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Post-Fermentation and
-Distillation Technology
Stabilization, Aging, and Spoilage
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Post-Fermentation and
-Distillation Technology
Stabilization, Aging, and Spoilage
Edited by
Matteo Bordiga
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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To My Son
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Editor.........................................................................................................................xi
Contributors............................................................................................................ xiii
Chapter 1 Fermentation Process............................................................................1

Tiziana Nardi and Matteo Bordiga
Chapter 2 Distillation Processes and Distillates.................................................. 41

Frank Vriesekoop and Dawid Ostrowski
Chapter 3 Proteins and Bentonite in Winemaking: Chemical and Practical

Aspects and Sensory Consequences................................................... 81
Federico Casassa
Chapter 4 Wine Aging and Spoilage................................................................. 113

Pilar Rubio-Bretón, Teresa Garde-Cerdán, Juana Martínez,
Ana Gonzalo-Diago, Eva P. Pérez-Álvarez, and Matteo Bordiga
Chapter 5 The Stability and Stabilization of Beer............................................. 159

Paul S. Hughes
Chapter 6 Beer Conditioning, Aging, and Spoilage........................................... 183

Roger Barth
Chapter 7 Vinegars: Process, Aging, and Spoilage...........................................207

Paolo Giudici, Tommaso Bonciani, Federico Lemmetti,
and Giuseppe Corradini
Chapter 8 Stabilization of Distilled Spirits........................................................ 235

Paul S. Hughes
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 9 Distillates Cask Aging...................................................................... 251

Thomas Collins
Chapter 10 Marketing Beer, Wine, Spirits, and Vinegar: Who Are the
Consumers? What Do They Want? How to Talk to Them
so They Hear You.............................................................................. 263
Julie Kellershohn and Inge Russell
Index....................................................................................................................... 275
Preface
This book focuses on the post-fermentation and -distillation technology applied to
wine, beer, vinegar, and distillates in a broad spectrum. Stabilization, aging, and
spoilage represent the three major sections of the text. The book provides a compre-
hensive overview of all of the post-fermentation operations related to these products,
focusing on the complex issue of their stability. Wines, for example, must be stable
against microbial activity as well as undesirable chemical and physical–chemical
reactions occurring in the bottle. There are five goals of “finishing” a wine: clarity,
stability, compositional adjustment, style development, and packaging. It is impor-
tant, especially in white wines, that the wine at the point of consumption not be
cloudy or contain any haze or precipitate. Currently, haze represents a visual defect
associated with spoilage in the eyes of the consumer.
It is also important to prevent unwanted microbial growth from occurring in the
wine after the primary fermentation is complete, as this affects the flavor and aroma
profile in unpredictable ways. Saccharomyces autolysis will replenish nutrients in
the wine, making them available for other organisms. Saccharomyces do not con-
sume all possible bacterial energy sources. Many spoilage organisms are obligate
aerobes, so the wine must be protected against exposure to air once the carbon diox-
ide blanket generated during fermentation has dissipated.
Similarly, the discussion also involves beer, vinegar, and distillates. This repre-
sents a novel approach, not limiting the book to the issues of aging, stabilization, and
spoilage of wine. Covering three other main fermentation categories certainly makes
this project interesting. New technologies as well as new materials are included in
the discussion (e.g., square barrels, synthetic closures, tetra pak®). The book is a good
mix of referenced research with practical applications, also reporting case studies of
these various applications of novel technologies. Consumer packaged goods compa-
nies are forced to re-evaluate packaging formats and materials, as products and their
packaging are inextricably linked to the trends taking place within the consumption
habits. At the same time, as consumers grow more concerned about energy con
sumption and the environment as a whole, they are also increasingly demanding
more eco-friendly and socially conscious products and packaging.
Matteo Bordiga
ix
Editor
Dr. Matteo Bordiga received his PhD in food science from the Università del
Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy in 2010. He received his MS in chemistry and phar-
maceutical technologies from the same university. Dr. Bordiga’s main research activ-
ity concerns food chemistry, investigating the different classes of polyphenols from
analytical, technological, and nutritional points of view. More recently, he moved his
research interests towards wine chemistry, focusing his attention on the entire pro-
duction process—from vine to glass. He has published more than 30 research papers
in peer-reviewed international and national journals. Since 2013, he has been an edito
rial board member of the International Journal of Food Science & Technology. In
2014, he was appointed editor-in-chief for Wine Studies, a peer-reviewed interna-
tional open-access journal focused on wine-related topics. He served as editor of
the book, Valorization of Wine Making By-Products (CRC Press/Taylor & Francis
Group, 2015). All his research activities have been developed through important
collaborations with foreign institutions (Foods Science and Technology Department
and Foods for Health Institute, University of California, Davis; Fundación Parque
Científico y Tecnológico de Albacete, and Instituto Regional de Investigación Científica
Aplicada, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain).
xi
Contributors
Roger Barth Julie Kellershohn
West Chester University Ryerson University
West Chester, Pennsylvania Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Tommaso Bonciani Federico Lemmetti

University of Modena and Reggio Emilia University of Modena and Reggio
Reggio Emilia, Italy Emilia
Reggio Emilia, