Sug Lecture Note

HORIZONTAL CURVES
In highways, railways, or canals the curve are provided for smooth or gradual
change in direction due to the nature of terrain, cultural features, or other
unavoidable reasons. In highway practice, it is recommended to provide curves
deliberately on straight route to break the monoton in driving on long straight route
to avoid accidents. The horizontal curve may be a simple circular curve, compound
or reverse curve. For a smooth transition between straight and a curve, a transition
curve is provided.
Horizontal curves are provided to change the direction or alignment of a road.

Horizontal curve is circular curve or circular arcs and the sharpness of a curve
increase as the radius is decreased which make it risky and dangerous. The main
design criterion of a horizontal curve is the provision of an adequate safe stopping
sight distance. Horizontal curves are in plan.
Horizontal curves connect intersecting straight sections of roads. Point where the
straight sections intersect is called a Point of intersection (PI). The larger the radius,
the flatter the curve. The design of the curve is dependent on the intended design
speed for the roadway, as well as other factors including drainage and friction.
These curves are semicircles as to provide the driver with a constant turning rate
with radii determined by the laws of physics surrounding centripetal force. Types of
Horizontal Curves include:
1 Simple circular curves

2 Compound curves
3 Reverse curves
4 Transition curves
SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVES

A simple curve or arc provided in the road to impose a curve between the two
straight lines. Simple Circular Curve is shown in Fig. 6.1.
Fig 6.1: Simple Circular Curves
Where:
R=Radius of the curve
BC= Beginning of curve (or PC= Point of curvature
EC= End of curve (or PT= Point of curvature)
PVI= Point of VerticalIntersection
T= Tangent length
L= Length of curvature
M= Middle Ordinate
E= External Distance
LC= Long Chord
Δ= Deflection angle
The various elements of a Simple Circular Curve can be calculated the for use in
design and setting out, as follows;
→Tangent length (T) = R tan
→Length of the curve (L) = RΔ (rad) =
→Long chord (LC) = 2Rsin

→External Distance (E) = R( )
→Mid-ordinate (M) = R( )
→Chainage of T1 = Chainage of PI – T
→Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + L
Setting out of a Simple Circular Curve

There are various methods for setting out simple circular curves, these include:
1. Perpendicular Offsets from Tangent:

У= R - √( ) (exact) = (approximate)
Where x = measured distance from T1 along the tangent.
Radial Offsets R = √( ) (exact)
= (approximate)
Where x = measured distance from T1 along the tangent.
2. Offset from Long Chord:
b = √( ) -√( )
Where a = measured distance from D along the long chord.
3. Rankin’s Method or Deflection Angle Method:
Tangential Angle =
EXAMPLE 1:
The chainage of the intersection point of two straight is 1060m, and the angle of
intersection is 120 . If radius of a circular curve to be set out is 570m, and peg
interval is 30 m, determine the tangent length, the length of the curve, the chainage
at the beginning and end of the curve, the length of the long chord, the lengths of the
sub-chords, and the total number of chords.
SOLUTION:
Deflection angle Δ = 180º - ɸ
= 180º - 120º = 60º
i. Tangent length T = R tan

= 570 x tan 30 = 329.09m
ii. Length of curve l =
= = 596.90m
iii. Chainage of T1 = Chainage of P.I. – T

= 1060 – 329.09
= 730.91m or 0 + 730.91
iv. Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + l

= 730.91 + 596.90
= 1327.81m or 1 + 327.81
v. Long chord L = 2Rsin

= 2 x 570 x sin 30
= 570m
vi. On the straight AI, the chainage of T1 is (0 + 730.91). therefore a point P

having chainage (0 + 720) will be 10.91 m before T1 on AI. Since the peg
interval is 30 m, the length of the normal chord is 30 m. the first point on
the curve will be at a distance of 30m from P having chainage (0 + 750)
and 30 – 10.91 = 19.09m from T1.
Thus the length of the first sub-chord = 19.09m
Similarly, the chainage of T2 being (1+327.81) a point Q on the curve
having chainage of (1 + 320) will be at distance of 7.81m from T2. Thus the
length of the last sub chord = 7.81m
vii. The total number of the chords N = n + 2
Where n = (chainage of the last peg – chainage of the first peg)/Chord

interval
= (1 + 320) – (0 + 750)/30 = 19
Thus N = 19 + 2 = 21
EXAMPLE 2:
The Centre-line of two straights is projected forward to meet at I, the deflection
angle being 30 . If the straight are to be connected by a circular curve of radius
200m, tabulate all the setting-out data, assuming 20m chords on a through chainage
basis, the chainage of I being 2259.59m.
Tangent length = R
= 200 = 200 = 53.59m
Chainage of BC (T1) = 2259.59 – 53.59 = 2206m
Length of circular arc = R rad = 200 x 30 x = 104.72m

Chainage of EC = 2206m + 104.72m = 2310.72m
From which the number of chords may now be deduced. On the straight AI,
the chainage of T1 is (2 + 206). Therefore, a point P having chainage (2 + 200)
will be 6 m before T1 on AI. Since the peg interval is 20 m, the length of the
normal chord is 30 m. the first point on the curve will be at a distance of 20m
from P having chainage (2 + 220) and 20 – 6 = 14m from T1. Thus the length of
the first sub-chord = 14m
Similarly, the chainage of T2 being (2+310.72) a point Q on the curve having

chainage of (2 + 300) will be at distance of 10.72m from T2. Thus the length of
the last sub chord = 10.72m
The total number of the chords N = n + 2

Where n = (chainage of the last peg – chainage of the first peg)/Chord
interval = (2 + 300) – (2 + 220)/20 = 4
Thus N = 4 + 2 = 6
i.e 1st sub-chord = 14m
2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th chords = 20m x 4 =80m
Final sub-chord = 10.72m
Total = 104.72m (check)
Deflection angles:
1st sub-chord = = 120.3’
=2 remaining 0.3’ 00’ remaining 0.3’x 60 =18’’
The answer now writing as 2 00’ 18’’
standard chord = = 171.9’ = 2 51’ 53’’
final sub-chord = = 92.1’ = 1 32’ 08’’
P C C Def Set R
o h h lect tin e
i a o ion g m
n i r An out a
t n d gle an r
a gle k
g l
e e
n
g
t
h
(
m
)
1 2 1 2 2 P
( 2 4 00 00 1
B 2 18 18
C 0
) .
0
0
2 2 2 2 4 P
2 0 51 52 2
4 53 12
0
.
0
0
3 2 2 2 7 P
2 0 51 44 3
6 53 05
0
.
0
0
4 2 2 2 10 P
2 0 51 35 4
8 53 58
0
.
0
0
5 2 2 2 13 P
3 0 51 27 5
0 53 51
0
.
0
0
6 2 1 1 14 P
( 3 0 32 59 6
E 1 . 08 59
C 0 7
) . 2
7
2
Check:
The sum of deflection angles = ⁄ = 14 59 59 ≈ 15
COMPOUND CURVES
Combination of two simple curves combined together to curve in the same direction.
The individual curves meet tangentially at their junction point. Smooth driving
characteristics require that the larger radius be more than 1 times larger than the
smaller radius. The elements of a compound curve shown below:
Fig 6.2: Compound Curve
i. Tangent lengths = tan
= tan
=( ) +
=( ) +
Where Δ = +
ii. Length of curves =
ɭ = +
= ( )
iii. Chainages
Chainage of = Chainage of P.I. -
Chainage of = Chainage of +
Chainage of = Chainage of +
EXAMPLE 1:
The Centre-line of a new railway is to be set out along a valley. The first AI bear 75 0,
while the connecting straight IB bears 1200. Due to site conditions, it has been
decided to join the straights with compound curve. The first curve of 500m radius
commences at T1, situated 300m from I on straight AI, and deflect through an angle
of 250 before joining the second curve. Calculate the radius of the second curve and
the distance of the tangent point T2 from I on straight IB.
From the diagram above,

= 45 , = 25
,
45 25 +
= 45 - 25 = 20
Tangent length T1t1 = R1 tan /2
= 500 tan 12 30’ = 110.8m
In triangle t1It2,
Angle t2It1 = 180 - = 135
Length It1 = T1I – T1t1
= 300 – 110.8 = 189.2m
By sine rule,
t1t2 = = = 391.2m
It2 = = = 233.8m
It2 = t1t2 – T1t1 = 391.2 -110.8 = 280.4m

280.4 = R2 tan = R2 tan 10 ;
R2 = 1590m
Distance IT2 = It2 + t2T2
= 233.8 + 280.4 = 514.2m
EXAMPLE 2:
A 200m length of straight connects two circular curve deflecting to the right. The
radius of the first circular curve is 250m and that of the second curve is 200m. The
central angle for the second curve is 15058’. The combine curve is to be replaced by
single circular curve between the same tangent points. Find the radius of the curve
and the central angle.
Since the combined curve is to be replaced by a single circular curve between the
same tangent points, the tangent length must be equal. Figure below shows the
original curve with a straight portion in between. The dotted line shows the
proposed circular curve.
Since the tangent length remain the same, the straight line AO1 and DO2 when
produced will intersect at O, the centre of the new curve.
Draw O2C1 perpendicular to O1B

O1C1 = O1B – DO2
O1B = O1A = radius of 1st curve = 250m
DO2 = O2C = radius of 1st curve = 200m
Hence = O1C1 = 250 – 200 = 50m
And O1O2 = √( ) = 206.2m
= = = 14.03 = 14 2’
At point O2,
= O1O2O + + 90 + = 180
O1O2O = 180 - ( + 90 + )
O1O2O = 180 - (14 2’ + 90 + )
= 60 00’00’’
From triangle O1O2O

OO22 =O1O22 + OO22 – 2O1O2OO2cos 60
(R-250)2 = 206.22 + (R-200)2 – 2(R-200) (206.2) (0.5)
R2 - 500R + 2502 = 206.22 + R2 - 400R + 2002 – 206.2R + 41240 500R + 400R + 206.2R =
-2502 + 206.22 + 2002 + 41240
16.2R = 61258.44
R= = 576.8m
In triangle OO1O2, using sine rule
OO1 = R – 250 = 326.8
OO2 = R – 200 = 376.8
= = 0.9985
Angle OO1O2 = 86.861 = 86 51' 41''
Central angle = 180 – ( 86 51' 41'' + 60 00'00'')
33
REVERSE CURVES
Combination of two simple curves of same or different radii combined together to
curve in the different direction. Two straights to which a reverse curveconnectsmay
be parallel or non-parallel.
Fig. 6.3: transition Curve
We have the following cases:
Case-1: Non parallel straights when R1 = R2 = R, and ( = - ) given

, , , and chainage of I.
R=
Where = the length of the common tangent
Chainage of T1 = chainage of P.I. - ( )
Chainage of T3 = Chainage of T1+
Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T3+
Case-2 Non parallel straight when R1= R2 =R, given , , and L
R=
Where = ( )
= ( )
= ( )
Case-3 Non parallel straights when R1 =R2, given , , Land R1 (or R2)
R2 =
* +
Case-4 Parallel straights when = , given R1, R2 and (= )
D = 2(R1+ R2) sin2
L = √[ ( )]
H = (R1 + R2) sin
Fig 1.8
Example 1:
Two parallel railway tracks, Centre lines being 60m apart, are to be connected
by a reverse curve, each section having the same radius. If the maximum
distance between the tangent points is 220m calculate the maximum
allowable radius of the reverse curve that can be used.
we have
T1P = PT3 = T3Q =Q T2 = R
T1T3 = T3T2 = sin ⁄ = √( )
= √( )
= 228.035m
PQ = (PT3 + T3Q) = 2PT3 = 2R =
2R =
2Rsin =
From (a), we have 228.035 =
sin =
substitute the value of sin in (a) we get
2R x = 228.035
R= = 866.7m
Example 2: the first branch of a reverse curve has a radius of 200m. if the
distance between the tangent points is 110m, what is the radius of the second
branch so that the curve can connect two parallel straights, 18m apart? Also
calculate the length of the two branches of the curve.
Data given:
R1= 200m
D = 18m
L = 110m
From case-4 equation, we have
L = √[ ( )]
R2 = R1
= = 136.11m
From equation
D = 2 (R1 + R2) sin2
= 2sin-1[√ (
]
)
= 18 50'10'' = 18,836 =
The length of the first and second branches of the curve
= = 65.75m
= = 44.75m
TRANSITION CURVES
A curve that has a varying radius. It permit gradual change of direction from
straight to curve and vice-versa, and at the same time gradual introduction of
superelevation. Transition curve is also required to be introduces between
two circular curve of different radii. The radius of transition curve at its
junction with the straight is infinity, i.e., that of the straight, and at the
junction with the circular that of the circular curve.
Consider a vehicle travelling at speed (V) along a straight. The forces acting
on the vehicle will be its weight W, acting vertically down, and an equal and
opposite force acting vertically through the wheel. But the moment it enters
the curve of radius R at tangent point T1, an additional centrifugal force (P)
acfson vehicle. If P is large the vehicle will be forced to the outside of the
curve and may skid or overturn.
Fig 1.10:
The resultant of the two forces is shown as N, and by lifting the outer edge
(superelevation) of the road or rail, the resultant can be made to act
perpendicular to the running surface and there will be no tendency for the
vehicle to skid.
Fig 1.11
Summary of Design formula

1. Cetrifugal ratio = or ( if V is in Km/h)
Where P = centrifugal force
W = weight of the vehicle.
V = Velocity ( Km/h)
R= Radius of the curve
g = acceleration due to gravity
2. Length of transition curve, L = ⁄
Where q = rate of change of radial acceleration
3. = at the end of the transition
When = L , then = =
4. =
5. Tangent length T1I = (R + S) tan + c where S = shift and it is given as
C= constant =
6. = individual setting out angle for a paof transition rticular peg,
Objective of transition curve:
(i) To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between tangent point and
the beginning of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle.
This increase the comfort of passenger.
(ii) To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for is own comfort and
security.
(iii) To provide gradual introduction of superelevation and extra-widening.
(iv) To enance the aesthetic appearance of the road.
Types of Transition
They are spiral or clothoid, cubic parabola and leminscate.

Example 1:
Two straight are to be joined by a single curve with cubic spiral transition at
each end. The transition curves are to design such that:
Centrifugal ratio = 0.197
Rate of radial acceleration = 0.45m/s2
If the chainage of the intersection point of the composite curve is 2 + 154.22

and deflection angle 50
a) Compute the length of transition curve.
b) Compute the chainage at and using 10m chord on through chainage

basis
c) Draw the setting out angles for the first three chords. Design speed =
100Km/h.
See the diagram above
Centrifugal ratio P/W =
R= =400
Rate of change of centripetal acceleration = q =
(a) L= = 120m
(b) To calculate chainage
S= = = 1.5
Tangent length = (R + S) tan + L/2
= (400 + 1.5) tan 25 + 60 = 247.22m
Chainage at T1 = 2154.22 – 247.22 = 1907m
To find length of circular arc.
Length of circular arc = R( ) where =

thus 2 = = = 0.3 rad
and = 50 = = 0.872778
R( ) = 400(0.872778 – 0.3) = 229.07m
Chainage at T2 =
© To find setting-out angle from equation ⁄ = ⁄
= = = = 10313
As the chainage of T1 = 1907, then the first chord will be 3m long to give a
round chainage of 1910m
1= = 10313 x = 0 00’ 06.5’’
P C Ch Cu Deflectio
o h ord mm. n angle
i ai len Len ( )
n n gth gth
t g (m) (m)
e
(
m
)
0 1 0.0 0.0 0.0
9
( 0
T 7
1
)
1 1 3 3 0
9
1
0
2 1 10 13 0
9
2
0
3 1 10 23 0
9
3
0
Example 2:
Two straights AB and BC intersect at chainage 1530.685 m, the total deflection

angle being 33°08′. It is proposed to insert a circular curve of 1000 m radius
and the transition curves for a rate of change of radial acceleration of 0.3
m/s3, and a velocity of 108 km/h. Determine setting out data using
theodolite and tape for the transition curve at 20 m intervals and the circular
curve at 50 m intervals.
Given that:
Rate of change of radial acceleration = q= 0.3 m/s3
Velocity V = 108 km/h,
Deflection angle ∆ = 33°08 ′
Radius of circular curve = 1000 m
Chainage of I = 1530.685 m
Peg interval for the transition curve = 20 m
Peg interval for the circular curve = 50 m.
Rate of change of centripetal acceleration = q =
(a) L= = 90m
(b) To calculate chainage
S= = = 0.338m
Tangent length = (R + S) tan + L/2
= (1000 + 0.338) tan 16 + 45 = 342.580m
Chainage at T1 = 1530.685 – 342.580 = 1188.105m
To find length of circular arc.
Length of circular arc = R( ) where =

thus 2 = = = 0.09 rad
and = 33 = = 0.5784
R( ) = 1000(0.5784 – 0.09) = 488.4m
Chainage at A = Chainage at T1 + Length of transition curve
= 1188.105 + 90 = 1278.105m
Chainage at B = Chainage at A + Length of circular arc
= 1278.105 + 488.4= 1766.390m
Chainage at T2 = Chainage at B + Length of transition curve
= 1766.390 + 90= 1856.390m
As the chainage of T1 = 1188.105m, then the first chord for transition curve
will be 11.895m long to give a round chainage of 1200m
Length of first sub-chord for the circular curve
= 1300 - 1278.105 = 21.895m
Length of first sub-chord for the circular curve
= 1766.390 - 1750 = 16.390m
To find setting-out angle from equation ⁄ = ⁄ for transition curve
= = = = 1374.92
1= = 1374.92 x = 0 00’ 54’’
P Ch Ch Cu Deflection
o ain ord mm angle ( )
i age len .
n (m) gth Len
t (m) gth
(m)
0 118 0.0 0.0 0.0
8.1
( 05
T
1
)
1 120 11. 11.8 0° 00′ 54″
0 895 95
2 122 20 31.8 0° 06′ 29″
0 95
3 124 20 51.8 0° 17′ 09″
0 95
4 126 20 71.8 0° 32′ 54″
0 95
5 127 18. 90.0 0° 51′ 34″
8.1 105 0
( 05
A
)
Deflection angle for the circular curve
=δ= minutes
= minutes
= 1.7189c minutes
P Ch C Defl Sett R
o ain h ectio ing e
i age o n out m
n r Ang ang a
t d le le r
k
l
e
n
g
t
h
(
m
)
5 127 0 0 0 A
8.1 0 0 0
( 05
A
)
6 130 2 0° 0° P
0 1 37′ 37′ 6
. 38.1 38.1
8 ″ ″
9
5
7 1 5 1° 2° P
3 0 25′ 03′ 7
5 56.7 35″
0 ″
8 1 5 1° 3° P
4 0 25′ 29′ 8
0 56.7 32″
0 ″
9 1 5 1° 4° P
4 0 25′ 55′ 9
5 56.7 28″
0 ″
1 1 5 1° 6° P
0 5 0 25′ 21′ 1
0 56.7 25″ 0
0 ″
1 1 5 1° 7° P
1 5 0 25′ 47′ 1
5 56.7 22″ 1
0 ″
1 1 5 1° 9° P
2 6 0 25′ 13′ 1
0 56.7 18″ 2
0 ″
1 1 5 1° 10° P
3 6 0 25′ 39′ 1
5 56.7 15″ 3
0 ″
1 1 5 1° 12° P
4 7 0 25′ 05′ 1
0 56.7 12″ 4
0 ″
5 1 5 1° 13° P
7 0 25′ 31′ 1
5 56.7 08″ 5
0 ″
( 176 1 0° 13° B
B 6.3 6 28′ 59′
) 90 . 10.4 19″
3 ″
9
0
The second transition curve is set out from tangent point T2 by measuring
distances in the direction from B to T2, and deflection angles for the
corresponding points from T2 measured in counterclockwise from T2I.
Length of first sub-chord for the transition curve measured from B
1st sun chord = 1780-1766.390 = 13.610m
Length of last sub-chord

Last sub chord= 1856.390 -1840 = 16.390m.
P Ch C Cu Deflectio
o ai h mm. n angle
i na o Len ( )
n ge r gth
t (m d (m)
)
l
e
n
g
t
h
(
m
)
1 17 1 90.0 0° 51′
6 66. 3 0 34″
39 .
( 0 6
B 1
) 0
1 17 2 76.3 0° 37′
7 80 0 90 09″
1 18 2 56.3 0° 20′
8 00 0 90 15″
1 18 2 36.3 0° 08′
9 20 0 90 26″
2 18 1 16.3 0° 01′
0 40 6 90 43″
.
3
9
0
2 18 0 00 00
1 56. 0
39
( 0
T
2
)
Example 3:
A compound curve AB, BC is to be replaced by a single arc with transition
curves 100m long at each end. The chord lengths AB and BC are respectively
661.54 and 725.76 and radii 1200m and 1500m. Calculate the single arc radius:
(a) If A is used as the first tangent point.
(b) If C is used as the last tangent point.
Fig 1.12
Assume T1 = A, t = B, T2 = C, R1 = 1200m and R2 = 1500m. The requirements

in this question are the tangent lengths AI and CI.
Chord AB = 2R1sin ⁄
Therefore sin ⁄ =
= 32
Similarly, sin ⁄ =
= 28
Distance At1 = t1B = R1tan ⁄ = 1200 tan 16 = 344m

And Bt2 = t2C = R2tan ⁄ = 1500 tan 14 = 374m
t1t2 = t1B + Bt2 = 344 + 374 = 718m
By sine rule in triangle t1It2
t2I = = 439 m
and t1I = = 389 m
AI = At1 + t1I = 344 + 389 = 733m
CI = Ct1 + t2I = 374 + 439 = 813m
To calculate the single arc radius,
(a) If A is used as the first tangent point
AI = (R + S) tan ⁄ + ⁄
Where S = ⁄ and = + = 32 + 28 = 60
L = 100m
Then 733 = ( )tan 30 + 50
R = 1182m
(b) From tangent point C
CI = (R + S) tan ⁄ + ⁄
813 = ( )tan 30 + 50
R = 1321m
VERTICAL CURVES
The vertical curves are used to provide a smooth change in direction taking
place in the vertical plane due to change of grade. Vertical curves are
introduced at the intersection of two gradients either as summit curves or sag
curves.
Summit Curves
Sag curves
The requirement of a vertical curve is that it should provide a constant rate of

change of grade, and a parabola fulfills this requirement. As shown in Fig.
7.9, for flat gradients it is normal to assume the length of curve (2L) equal to
the length along the tangents the length of the long chord AB its horizontal
projection.
Vertical curves are used to serve the following puropses;

(i) Allow smooth transition from one grade to another ( driver comfort).
(ii) Provide adequate sight distance at junction of grades and for

overtaking (safety)
(i) Provide satisfactory appearance ( aesthetics)
The following are key Formulae used for vertical curves computations;
Equation for Parabola y=ax2
Chainage at BVC = chainage at VPI –
Chainage at EVC = Chainage at VPI +
Elevation at BVC = Elevation at VPI -
Elevation at EVC = Elevation at VPI +
Algebraic difference = g1-g2
Mid-ordinate = e =
Vertical offset =y= ( )
Reduced level at any point = Reduced level at BVC + +y
Distance to highest ( or lowest point) = x =
This distance is from TP1

A similar calculation can be done from TP2
Where x =
Example 1:
Two straights AB and BC falling to the right at gradients 10% and 5%,
respectively, are to be connected by a parabolic curve 200 m long. Design the
vertical curve for chainage and reduce level of B as 2527.00 m and 56.46 m,
respectively. Take peg interval as 20 m.
To calculate for the BVC and EVC
Chainage of BVC = Chainage of VPI – L/2
= 2527 – 200/2 = 2427m or 2 + 427

For EVC,
Chaimnage of EVC = chainage of VPI + L/2
= 2527 + 200/2 = 2627m or 2 + 627
For the elevation of BVC and EVC,

( )
= 56.46 - = 66.46m

( )
= 56.46 + =51.46m
Algebraic Differences = /g1-g2/= /-10-(-5)/ = -5 (ignore the sign)
The –ve sign just indicate the nature of the curve, Sag curve
Mid-ordinate = e =
= = 1.25
The total number of stations at 20 m interval
=2 n = L/20 = 200/20 = = 10
Reduced level at any point = (Reduced level at BVC + )+ y
Reduced level on point 1= (66.46 + )+ (4 x 1.25 x ( ) ) = 66.46m

S Ch C G V R Re
/ ai h r e e m
N na o a r d ar
ge r d t u ks
d e i ce
( c d
l m a le
e ) l v
n o el
g f (
t f m
h s )
e
( t
m (
) m
)
1 24 0 6 0 66 B
27 6 .4 V
. 6 C
4
6
2 24 2 6 + 64 P1
47 0 4 0 .5
. . 1
4 0
6 5
3 24 4 6 + 62 P2
67 0 2 0 .6
. . 6
4 2
6
4 24 6 6 + 60 P3
87 0 0 0 .9
. . 1
4 4
6 5
5 25 8 5 + 59 P4
07 0 8 0 .2
. . 6
4 8
6
6 25 1 5 + 57 P5
27 0 6 1 .7
0 . . 1
4 2
6 5
7 25 1 5 + 56 P6
47 2 4 1 .2
0 . . 6
4 8
6
8 25 1 5 + 54 P7
67 4 2 2 .9
0 . . 1
4 4
6 5
9 25 1 5 + 53 P8
87 6 0 3 .6
0 . . 6
4 2
6 0
1 26 1 4 + 52 P9
0 07 8 8 4 .5
0 . . 1
4 0
6 5
1 26 2 4 + 51 E
1 27 0 6 5 .4 V
0 . . 6 C
4 0
6 0
Example 2:
Avertical curve of 120m long of the parabolic type is to join a rising gradient
of 1in 200 to a falling gradient of 1in 300. If the level and chainage of the
intersection of the two gradient are 105.96m, 2000.00 m. Give the level at 20m
interval along the curve.
Fig 1.15
A rising grade of 1in 200 = 0.5 in 100 = +0.5% = +g1%
A falling gradient of 1in 300 = 0.33 in 100 = -0.33% = -g2%
To calculate for the BVC and EVC
Chainage of BVC = Chainage of VPI – L/2
= 2000 – 120/2 = 1940m or 1+ 940
For EVC,
Chaimnage of EVC = chainage of VPI + L/2
= 2000 + 120/2 = 2060m or 2 + 060
For the elevation of BVC and EVC,

( )
= 105.96 - = 105.66m

( )
= 105.96 + =105.762m
Algebraic Differences = /g1-g2/= /0.5-(-0.33)/ =+0.83 (ignore the sign)

The +ve sign just indicate the nature of the curve, Crest curve
Mid-ordinate = e =
= = 0.1245
The total number of stations at 20 m interval
=2 n = L/20 = 120/20 = 6
Distance to highest = x = = = 72.289m + 1940 = 2012.289m
Reduced level at any point = (Reduced level at BVC + )+ y
S Ch C G V R R
/ ain h ra e e e
N ag o d r d m
e r e ti uc a
d ( c e r
m a d k
l ) l le
e o ve
n f l
g f (
t s m
h e )
t
( (
m m
) )
1 19 0 10 0 10 B
40 5. 5. V
66 66 C
2 19 2 10 - 10 P
60 0 5. 0 5. 1
76 . 75
0
1
3
9
3 19 4 10 - 10 P
80 0 5. 0 5. 2
86 . 80
0 5
5
5
4 20 6 10 - 10 P
00 0 5. 0 5. 3
96 . 83
1 6
2
4
5
H 20 7 10 - 10 H
i 12. 2 6. 0 5. i
g 28 . 02 . 84 g
h 9 2 2 1 h
8 8 e
p 9 0 s
t 5 t
p
o
i
n
t
5 20 8 1 - 1 P
20 0 0 0 0 5
6. . 5.
0 2 8
6 2 3
1 8
6
7 20 1 10 - 1 P
40 0 6. 0 0 6
0 16 . 5.
3 8
4 1
6 4
8 20 1 1 - 1 E
60 2 0 0 0 V
0 6. . 5. C
2 4 7
6 9 6
8 2
Example 3:
A downward of 4% meets at a rising grade of 5% in a sag curve at the start of
the curve, the level is 123.06m at chainage 3420m, while at chinage 3620m
there is an overpass with an underside level of 127.06m. If the design curve is
to afford a clearance of 5m at this point, calculate the require length.
Fig 1.16
To find the offset distance CE
From chainage horizontal distance T1E = 200m @ -4% = 8
Level @ E = 123.06 -8 = 115.06m
Level @ C = 127.06 – 5= 122.06m
Offset CE = 122.06 – 115.06 = 7m
From offset equation,

( )
=( )
But T2B = vertical divergence =
where A = g1-g2 = - 4 -5 = -9
note: the –ve shows the nature of the curve, sag
= CE = X =
Making L the subject of the formula, we get
L= = = 25
SETTING OUT
Setting out is the reverse of surveying. What is meant by this is that whereas
surveying is the process of producing a plan or map of a particular area,
setting out begins with the plan and ends with some particular engineering
project correctly positioned in the area. This definition can be misleading
since it implies that setting out and surveying are opposites. This is not true.
Most ofthe techniques and equipment used in surveying are also used in
setting out and it is important to realise that setting out is simply one
application ofsurveying. A better definition of setting out is provided by the
International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) in their publication
ISO/DP 7078 Building Construction which states that;
'Setting out is the establishment of the marks and lines to define the position
and level ofthe elements for the construction work so that works may proceed
with reference to them’. This process may be contrasted with the purpose of
surveying which is to determine by measurement the positions of existing
features.
-Seting out is one application is one application of surveying
- Most of the techniques and equipment used in surveying are also used in
setting out.
- Mistakes in setting out can be costly.
- for setting out to be undertaken successfully, good work practices should be

employed.
Setting out is a procedure adopted to correctly position a specific design

feature such as a building, a road, a bridge, a dam, etc., on the ground at the
construction site. It requires location of the control fixed during the original
survey. These may be subsidiary stations which are located by the method of
intersection or resection (see Sec. 6.6) from controls already fixed. Setting out
is thus the ,reverse process of detail surveying in that the control stations are
used to fix the points on the gr6~d in their correct relative positions.
Fig 7.1: Profile Board
PRINCIPLES OF SETTING OUT

The main aim of setting out is to ensure that the various elements of the
scheme are positioned correctly in all three dimensions.
Horizontal Control Techniques
In order that the design of the scheme can be correctly fixed in position, it is
necessary to established point on the site which the E, N coordinates are
known. These are horizontal control points and, once they have been located
they can be used with a positioning technique to set out E, N coordinates of
the design points. Two factors need to be taken into consideration when
establishing horizontal control points.
1. The control points should be located throughout the site in order that all
the design points can be fixed from at least two or three of them so that
the work can be independently checked.
2. The design points must be set out to the accuracy stated in the
specification.
The accuracy must be obtained throuhout the whole network and this can
be achieved by establishing different levels of control based on one of the
fundamental tenets of surveying: Working from the whole to the part. In
practice, this normally involves starting with a small number of very
accurately measured control points ( Primary control) which enclose the
area in question and then using these to establish secondary control points
near the site.
An example of working from the whole to the part using two different
levels of control are shown below. In this, the primary control points is
provided by a traverse which is run through the site in question to
provide a number of well positioned primary control points. These in turn
are used to establish a secondary control point. In this case secondary site
points at each of a series of baselines which define important elements of
the scheme.
On some schemes, the same control points that were used in production of
the site plan prior to design work are used for setting out. These must be
re-measured before setting out as position may have changed for a
number of reasons.
Horizontal control points should be located as near as possible to the site

in open position for ease of working but well away from the construction
area and traffic routes to avoid them being disturbed. The construction
and protection of control points is very important. Wooden pegs are often
used for non- permanent station. For permanent control points, it is
recommended that they are constructed with concrete.
Baseline
A baseline is a line running between two points of a high position. Any
baselines required to set out a project should be specified on the setting out
plan by the designer and included in contract.
Baseline can take many forms: they can be simply two specified points joined,
they can run between two buildings, they can mark the centreline for a new
road. Baseline can be used in a number of different ways. Where a baseline is
specified to run between two points then once the ponts have been
established on site, the design points can be set out from the baseline by
offsetting using tapes ( as shown below).
A design point D is to be set out at right angle to a baseline AB from point C

which lies atb a distance y from point A. the required offset distance from C
to D is x. Distance x and y will be given by the designer and will usually be
horizontal distances.
The accuracy of the baselines method increases if two baselines at right angles
to each other are used. Design points can be established either by measuring
and offsetting from both lines, or a grid system can be set up to provide
additional control points in the area enclosed by the baseline.
Point Location
If two control points A and B are known, a third point C as shown in Fig. 9.1,
can be located in a number of ways.
θ
Steps:
(a) Set out distanees AC and BC.
(b) Set out distance AD and then perpendicular distance DC.
(c) Set off angles θ1 and Set off angle θ 2, θ
(d) Set off angle θ and distance AC.
(e) Set off angle θ and distance BC.
In engineering, the production of an accurate large-scale plan is usually the

first step in th planning and design of a construction project. Thereafter, the
project, as designed on the plan must be set out on the ground in correct
absolute and relative position and to its correct dimensions. Thus surveys
made in connection with a specific project should be planned with the setting
out process in mind and a system of three dimensional control stations
conveniently sited and adequate in number, should be provided to facilitate
easy economical setting-out.
Using Reference Grids
A control grids enables points to be set over a large area. Many structures in
civil engineering consist of steel or reinforced concrete columns supporting
floor slabs as the disposition of these columns is inevitably that they are at
right angles to each other, the use of grid, where the grid intersections define
the position of the columns, greatly facilitates setting out. Several different
grids can be used in setting out.
Survey grid: the rectangular coordinate systemon which the original

topographic survey is carried out and plotted. The grid points have known
Eastings and Northings related either to some arbitrary origin or to the
national grid
Site grid: is used by the designer. Defines the position and direction of the
main building lines of the project.
Structural grid: is established around a particular building or structure which

contains much details such as columns, which can not be set out with
sufficient accuracy from the grid site.
Fig 7.2 : Rectangular Grid
SETTING OUT BY POLAR COORDINATES
Setting out is not limited to roads and rails. In any engineering projects, there
is need to set-out the corner points before construction commences. In doing
this, the base line which may be road centre lines, building lines or a line
joining the centre lines of series of pad foundationwill have to be first set out.
From this line, further lines e.g subsidiary lines may be set up. The process is
carried out by locating on the field survey control stations and obtaining their
cordinates from survey readings. A minimum of two survey controlpoints are
required to commence any setting-out procedure. If for example a building
line is required to be set up, the two end points of the building will have to be
separately set out. The coordinates of the points to be set out may also be
scale off from a topo plan.
Consider a topo-plan below;
To set out the corner points of that engineering structures the building lines
P1, P2 will have to be first set up. This will only be possible if there are
control poits A and B visible within the site. The coordinates of A and B as
explained earlier may be obtained from the survey ministry while those of P1
may be scaled off from survey plan.
There are two approach to this setting out in particular, the first approach is
the traditional method whereby analog equipment are used in the setting out
procedure. The procedure is longer and the volume of work involves is more
both in the office and in the field. However, this method is still relevant
where modern equipment is not readily available. The second approach is the
use of modern electronics facilities. Most of the calculation and procedure
that are in the tradition are done away with. It does not require the
computation of bearing and angles of setting out. The coordinate of the points
to be set out may be inputed into the equipment after the usual station
adjustment and distance and direction to locate the points will be displayed
on the screen, hence a reflector man may be directed straight to the position
of the points.
TRADITION SETTING OUT METHOD (THEODOLITE AND TAPE)
Example 1:
Consider example below:
It is required to set out a base point P from two visible controls A and B on a
construction site, by polar coordinates.
1. Obtain the coordinate of the control station A and B from survey ministry.
Also scale off the coordinate of P1 for instance from the survey plan.If the
coordinates of the control and those of P obtained from survey plan are;
A; 333444.05mE, 1167582.75mN
B; 333500.22mE, 1167559.01mN
P; 333470.75mE, 1167568.25Mn
2. Compute the bearing ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and distance BA and BP from their
coordinate values.
Bearing ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Obtain
= = 332555.75– 332625.20= -69.45
= = 1124758.25 – 1124992.40= -233.96
= reduced bearing which is the bearing of a line only in its quadrants.

However, this has a relationship with the whole circle bearing
tan = = =
= ( )= 16.543
= 16 32' 24''
Since both Easting and Northing are negative, then A is in third quadrant
= 180 + = 180 + 16 32' 24''
= 196 32' 24''
Distance PA = √( ) ( ) =√
= 244.04m
Bearing ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Obtain
= = 332985.45– 332625.20= 360.25
= = 1125011.40– 1124992.40= 19.20
= =
= ( )= 86.949
= 88 56' 55''
Both Easting and Northing are positve, then is in first quadrant
= = 88 56' 55''
= 360.76m
Example 2:
The four comers A, B, C, and D of a rectangular building having the
coordinates given in Table below are to be set out from control station P by a
total station instrument. Calculate the WCB and distance to establish each
comer of the building.
C EAS NOR
OR TIN THIN
NE G G
R
A 117. 92.849
984
B 82.6 128.20
29 4
C 33.1 78.707
32
D 68.4 43.352
87
The coordinates of Pare E 110.383 m, N 81.334 m.

