s

right to relevant information, right to respond back, right to use the available means of
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communication to interact in small-scale settings of the community, interest group, and sub-

culture’. Essentially, the theory cautions that journalism practice should not be left in the hands

of professionals alone, and has found practical expression in the structure and general operations

of citizen journalism.

Agenda Setting Theory

The agenda setting theory of mass communication is also employed in this work. The agenda-

setting theory, developed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in 1972 (McCombs & Shaw,

1972), proposes a powerful influence of mass media on public opinion. The core idea lies in the

media's ability to shape what people think about, rather than necessarily what they think. The

theory states that the mass media has the power to set a nation‘s agenda and to focus public

attention on a few public issues‘. As McCombs (1972) puts it, “Not only do people acquire

factual information about public affairs from the news media, readers and viewers also learn how

much importance to attach to a topic on the basis of the emphasis placed on it in the news‘

(quoted in Alex Umuerri, 2008 ).

The agenda-setting theory rests on two core assumptions that explain the media's power to

influence public opinion. The first assumption centers on the concept of limited knowledge.

People are bombarded with information daily, making it impossible to be truly well-informed

about everything (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). As a result, the media acts as a gatekeeper, filtering

information and prioritizing certain issues over others. This limited knowledge creates a

dependence on the media for cues about what to pay attention to. For instance, if a news outlet

heavily covers a specific crime wave, the public is more likely to perceive crime as a significant
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issue, even if overall crime rates haven't significantly changed. The media doesn't directly tell

people to be afraid of crime, but by making it a prominent topic, they prime the public to

consider it a pressing concern (Ogbi, 2008).

The second core assumption deals with the concept of salience. Agenda-setting theory posits that

the amount of attention the media gives to an issue directly affects how important the public

perceives it to be (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). This doesn't necessarily imply that increased

coverage leads to positive or negative opinions. Instead, it elevates the issue's prominence in the

public mind. Imagine two equally important issues – education funding and healthcare reform. If

the media consistently focuses on education funding, the public is more likely to consider it a

pressing concern, even if healthcare reform objectively impacts more lives. The media's

emphasis on education funding increases its salience, making it a more readily available thought

in the public's mind. This doesn't mean people don't care about healthcare reform, but the media's

focus shapes what issue takes center stage in public discourse.

The mass media institution is regarded as responsible for raising issues they considered vital to

the platform of public discourse and draw public attention to it. The media successfully do this

via the quantity and frequency of reporting, prominence given to the reports through headline

displays, pictures, adverts, layout in newspapers, magazines, films, graphics or prime timing on

radio and television. Ugboajah, (1987: V) states that ―they define the relation between media

coverage and public thinking . . . and influence what people learn about their society‖ (quoted in

Ojete, 2008).

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 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter of the study deals with the methods and procedures employed in identifying

and selecting respondents for the study. It also discusses the instrument and tools used in

gathering the data used in the study as well as the methods of data analyses with the aim of

providing valid and reliable answers to the research questions posed in the study. Areas to be

discussed in this chapter are; research design, study area, population of the study, sample size,

sampling technique, sources of data, data collection instrument, procedure for data collection,

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and methods of data analyses. The research methodology employed in this study is adjudged to

be one that will produce accurate and reliable if pragmatically and carefully applied.

3.2 Research Design

According to Creswell (2014), research design is a defined strategy for carrying out a

study. It provides the overall logical framework for the study and helps to determine the type of

respondents to be included in the study, the type of data to be used in the study, type of

instrument to be used in gathering data for the study, and methods of data analysis (Okoro,

2001). A survey research design was adopted in this study. This design was adopted because it

permits the use of a probabilistic (random) sampling technique in the selection of sample

members (respondents) from the target population of the study. This research design also pave

way for the collection of primary quantitative data using a validated data collection instrument.

The research design also pave way for the use of descriptive and inferential statistical tools to

analyze the collected quantitative data.

3.3 Study Area

This research study was carried out in Abuja Municipal Area Council, which is the

metropolitan council area in the Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria. Abuja, the capital city of

Nigeria is located between latitudes 8º 25' N and 9º25' N of the Equator and longitudes 6º 45' E

and 7º39’ E of the Greenwich Meridian. It is a planned city in the center of the country bordered

to the north by Kaduna State, to the east by Nassarawa State, to the southwest by Kogi State and

to the west by Niger State. The area under study is the Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC),
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one of the area councils in Abuja. AMAC is the largest, most urbanized and developed of the six

area councils of Abuja (Touristlink, 2013). The greater part of the built-up areas of AMAC

makes up the Federal Capital Territory city (Abuja). AMAC is located between latitudes 8º36´ N

and 9º21´ N of the Equator and longitudes 7º07´ E and 7º33´E of the Greenwich Meridian. It

covers about 1,500km2 of the total land area (38.8%) of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT)

(Balogun, 2001). The area is considered the most ideal and conducive for human habitation and

settlement development within the Federal Capital Territory - Abuja (Mabogunje, 1976). AMAC

is made up of 12 political wards, namely; City Centre, Wuse, Gwarinpa, Garki, Kabusa, Gui,

Jiwa, Gwagwa, Karshi, Orozo, Karu and Nyanya (Touristlink, 2013).

3.4 Population of the Study

Best & Khan (2006) defined a population as a group of persons with one or more

characteristics in common that may be of interest to a researcher. Umar (2004) also referred to a

population as the total number of persons or items a particular area or domain in a specified time

period. Similarly, Neuman (2006) referred to population as a large pool of individuals or items in

a defined location or domain at a specified time period that a researcher is interested in

uncovering some facts from. In reality, target populations could be finite or infinite. A finite

population is one whose actual size is known or is easy to estimate, while an infinite population

is one whose actual size is not known and is difficult or infeasible to estimate. The population of

the study is the total inhabitants in AMAC. The Nigerian National Population and Housing

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Census of 2006 put the population of AMAC at 778,567 (NPC, 2006). However, the population

was estimated to be 1,967,500 by the National Bureau of Statistics in 2017 (NBS, 2017).

3.5 Sample of Study

A sample is a subset of a population, carefully selected as a representative of the whole

population for the purpose of conducting an investigation or study. In other words, a sample is a

prudently selected part of a population of interest drawn for the purpose of revealing some facts

about the entire population. The employment or utilization of samples in research studies is

sometimes inevitable, especially when the population under investigation is relatively very large

and would be very expensive and time consuming to investigate every single individual or item

in the population. Sometimes, or when it is not feasible and possible to scrutinize every single

individual or item in the population. Sometimes, even when it is possible to scrutinize all the

individuals or items in the population, if the process of scrutiny or investigation is destructive or

hazardous, the use of a sample becomes inevitable, since scrutinizing or investigating every

individual or item in the population will simply mean damaging all the items in the population or

exposing all the individuals in the population to some hazardous conditions. Based on the

aforesaid, the use of a sample becomes very indispensable. Before the actual selection of sample

members as respondents in this study from the target population, an ideal sample size was

estimated or determined for the study relative to the population size. The ideal sample size for

this study was estimated or determined with the use of Yamane’s formula (Yamane, 1967). The
𝑵
Yamane’s sample size determination formula is given as: n = 𝟐

101
 𝟏+𝑵(𝒆)

Where:

n = Ideal sample size N

= Total population size e

= Margin of error

The margin of error used in estimating the ideal sample size in this study is 5%. In other

words, a level of confidence of 95% was used in determining the ideal sample size in this study.

This implies that the value of e in the Yamane’s formula is 5% (that is, 0.05). Since the estimated

population of AMAC is 1,967,500 (NBS, 2017), it implies that the total population size (N) in

the study is 1,967,500. It then follows that, the ideal sample size (n) for this study with 95% level

of confidence is:

n=

n = 399.9 ≈ 400

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 This implies that a sample size of 400 inhabitants of AMAC was used in executing the

study in order to achieve a minimum of 95% confidence from the findings.

3.6 Sampling Technique

Sampling is the process of selecting items or persons from a population of interest to be

scrutinized or to serve as respondents in a research study. The items or persons selected as

sample members are selected in such a way that they reliably represent other members of the

target population where they were selected from, and so that, findings from the sample can be

inferred or generalized on the entire population (Okwechime, 2016). Sampling from research

populations may be carried out using a probability approach or a non-probability approach.

Sometimes, the two approaches may be employed in order to get a more reliable and convincing

sample for the study. Based on the aforesaid, it is important to state here that probability

sampling methods are mostly employed when it is possible to get a ‘sampling frame’ for the

target population; otherwise, non-probability sampling approaches are employed (Turner, 2003).

A sampling frame is an inclusive list of all the individuals or items in a population of interest

(Turner, 2003). Based on this, the sampling frame for this study is a comprehensive list of all

inhabitants or households in AMAC. Consequently, due to the non-availability of a

comprehensive sampling frame for AMAC, and because of the limited time available to conduct

as well as insufficient financial resources, a non-probability sampling method known as

purposive sampling technique was employed in the selection of sample members (respondents)

in this study.

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 Purpose sampling technique is a non-probability sampling technique that is employed

in the selection of sample members from a population of interest when the researcher wishes

to include only persons who meet predefined standards to constitute the sample for the study.

The predefined standards could be persons who are well knowledgeable or experienced on the

issue to be investigated, persons who were first-hand witnesses of an occurrence, or persons

who are very proficient in performing a particular task (Alvi, 2016). Setting a predefined

criteria is important in purposive sampling, because it allows the researcher to include only

persons who meet the predefined criteria in the study, therefore, providing a means of

gathering reliable information and data for the study (Etikan, Musa, & Alkassim, 2016). One

advantage of samples selected using purposive sampling technique over those selected using

probability sampling methods is that, unlike probability sampling methods that usually include

persons of different backgrounds, with diverse philosophies, cultures and beliefs in a sample,

the notion behind purposive sampling is to focus on only persons that possess a particular

characteristics, and are believed are going to provide highly reliable and relevant information

and data for the study (Etikan et al., 2016). Therefore, purposive sampling technique was

employed in this study so that the researcher will only include as respondents in the study,

persons who possess at least a fair knowledge of citizens’ journalism so as to gather reliable

data for the study.

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3.7 Instrument of Data collection

Data used in executing this study were gathered through two main sources - primary and

secondary sources. The reason for collecting data from both sources was to be able to gather

reliable data in executing the study in order to help proffer valid answers to the research

questions posed in the study.

3.8 Data Collection Instrument

Data collection is a fundamental aspect of research study as it is through data gathered

that researchers are able to provide answers to research questions. According to Kabir (2016),

data collection is the act of gathering data on variables of interest in a study using statistical or

logical means. The validity and reliability of the findings of a research study depends greatly on

the type of data used in the study and the instrument used in collecting the data. Before collection

of data in a research study, the researcher is required to carefully plan and decide on the variables

to collect data on, therefore, the data collection instrument becomes very fundamental. Since this

study is aimed at providing empirical evidences, quantitative data were collected with the use of

a structured questionnaire. According to Umar (2004), a questionnaire is a set of

statements/questions that is administered to respondents in a research study with the aim eliciting

views/opinions on a subject matter from them in written form. He further posited that the basic

assumption for using a questionnaire to collect data from respondents was that, the respondents

will respond roughly frankly and correctly to the questions in the questionnaire, thus, make

available reliable data for the study. The questionnaire used in this study contains structured and

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open-ended questions. It is pretested and self-administered, and was designed by the researcher

through the adoption of similar ones in previous studies and making slight modifications. The

structured questionnaire employed in this study is divided into four (4) sections – A, B, C and D.

Section A of the questionnaire contains close-ended questions that seeks to know

respondents’ bio-demographic characteristics such as gender, age category, marital status,

highest educational attainment, and occupation. Respondents are required to select just one

answer-option corresponding to each question that best describes them from a list of multiple

options.

Section B contains close-ended questions that seeks to know respondents’ knowledge and

awareness of citizen’s journalism. Respondents are required to pick only one answer-option from

the multiple answer-options for each question to indicate their answers to each question in the

section.

Section C contains statements/questions that seeks to know respondents’ views/opinions

regarding the impact of citizen’s journalism on the conventional mass media in Nigeria. The

statements/questions in this section are framed using 5-point Likert scale answer-options, and

respondents are required to pick only one answer-option for each statement/question to specify

their level of agreement with a specific statement/question. The Likert scale answer-options are:

5-Strongly agree, 4-Agree, 3-Neutral, 2-Disagree, 1-Strongly disagree.

Section D contains statements/questions that seeks to know respondents’ views/opinions

regarding the benefits and challenges of citizen journalism. The statements/questions in this

106
section are also framed using 5-point Likert scale answer-options, and respondents are required

to pick only one answer-option for each statement/question to show their level of agreement with

a specific statement/question. The Likert scale answer-options are: 5-Strongly agree, 4-Agree,

3Neutral, 2-Disagree, 1-Strongly disagree.

3.9 Procedure for Data Collection

The researcher first informed and explained the purpose of the study to the relevant

authorities of Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC), and then asked for their consent to

conduct the study in the Municipal Area. The researcher was granted consent to conduct the

study within the Municipal Area. The researcher employed a purposive sampling technique in

selecting respondents in the study and solicited for their support in filling the questionnaires with

honest and sincere responses. Those who were selected as respondents in the study were asked to

give their consents to participate in the study. Only persons who met the predefined criteria for

selection in the study were selected as respondents and such persons must give their verbal

consents before they are fully included as respondents in the study. Those who gave their

consents to participate in the study were administered with the research questionnaires for

onward filling. The researcher gave the respondents a period of three weeks to fill the

questionnaires before efforts were made to collect the filled questionnaires. Through this

procedure, the researcher was able to gather the primary data used in executing this study.

107
3.10 Methods of Data Analysis

Data analysis is the process of transforming and manipulating data collected in a research

study for the purpose of coming up with meaningful information that helps provide answers to

the research questions posed in a research study (Richmond, 2006). In other words, data analysis

refers to the process of extracting meanings from data using statistical and analytical tools. The

ultimate goal of data analysis in a research study is to provide substantial evidences that provide

answers to the research questions posed in the study. Data analysis in this study was done using

descriptive and inferential statistical tools. The descriptive statistical tools employed in this study

are frequency/percentage distribution analysis, while the inferential statistical tool employed is

the Chi-square goodness of fit test. Because of the large volume of data gathered in the study, the

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 23 (SPSS version 23) computer software was

employed in analyzing the data.

CHAPTER FOUR

108
 ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

4.1 Introduction

This chapter of the study deals with the analysis of data gathered in the study through

questionnaire and the presentation and interpretation of the results of the analysis. The results of

the data analyses are presented in tabular forms (in some cases, graphical displays are included)

and appropriate interpretation done. The data analyses were carried out using

frequency/percentage distribution analysis and Chi-square goodness of fit test, and are done with

the aid of SPSS Version 23.0 software, due to the volume of data involved. It is very important to

mention here that, a total of 400 copies of the research questionnaire was administered to the

sample members (respondents) in the study. Nevertheless, only 357 were successfully gotten

back from the respondents. Consequently, upon scrutinizing the returned questionnaires, only

328 were completely filled and found to be valid for use in the study. This implies that the study

achieved a return rate of 82.0% (see Table 4.1 for the return rate analysis). This return rate is

believed to be very good return for executing the study. Accordingly, the basis for data analysis

in this study becomes 328 and not 400.

Table 4.1: Return Rate Analysis

No. of No. of Percentage of Number of Overall
Questionnaires Questionnaires Questionnaires Returned Percentage of
Administered Returned Returned Questionnaires Valid
Valid Questionnaires in
the Study

400 357 89.25% 328 82.0%

109
Source: Researcher’s Return Rate Analysis, 2021.

4.2 Data Analysis and Interpretation of Results

The data gathered in this study were analyzed using frequency/percentage distribution

analysis and Chi-Square test. The analyses were done with the aid of SPSS Version 23.0

software and the results are presented in tabular forms and given proper interpretations.

4.3 Frequency/Percentage Distribution Analysis

Frequency/percentage distribution analysis was used in this study to determine the

distribution of respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics and the distribution of responses

on to the other questions in the questionnaire.

4.3.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Table 4.2: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Socio-Demographic Variable Frequency Percent
Gender Male 194 59.1
Female 134 40.9
Total 328 100.0
Age Group 18-22 years 13 4.0
23-27 years 66 20.1
28-32 years 55 16.8
33-37 years 42 12.8
38-42 years 75 22.9
43-47 years 43 13.4

110
 48 years and above 33 10.1
Total 328 100.0
Single 59 18.0
Married 235 71.6
Marital Status Separated 17 5.2
Divorced 5 1.5

Widowed 12 3.7
Total 328 100.0
Religion Christianity 171 52.1
Islam 138 42.1
Traditional 19 15.8
Total 328 100.0
Educational Attainment PhD 17 5.2
Master’s Degree 84 25.6
PGD 73 22.3
First Degree/HND 92 28.0
NCE/ND 16 4.9
O’ Level 48 14.0
Total 328 100.0
Occupation Civil/Public Servant 152 46.3
Private Sector Employee 56 17.1
Artisan 36 11.0
Business/Entrepreneur 34 10.4
Farming 31 9.5
Others* 19 5.9
Total 328 100.0
111
*Others = Fishing, Driving, Politicking, etc.
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.2 shows the distribution of respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics in this

study. The first panel of the Table indicates that majority 194(59.1%) of the respondents in this

study were males. This implies that there are more male adults than females in Abuja Municipal

Area Council (AMAC).

The second panel of the Table indicates that majority 75(22.9%) of the respondents in this

study were in the age group ‘38-42 years’. This implies that most of the adults in Abuja

Municipal Area Council (AMAC) are in the age group ‘38-42 years’.

The third panel of the Table indicates that majority 235(71.6%) of the respondents in this

study were in married. This is an indication that most adults in Abuja Municipal Area Council

(AMAC) are married.

The fourth panel of the Table indicates that majority 171(52.1%) of the respondents in this

study were of the Christian faith. This is an indication that most adults in Abuja Municipal Area

Council (AMAC) are Christians.

The fifth panel of the Table indicates that majority 92(28.0%) of the respondents in this

study were persons that had attained First Degree/HND. This is an indication that most adults in

Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC) are First Degree/HND holders.

112
 The sixth panel of the Table indicates that majority 152(46.3%) of the respondents in this

study were Civil/Public Servants. This implies that most adults in Abuja Municipal Area Council

(AMAC) are persons that work for the Government.

4.3.2 Knowledge/Awareness of Citizen Journalism

Table 4.3: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Variable: Response: Frequency Percent
Frequency of Reading Rarely 33 10.1
News/Information on Once in a while 42 12.8
Citizen Journalism Media Sometimes 43 13.1
Sites Often 157 47.9
Very Often 53 16.2

Total 328 100.0

Facebook 68 20.7
Twitter 37 11.3
Access to Citizen Instagram 45 13.7
Journalism
Citizen Journalists’ websites 46 14.0
news/information and
contents Local/International Media websites 44 13.4
All of the above 88 26.8
Total 328 100.0
Level of Knowledge of Poor 22 6.7
Citizen Journalism Fair 68 20.7
Good 110 33.5
Very Good 93 28.4
Excellent 35 10.7

113
 Total 328 100.0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.3 shows the distribution of responses regarding respondents’ knowledge

/awareness of citizen journalism in this study. The first panel of the Table indicates that majority

118(36.0%) of the respondents in this study were persons who have been aware of citizen

journalism for ‘10 years and above’. This is an indication that most adults in Abuja Municipal

Area Council (AMAC) got aware of citizen journalism since ‘10 years and above’.

The second panel of the Table indicates that majority 157(47.9%) of the respondents in

this study were persons who ‘often’ read news/information from citizen journalism media sites.

This is an indication that most adults in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC) ‘often’ read

news/information from citizen journalism media sites.

The third panel of the Table indicates that majority 68(20.7%) of the respondents in this

study had access to citizen journalism news/information and contents through all the available

channels (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Citizen Journalists’ websites, and Local/International

media websites). This is an indication that most adults in Abuja Municipal Area Council

(AMAC) access citizen journalism news/information and contents through all the available

channels

(Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Citizen Journalists’ websites, and Local/International media

websites).

114
 The fourth panel of the Table indicates that majority 110(33.5%) of the respondents in

this study had good knowledge of citizen journalism. This is an indication that most adults in

Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC) have good knowledge of citizen journalism.

4.3.3 Impact of Citizen Journalism on the Conventional Mass Media

Table 4.4: Citizen Journalism has changed the way news, information and events are
propagated and reported to the public

Frequency Percent
3
3 10.1
5
5 16.8
Strongly Disagree 2
Disagree 0 6.1
14
Neutral
1 43.0
Agree 7
9 24.1
Strongly Agree
32 100.
Total 8 0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.3 shows the distribution of responses regarding whether citizen journalism had

changed the way news, information and events are propagated and reported to the public. The

Table indicates that majority 141(43.0%) of the respondents agreed with this assertion, while the

least 20(6.1%) were neutral. This implies that most of the respondents were of the opinion that

citizen journalism had changed the way news, information and events are propagated and

115
reported to the public. This is an indication that citizen journalism had changed the way news,

information and events are propagated and reported to the public.

Table 4.5: Because of the timely reporting of events by citizen journalists, more people now
patronize their sites/media for current news and information than the conventional mass
media

Frequency Percent

20 6.1

Strongly Disagree 66 20.1

Disagree 44 13.4
Neutral 12
1 36.9
Agree
77 23.5
Strongly Agree
32
Total 8 100.0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.5 shows the distribution of responses regarding whether because of the timely

reporting of events by citizen journalists, more people now patronized their sites/media for

current news and information than the conventional mass media. The Table indicates that

majority 121(36.9%) of the respondents agreed with this assertion, while the least 20(6.1%)

strongly disagreed. This implies that most of the respondents were of the opinion that because of

the timely reporting of events by citizen journalists, more people now patronize their sites/media

for current news and information than the conventional mass media. This is an indication that

because of the timely reporting of events by citizen journalists, more people now patronize their

sites/media for current news and information than the conventional mass media.
116
Table 4.6: Citizen Journalists have now replaced conventional journalists/mass media as
gatekeepers of important news, information and events in the society

Frequency Percent

24 7.3
Strongly Disagree
68 20.7
Disagree
31 9.5
Neutral
11
Agree 7 35.7
Strongly Agree 88 26.8
Total 328 100.0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.6 shows the distribution of responses regarding whether citizen journalists had

now replaced conventional journalists/mass media as gatekeepers of important news, information

and events in the society. The Table indicates that majority 117(35.7%) of the respondents

agreed with this assertion, while the least 24(7.3%) strongly disagreed. This implies that most of

the respondents were of the opinion that citizen journalists had now replaced conventional

journalists/mass media as gatekeepers of important news, information and events in the society.