For comer A
= = 117.984 – 110.383 = 7.601

= = 92.849 – 81.334 = 11.515
Tan = = = 0.6601
= (0.6601) = 33.43 = 33 25' 43''
Since both Easting and Northing are positve, then A is in first quadrant
= 13.797m
For comer B
= = 82.629 – 110.383 = -27.754
= = 128.204 – 81.334 = 46.870
Tan = = = 0.5921
= (0.5921) = 30.63 = 33 37' 47''
But Easting is negative while Northing are positve, B is in fouth quadrant
Then = 360 - 33 37' 47'' = 329 22' 13''
= 54.471m
For comer C
= = 33.132 – 110.383 = -77.251
= = 78.707 – 81.334 = -2.627
Tan = = = 29.407
= (29.407) = 88.052 = 88 03' 09''
Since both Easting and Northing are negative, C is in third quadrant
Then, = 180 + 88 03' 09'' = 268 03' 09''
Distance PC = √( ) ( ) =√
= 77.296m
For comer D
= = 68.487 – 110.383 = -41.896
= = 43.352 – 81.334 = -37.982

Tan = = = 1.103
= (1;103) = 47.80 = 47 48' 14''
The point D is also in the third quadrant due to the same reasons as for C
above. Therefore
= 180 + 47 48' 14'' = 227 48' 14''
Distance PD = √( ) ( ) =√
= 56.55m
DEFORMATION SURVEYING
Over the last decade, an interest has grown among the civil engineering and
building professions in monitoring the movement of different types of
structure both during and after completion of construction. There are many
reasons why a structure may need to be monitored for movement. For
example, it is well known that dam walls change shape with varying water
pressure, that the foundations of large buildings are affected by changes in
ground conditions and that landslips sometimes occur on embankments and
cuttings. For all of these, deformation surveys can be used to measure the
amount by which a structure moves both vertically and horizontally over
regular time intervals. Although the principles of many of the techniques
used to do this are recognisable as those used for site surveying and setting
out, it is the taking of very precise periodic measurements that distinguishes a
deformation survey from other types of survey. In summary, the purposes of
a deformation survey are to ascertain if movement is taking place and to
assess whether a structure is stable and safe. In addition, movement may be
analysed to assess whether it is due to some daily, seasonal or other factor
and, most importantly, it may be used to predict the future behaviour of a
structure. The terms relative and absolute are often used for deformation
surveys. The measurement of relative movement is generally much easier
since movements are related to the structure itself or to some arbitrary
point(s) nearby. These may move during a survey but this does not affect the
results obtained. Absolute measurements, on the other hand, are related to
datum points that are assumed not to move during a survey. The accuracy
required for a deformation survey depends on many factors including the
type and size of building or structure, what is causing the movement
(environmental factors or loading) and whether an understanding of the
movement is needed. For many surveys, deformations of less than 1 mm are
measured and precisions of this order require the best survey techniques to
be used throughout a deformation survey. This is to ensure that the
systematic and random errors propagated in observations are less than the
smallest displacement that is being measured or is expected. Many different
types of measurement can be taken during a deformation survey using a
wide variety of equipment. This chapter will only consider methods for
monitoring that involve some of the surveying techniques already described
in this book and will not include details of monitoring using such methods as
photogrammetry and automated systems which involve the use of
transducers and sensors. Details of these can be found in the references given
at the end of this chapter.
VERTICAL MOVEMENT
This type of movement can be measured by levelling or by measurement of

vertical angles.
For nearly all applications where levelling is to be used, an ordinary level and
staff are inadequate and special equipment is required so that sub-millimetre
readings can be taken. This consists of a precise optical level fitted with a
parallel plate micrometer and an invar staff (see figure below ). Alternatively,
a precise digital level such as the Wild NA3000 with its bar-coded invar staff
can be used (figure 15.2). Whatever equipment is used, the basic approach to
fieldwork is similar to that described in chapter 2 but much more care is taken
with the observations and with keeping sight lengths equal and much shorter
than for ordinary levelling.
The stability of TBMs used in the measurement of absolute vertical

movements is very important and one or more stable datum points must be
established for the entire survey. Sometimes, when working on or near to
large structures, it may be possible to locate a datum point on the structure
itself, but very often it is necessary to locate TBMs well away from the
building to be monitored in order to avoid any settlement affecting them. If,
however, the TBMs are too far away from the monitoring area, errors may be
introduced when transferring height over a large distance. Up to distances of
about 1 km, this problem can be overcome by using intermediate bench
marks and by checking the difference in height between these to monitor
their stability.
At each point to be levelled in a deformation survey, a levelling station

should be installed. A nail in a wall or some other crude mark is unacceptable
since the prime function of a levelling station is that it achieves positional
repeatability. In other words, each time the levelling staff is placed on it, a
levelling station should ensure that the staff occupies exactly the same
position. As well as this, a levelling station should be permanent and easy to
install; it should also be vandal-proof and weather and corrosion resistant in
addition to being unobtrusive. A levelling station made by the Building
Research Establishment (BRE). This consists of stainless steel socket which is
permanently fixed to the structure to be monitored. When not in use, the
socket is sealed with a plastic bung, the outer edge of which is flus with the
structure.
During a survey, a stainless plug that is threaded; it’s inner end inserted into
the sucket. This ensure that the other end the plug, which is sperical accepts a
levelling staff in the same position each time the levelling station is used.
The principles, of monitoring vertical movement by measurement of angles

involves using a theodolite to measure horizontal and vertical angles from the
ends of a known baseline. These are demonstrated in the worked example
below. The precision to which vertical movements can be determined is also
of vital importance when monitoring, what may be very small displacements.
Example:
In order to check for any subsudence of a multi storey block of flats, two
pillars A and B (see fig 3.1) were set up on solid foundations adjacent to the
building. A target T was fixed near the top of the building and a series of
angles and distances were measured at three month intervals using the same
equipment and methods.
The following values remained constant throughout the three – month

period.
Horizontal distance AB = 76.987m
Horizontal angle TAB = 52 34' 21.1''
Horizontal angle TBA =
The vertical angle from A to T varies as follows
Intially = 15 56' 18.5''
After three months = 15 56' 06.6''
After six months = 15 56' 00.9''

Calculate the amount of vertical movement over the six-month period,
assuming that the angular changes are due solely to settlement of the
building.
Solution
Diagram below shows a plan view of the three points A, B, and T with
refrence to this, the horizontal distance DAT is obtained by solving triangle
ABT
Using the sine rule as follows
DAT = ( )
= ( )
= 77.5729m
UNDERGROUND SURVEYING
Underground surveying embraces thhe survey operations performed beneath
the surface of the earth in connection with tunneling, exploration and
construction in subterranean passage ways. It is quite different from
surveying on the surface.
The following peculiarities of underground surveys indicate how they differ

from surface surveys:
(i) Artificial illumination is required to view instrument cross hairs, to read

verniers, to sight targets etc. because of poor ligthing.
(ii) Working space inpassageways is often cramped.
(iii) Instrument stations and benchmarks for levelling must often be set into
the roof of a passageway to minimize disturbance from the operations
being carried on in the workings.
(iv) Instrument stations are set with some difficulty since plugs must be
driven into drill holes in rock.
(v) In many instances the underground workings are wet, with considerable
water dripping from the roofs of passageways and running along the
floors.
APPLICATION OF UNDERGROUND SURVEYS

The major aplication of underground surveys is in the construction of tunnels
and other underground utilities. The tunnel is constructed when open excavation
becomes uneconomical usually when it is more than 20m, it
i. Reduces the grade.
ii. Shortens the distance between given points separated by a dividing

mountain or ridge.
iii. Meets the demand of modern rapid transit in a city.
iv. Engineering operations to be performed.
v. Exact alignment
vi. Proper gradient
vii. Establishment of permanent station marking the proposed route.