This is an indication that citizen journalists have now replaced conventional journalists/mass

media as gatekeepers of important news, information and events in the society.

Table 4.7: Conventional mass media now rely heavily on citizen journalists for certain
categories of news, information and happenings in localities

Frequency Percent
Strongly Disagree
9 2.7
Disagree 66 20.1

117
 Neutral
44 13.4
Agree 14
3 43.6
Strongly Agree
66 20.1
Total
32
8 100.0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.7 shows the distribution of responses regarding whether conventional mass media

relied heavily on citizen journalists for certain categories of news, information and happenings in

localities. The Table indicates that majority 143(43.6%) of the respondents agreed with this

assertion, while the least 9(2.7%) strongly disagreed. This implies that most of the respondents

were of the opinion that conventional mass media relied heavily on citizen journalists for certain

categories of news, information and happenings in localities. This is an indication that

conventional mass media now rely heavily on citizen journalists for certain categories of news,

information and happenings in localities.

Table 4.8: Advancement in technology has made it very easy to propagate news,
information and current happenings through citizen journalism with less constraints
compared to the conventional mass media

Frequency Percent
Strongly Disagree
31 9.5
Disagree
64 19.5
Neutral
48 14.6
Agree 13 39.6
0

118
 Strongly Agree
55 16.8
Total 32 100.
8 0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.8 shows the distribution of responses regarding whether advancement in

technology had made it very easy to propagate news, information and current happenings

through citizen journalism with less constraints compared to the conventional mass media. The

Table indicates that majority 130(39.6%) of the respondents agreed with this assertion, while the

least 31(9.5%) strongly disagreed. This implies that most of the respondents were of the opinion

that advancement in technology had made it very easy to propagate news, information and

current happenings through citizen journalism with less constraints compared to the conventional

mass media. This is an indication that advancement in technology has made it very easy to

propagate news, information and current happenings through citizen journalism with less

constraints compared to the conventional mass media.

Table 4.9: Citizen Journalism helps in propagating news, information and events that are
sometimes difficult for the conventional mass media to gather and disseminate

Frequency Percent

9 2.7
Strongly Disagree 9
2 28.0
Disagree
5
Neutral 5 16.8
Agree 117 35.7
Strongly Agree 55 16.8

Total 328 100.0

119
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.9 shows the distribution of responses regarding whether citizen journalism helped

in propagating news, information and events that are sometimes difficult for the conventional

mass media to gather and disseminate. The Table indicates that majority 117(35.7%) of the

respondents agreed with this assertion, while the least 9(2.7%) strongly disagreed. This implies

that most of the respondents were of the opinion that citizen journalism helped in propagating

news, information and events that are sometimes difficult for the conventional mass media to

gather and disseminate. This is an indication that citizen journalism helps in propagating news,

information and events that are sometimes difficult for the conventional mass media to gather

and disseminate.

Table 4.10: Citizen Journalism disseminates and delivers news, information and current
happenings faster than the conventional mass media

Frequency Percent

24 7.3

Strongly Disagree 53 16.2

Disagree 35 10.7
Neutral 11
9 36.3
Agree
97 29.6
Strongly Agree
32
Total 8 100.0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

120
 Table 4.10 shows the distribution of responses regarding whether citizen journalism

disseminated and delivered news, information and current happenings faster than the

conventional mass media. The Table indicates that majority 119(36.3%) of the respondents

agreed with this assertion, while the least 24(7.3%) strongly disagreed. This implies that most of

the respondents were of the opinion that citizen journalism disseminated and delivered news,

information and current happenings faster than the conventional mass media. This is an

indication that citizen journalism disseminates and delivers news, information and current

happenings faster than the conventional mass media.

4.3.4 Benefits of Citizen Journalism

Table 4.11: Citizen Journalism helps in propagating news, information and events that are
sometimes difficult for the conventional mass media to gather and disseminate

Frequency Percent

17 5.2

Strongly Disagree 93 28.4

Disagree 56 17.1
Neutral 10
9 33.2
Agree
53 16.2
Strongly Agree
32 100.
Total 8 0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.11 shows the distribution of responses on whether one of the benefits of citizen

journalism was that it helped in propagating news, information and events that are sometimes

121
difficult for the conventional mass media to gather and disseminate. The Table indicates that

majority 109(33.2%) of the respondents agreed with this assertion, while the least 17(5.2%)

strongly disagreed. This implies that most of the respondents were of the opinion that one of the

benefits of citizen journalism was that it helped in propagating news, information and events that

are sometimes difficult for the conventional mass media to gather and disseminate. This is an

indication that one of the benefits of citizen journalism was that it helps in propagating news,

information and events that are sometimes difficult for the conventional mass media to gather

and disseminate.

Table 4.12: Citizen Journalism disseminates and delivers news, information and current
happenings faster than the conventional mass media

Frequency Percent

24 7.3

Strongly Disagree 53 16.2

Disagree 35 10.7
Neutral 11
9 36.3
Agree
97 29.6
Strongly Agree
32 100.
Total 8 0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.12 shows the distribution of responses on whether one of the benefits of citizen

journalism was that it disseminated and delivered news, information and current happenings
122
faster than the conventional mass media. The Table indicates that majority 119(36.3%) of the

respondents agreed with this assertion, while the least 24(7.3%) strongly disagreed. This implies

that most of the respondents were of the opinion that one of the benefits of citizen journalism

was that it disseminated and delivered news, information and current happenings faster than the

conventional mass media. This is an indication that one of the benefits of citizen journalism was

that it disseminates and delivers news, information and current happenings faster than the

conventional mass media.