The survey work in connection with tunnelling can be divided into:
1. Surface survey
2. Transferring the alignment underground
3. Levels in tunnels
Surface survey:
Surface survey connect points representing each portal of a tunnel. A traverse
connecting the portal points determines the azimuth, distance and differences in
elevation of each end of the proposed tunnels. Based on the local conditions and
proposed length of the tunnel the methods of working are adopted.
It is always advisable that the survey is based on the suitable local coordinate
system.thhe alignment is permanently referenced by a system of monuments within
an area outside each tunnel portal. And here is sketch regarding how the tunnelling
work proceeds.
Central line and grade stakes within the tunnelare usually set in the roof to avoid
displacement and destruction by the constant flow of people and machinery as
construction proceeds. If the stakes are set on the floor they should be offset into an
area along the tunnel’s edge.
Transfering the alignment underground:
For long tunnel excavation is carried inward from both parties. But vertical shafts
are also sunk up to the required depth along the alignment of the tunnel at
intermediate locations along the routes.the vertical alignment can be done by
i. Plumb bob
ii. Optical collimator

iii. Laser
A heavy plumb bob (5 to 10kg) is suspended on either awire of heavy
twine.oscllations of the bob can be controlled by suspended it ina pot with high
viscosity oil. The bob is suspended from a removable bracket attached to the surface
side of the shaft.
Optical plumbing becomes important with the increase in depth of internal shaft.
Various types of plummet are available for upwards and downward sighting to
alllow the establishment of a vertical line and these are normally manufactured so as
to be interchangeable with theodolites on their tripods.
As the line of sight of a theodolite in adjustment will transit in a vertical plane, it can
also be used to check perpendicularity.
The advantages of an optical collimmator are:

i. More convienient than a plumb bob
ii. Can be used to set marks directly on the floor of a complete shaft
iii. No wires as in case of plumb bob.
A laser equipment can be used to, provide a vertical line of sight. The laser generates
a light beam of high intensity and of low angular divergence and can be projected
over long distances since the spread of the beam is very small to provide a visible
line for constant reference.
Levels in tunnels:
In transferring levels underground, little difficulty is encoutered at the ends of the
tunnel, but at the shaft use is made of
i. Steel tap
ii. Chain
iii. Constructed rod
iv. Steel wires
Nowadays EDMI is also used. But in all cases the main idea is to deduct the height
of the shaft measured from the top of a benchmark of known value.
Fig 9.2 How the depth is measured by steel tape
Fig 9.3 Depth measured by EDM
The important features of EDM are:
i. EDMI unit and reflectors should be in the same vertical line.
ii. Both are mounted on stable support.
iii. Visibility should be good for EDMI to operate.
Sadanandam anupoju
REFERENCES
Uren J. and Price W.F (1994) survey For engineering, Palgrave, london, Pp
554-571
Schofield W. (1984), Engineering Surveying. Reewood Burn Ltd, Trowbridge,

Wilts. Third Edition, Vol 1 pp 156- 215
Chandra A.M. (2005) ‘’Surveying’’ New Age International Limited, 4835/2,

Ansari road, Daryaganj, New Delhi.

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HORIZONTAL CURVES

Horizontal curves are provided to change the direction or alignment of a road.

1 Simple circular curves

SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVES

→Long chord (LC) = 2Rsin

Setting out of a Simple Circular Curve

1. Perpendicular Offsets from Tangent:

Radial Offsets R = √( ) (exact)

Where x = measured distance from T1 along the tangent.

2. Offset from Long Chord:

Where a = measured distance from D along the long chord.

3. Rankin’s Method or Deflection Angle Method:

i. Tangent length T = R tan

ii. Length of curve l =

iii. Chainage of T1 = Chainage of P.I. – T

iv. Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + l

v. Long chord L = 2Rsin

vi. On the straight AI, the chainage of T1 is (0 + 730.91). therefore a point P

vii. The total number of the chords N = n + 2

Where n = (chainage of the last peg – chainage of the first peg)/Chord

Chainage of BC (T1) = 2259.59 – 53.59 = 2206m

Length of circular arc = R rad = 200 x 30 x = 104.72m

Similarly, the chainage of T2 being (2+310.72) a point Q on the curve having

The total number of the chords N = n + 2

i.e 1st sub-chord = 14m

2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th chords = 20m x 4 =80m

Final sub-chord = 10.72m

Total = 104.72m (check)

The answer now writing as 2 00’ 18’’

standard chord = = 171.9’ = 2 51’ 53’’

final sub-chord = = 92.1’ = 1 32’ 08’’

i. Tangent lengths = tan

ii. Length of curves =

From the diagram above,

It2 = t1t2 – T1t1 = 391.2 -110.8 = 280.4m

Draw O2C1 perpendicular to O1B

From triangle O1O2O

In triangle OO1O2, using sine rule

OO1 = R – 250 = 326.8

OO2 = R – 200 = 376.8

Angle OO1O2 = 86.861 = 86 51' 41''

Central angle = 180 – ( 86 51' 41'' + 60 00'00'')

We have the following cases:

Case-1: Non parallel straights when R1 = R2 = R, and ( = - ) given

Where = the length of the common tangent

Chainage of T1 = chainage of P.I. - ( )

Chainage of T3 = Chainage of T1+

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T3+

Case-2 Non parallel straight when R1= R2 =R, given , , and L

Case-4 Parallel straights when = , given R1, R2 and (= )

D = 2(R1+ R2) sin2

H = (R1 + R2) sin

T1P = PT3 = T3Q =Q T2 = R

T1T3 = T3T2 = sin ⁄ = √( )

PQ = (PT3 + T3Q) = 2PT3 = 2R =

From (a), we have 228.035 =

substitute the value of sin in (a) we get

D = 2 (R1 + R2) sin2

The length of the first and second branches of the curve

Summary of Design formula

Where P = centrifugal force

W = weight of the vehicle.

R= Radius of the curve