Table 4.13: Through citizen journalism, obnoxious occurrences about political corruption,
police brutality, human rights abuses, and other issues of concern in the society have been
successfully disseminated to local, national and international communities

Frequency Percent
2
2 6.7
5
5 16.8
Strongly Disagree 3
Disagree 1 9.5
15
Neutral
2 46.3
Agree 6
8 20.7
Strongly Agree
32
Total 8 100.0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.13 shows the distribution of responses on whether one of the benefits of citizen

journalism was that through it, obnoxious occurrences about political corruption, police brutality,

human rights abuses, and other issues of concern in the society had been successfully
123
disseminated to local, national and international communities. The Table indicates that majority

152(46.3%) of the respondents agreed with this assertion, while the least 22(6.7%) strongly

disagreed. This implies that most of the respondents were of the opinion that one of the benefits

of citizen journalism was that through it, obnoxious occurrences about political corruption, police

brutality, human rights abuses, and other issues of concern in the society had been successfully

disseminated to local, national and international communities. This is an indication that one of

the benefits of citizen journalism was that through it, obnoxious occurrences about political

corruption, police brutality, human rights abuses, and other issues of concern in the society have

been successfully disseminated to local, national and international communities.

Table 4.14: Citizen Journalism has granted nonprofessional journalists the opportunity to
be actively involved in the propagation of news, information and events about their local
communities, which before now were handled by only professional journalists/conventional
mass media

Frequency Percent
1
1 3.4
6
2 18.9
Strongly Disagree 3
Disagree 3 10.1
13
Neutral
2 40.2
Agree 9
0 27.4
Strongly Agree
32 100.
Total 8 0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

124
 Table 4.14 shows the distribution of responses on whether one of the benefits of citizen

journalism was that it had granted nonprofessional journalists the opportunity to be actively

involved in the propagation of news, information and events about their local communities,

which before now were handled by only professional journalists/conventional mass media. The

Table indicates that majority 132(40.2%) of the respondents agreed with this assertion, while the

least 11(.4%) strongly disagreed. This implies that most of the respondents were of the opinion

that one of the benefits of citizen journalism was that it had granted nonprofessional journalists

the opportunity to be actively involved in the propagation of news, information and events about

their local communities, which before now were handled by only professional

journalists/conventional mass media. This is an indication that one of the benefits of citizen

journalism was that it has granted nonprofessional journalists the opportunity to be actively

involved in the propagation of news, information and events about their local communities,

which before now were handled by only professional journalists/conventional mass media.

4.3.5 Challenges of Citizen Journalism

Table 4.15: Since citizen journalists are not trained on the art/science of journalism, they
do not propagate news, information in a professional manner

Frequency Percent
Strongly Disagree 4
4 13.4
Disagree
5
Neutral 5 16.8
2 6.1
Agree
0

125
 Strongly Agree 17
8 54.3
Total
3
1 9.5
32
8 100.0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.15 shows the distribution of responses on whether one of the challenges of citizen

journalism was that since citizen journalists were not trained on the art/science of journalism,

they do not propagate news, information in a professional manner. The Table indicates that

majority

178(54.3%) of the respondents agreed with this assertion, while the least 20(6.1%) were neutral.

This implies that most of the respondents were of the opinion that one of the challenges of citizen

journalism was that since citizen journalists were not trained on the art/science of journalism,

they do not propagate news, information in a professional manner. This is an indication that one

of the challenges of citizen journalism was that since citizen journalists were not trained on the

art/science of journalism, they do not propagate news, information in a professional manner.

Table 4.16: Citizen Journalism has done some harm to society such as stirring up crisis and
conflicts through the unprofessionally dissemination and reportage of events

Frequency Percent
Strongly Disagree
11 3.4
Disagree
55 16.8
Neutral
31 9.5
Agree 15 46.3

126
 Strongly Agree 2
Total 79 24.1
32 100.
8 0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.16 shows the distribution of responses on whether one of the challenges of citizen

journalism was that it had done some harm to the society such as stirring up crisis and conflicts

through the unprofessionally dissemination and reportage of events. The Table indicates that

majority 152(46.3%) of the respondents agreed with this assertion, while the least 11(3.4%)

strongly disagreed. This implies that most of the respondents were of the opinion that one of the

challenges of citizen journalism was that it had done some harm to the society such as stirring up

crisis and conflicts through the unprofessionally dissemination and reportage of events. This is an

indication that one of the challenges of citizen journalism was that it has done some harm to the

society such as stirring up crisis and conflicts through the unprofessionally dissemination and

reportage of events.

Table 4.17: Based on the fact that these days, people could record, write and propagate
anything with less difficulty, some news and information from citizen journalism are
unreliable and false

Frequency Percent
Strongly Disagree
11 3.4
Disagree 62 18.9

127
 Neutral
46 14.0
Agree 13
2 40.2
Strongly Agree
77 23.5
Total
32 100.
8 0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.17 shows the distribution of responses on whether one of the challenges of citizen

journalism was that based on the fact that these days, people could record, write and propagate

anything with less difficulty, some news and information from citizen journalism were unreliable

and false. The Table indicates that majority 132(40.2%) of the respondents agreed with this

assertion, while the least 11(3.4%) strongly disagreed. This implies that most of the respondents

were of the opinion that one of the challenges of citizen journalism was that based on the fact

that these days, people could record, write and propagate anything with less difficulty, some

news and information from citizen journalism were unreliable and false. This is an indication that

one of the challenges of citizen journalism was that based on the fact that these days, people

could record, write and propagate anything with less difficulty, some news and information from

citizen journalism are unreliable and false.

Table 4.18: Citizen Journalism channels and sites have limited viewers and spectators as
only persons with internet access are able to view and read their contents and news

Frequency Percent
Strongly Disagree
24 7.3
Disagree 42 12.8

128
 Neutral
35 10.7
Agree 16
3 49.7
Strongly Agree
64 19.5
Total
32
8 100.0
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey

Table 4.18 shows the distribution of responses on whether one of the challenges of citizen

journalism was that its channels and sites had limited viewers and spectators as only persons with

internet access were able to view and read their contents and news. The Table indicates that

majority 163(49.7%) of the respondents agreed with this assertion, while the least 24(7.3%)

strongly disagreed. This implies that most of the respondents were of the opinion that one of the

challenges of citizen journalism was that its channels and sites had limited viewers and spectators

as only persons with internet access were able to view and read their contents and news. This is

an indication that one of the challenges of citizen journalism was that its channels and sites have

limited viewers and spectators as only persons with internet access are able to view and read their

contents and news.

129
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.2 Summary of Findings

This study was conducted with the objective of examining the impact of citizen

journalism on the conventional mass media in Nigeria with focus on Abuja Municipal Area

Council (AMAC). The study used a sample size of 400 residents of AMAC selected using a

purposive sampling technique. Hence, a total of 400 copies of the research questionnaire was

administered to the respondents. However, only 328 valid only were returned back and used in

executing the study.

The data gathered in the study was analysed using frequency/percentage distribution analysis and

Chi-Square test and some major findings made.

It was found from the study that Nigerians have good knowledge and awareness of citizen

journalism and that citizen journalism have significant impact on conventional mass media in

Nigeria. It was also found that the benefits of citizen journalism were; citizen journalism helps in

propagating news, information and events that are sometimes difficult for the conventional mass

media to gather and disseminate; citizen journalism disseminates and delivers news, information

and current happenings faster than the conventional mass media; through citizen journalism,

obnoxious occurrences about political corruption, police brutality, human rights abuses, and

other issues of concern in the society have been successfully disseminated to local, national and

130
international communities, and citizen journalism has granted nonprofessional journalists the

opportunity to be actively involved in the propagation of news, information and events about

their local communities, which before now were handled by only professional

journalists/conventional mass media.

It was also found that the challenges of citizen journalism were; since citizen journalists

are not trained on the art/science of journalism, they do not propagate news, information in a

professional manner; citizen journalism has done some harm to society such as inciting people to

be violent and conflicts through the unprofessionally dissemination and reportage of events;

based on the fact that these days, people could record, write and propagate anything with less

difficulty, some news and information from citizen journalism are unreliable and false, and

citizen journalism channels and sites have limited viewers and spectators as only persons with

internet access are able to view and read their contents and news.

5.3 Conclusion

This study has analytically examined the impact of citizen journalism on the conventional

mass media in Nigeria. It is obvious from the findings of the study that citizen journalism is fast

emerging in the country and stimulating changes in the way news, information and events are

reported and broadcasted by the conventional mass media. Based on these findings, the study

concludes that Nigerians have good knowledge and awareness of citizen journalism and citizen

journalism have significant impact on conventional mass media in Nigeria. The study also

concludes that citizen journalism is beneficial to the country in ways such as; citizen journalism

131
helps in propagating news, information and events that are sometimes difficult for the

conventional mass media to gather and disseminate; citizen journalism disseminates and delivers

news, information and current happenings faster than the conventional mass media; through

citizen journalism, obnoxious occurrences about political corruption, police brutality, human

rights abuses, and other issues of concern in the society have been successfully disseminated to

local, national and international communities, and citizen journalism has granted nonprofessional

journalists the opportunity to be actively involved in the propagation of news, information and

events about their local communities, which before now were handled by only professional

journalists/conventional mass media. The study also concludes that citizen journalism is faced

with challenges, some of which are; since citizen journalists are not trained on the art/science of

journalism, they do not propagate news, information in a professional manner; citizen journalism

has done some harm to society such as stirring up crisis and conflicts through the

unprofessionally dissemination and reportage of events; based on the fact that these days, people

could record, write and propagate anything with less difficulty, some news and information from

citizen journalism are unreliable and false, and citizen journalism channels and sites have limited

viewers and spectators as only persons with internet access are able to view and read their

contents and news.

5.4 Recommendations

Based on the major findings and conclusion of the study, the following recommendations

were made:

132
1. Conventional mass media organizations in Nigeria should train and inspire citizen journalists

who are very valuable to them concerning the gathering, reporting and dissemination of news,

information and events in the country. These citizen journalists would gather reliable reports

and events from every corner of the country and disseminate them in a timely manner as this

will help boost the quality of their news and reporting as they would have a wider coverage.

2. The regulatory authorities of mass communication/journalism as well as professional bodies

of journalism in Nigeria should endeavour to set standards and procedures to put checks on

the citizen journalists and their activities, so as to ensure that news, information and events

reported by the citizen journalist are reliable and do not have the tendency of instigating

violence or crisis. In other words, they should ensure that the contents of citizen journalism in

the country are genuine and reliable.

3. There should be a good collaboration between citizen journalists and journalists in the

conventional mass media to give room for robust gathering, reporting and dissemination of

news and events in the country. This can be made possible if they complement each other on

the job via teamwork and mutual support rather than seeing themselves as opponents.

4. The government should engage the services of Information Communication Technology

(ICT) experts to effectively monitor the kind of news, information and events propagated by

citizen journalists on the web so as to be able to detect fake and unreliable news and

information before they are accessed by audiences as some citizen journalists may propagate

news or upload events that are not true, with the intent of instigating violence or crisis.

133
5.5 Limitations of the Study

The study has some limitations, which of this study which obviously reduces the quality of the

findings. These limitations are:

i.) Time: The time available for carrying a study of this degree is very short and

insufficient, since the researcher was combining the study with other academic

activities. This in the long run affects the quality of the findings of the study.

ii.) Financial Resources: The financial resources available for the researcher to conduct a

study as enormous as this and getting finding that are highly reliable was scanty and

insufficient. Carrying out a study of this magnitude requires one to have more than

enough funds in other to execute it diligently appropriately. This lack of enough funds

obviously has effects on the quality of the findings as the researcher could only use a

narrow scope for the study.

iii.) Due to insufficient time and funds, the researcher employed a non-probability

sampling method (purposive sampling technique) for the selection of sample

members (respondents) in the study instead of a probabilistic or random sampling

technique. The use of a non-probability sampling technique reduces the quality of the

results of data analysis and findings of the study, hence, generalizing the findings on

the whole country may be inappropriate.

134
5.6 Suggestions for Further Studies

Since the scope of this study was limited to Abuja Municipal Area council (AMAC) and

since a non-probability sampling technique in selecting sample members (respondents) in the

study, the researcher is suggesting that further studies be conducted using a wider scope and

employing a probability sampling technique in the selection of sample members (respondents) in

order to further examine the impact of citizen journalism on the conventional mass media in

Nigeria.

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 APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE ON IMPACT OF CITIZEN JOURNALISM ON CONVENTIONAL
MASS MEDIA
Instructions:

Thank you for participating in this survey. Your responses are crucial for understanding the

impact of citizen journalism on conventional mass media. Please answer the following questions

honestly and to the best of your ability. Your identity will remain confidential, and the data

collected will only be used for research purposes.

Part 1: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Gender:
☐ Male
☐ Female
Age Group:
☐ 18-22 years
☐ 23-27 years
☐ 28-32 years
☐ 33-37 years
☐ 38-42 years

144
☐ 43-47 years
☐ 48 years and above
Marital Status:
☐ Single
☐ Married
☐ Separated
☐ Divorced
☐ Widowed
Religion:
☐ Christianity
☐ Islam
☐ Traditional
Educational Attainment:
☐ PhD
☐ Master’s Degree
☐ PGD
☐ First Degree/HND
☐ NCE/ND
☐ O’ Level
Occupation:
☐ Civil/Public Servant
☐ Private Sector Employee
☐ Artisan
☐ Business/Entrepreneur
☐ Farming
☐ Others (Please Specify) ________

Part 2: Knowledge/Awareness of Citizen Journalism

Frequency of Reading News/Information on Citizen Journalism Media Sites:
☐ Rarely
☐ Once in a while
☐ Sometimes
☐ Often
☐ Very Often
Access to Citizen Journalism News/Information and Contents:
☐ Facebook
☐ Twitter
☐ Instagram
☐ Citizen Journalists’ websites
☐ Local/International Media websites
☐ All of the above

145
Level of Knowledge of Citizen Journalism:
☐ Poor
☐ Fair
☐ Good
☐ Very Good
☐ Excellent

Part 3: Impact of Citizen Journalism on the Conventional Mass Media

Please rate your level of agreement with the following statements:
1. Citizen journalism has changed the way news, information, and events are propagated
and reported to the public.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
2. Because of the timely reporting of events by citizen journalists, more people now
patronize their sites/media for current news and information than the conventional mass
media.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
3. Citizen journalists have now replaced conventional journalists/mass media as gatekeepers
of important news, information, and events in society.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
4. Conventional mass media now rely heavily on citizen journalists for certain categories of
news, information, and happenings in localities.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
5. Advancement in technology has made it very easy to propagate news, information, and
current happenings through citizen journalism with fewer constraints compared to the
conventional mass media.
☐ Strongly Disagree
146
 ☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
6. Citizen journalism helps in propagating news, information, and events that are sometimes
difficult for the conventional mass media to gather and disseminate.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
7. Citizen journalism disseminates and delivers news, information, and current happenings
faster than the conventional mass media.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree

Part 4: Benefits of Citizen Journalism

Please rate your level of agreement with the following statements:
1. Citizen journalism helps in propagating news, information, and events that are sometimes
difficult for the conventional mass media to gather and disseminate.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
2. Citizen journalism disseminates and delivers news, information, and current happenings
faster than the conventional mass media.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
3. Through citizen journalism, obnoxious occurrences about political corruption, police
brutality, human rights abuses, and other issues of concern in society have been
successfully disseminated to local, national, and international communities.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral

147
 ☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
4. Citizen journalism has granted nonprofessional journalists the opportunity to be actively
involved in the propagation of news, information, and events about their local
communities, which before now were handled by only professional
journalists/conventional mass media.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree

Part 5: Challenges of Citizen Journalism

Please rate your level of agreement with the following statements:
1. Since citizen journalists are not trained on the art/science of journalism, they do not
propagate news, information in a professional manner.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
2. Citizen journalism has done some harm to society such as stirring up crisis and conflicts
through the unprofessionally dissemination and reportage of events.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
3. Based on the fact that these days, people could record, write, and propagate anything with
less difficulty, some news and information from citizen journalism are unreliable and
false.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral
☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree
4. Citizen journalism channels and sites have limited viewers and spectators as only persons
with internet access are able to view and read their contents and news.
☐ Strongly Disagree
☐ Disagree
☐ Neutral

148
 ☐ Agree
☐ Strongly Agree

Thank you for your valuable participation in this survey! Your input will contribute significantly
to the understanding of citizen journalism's impact on conventional mass media.

149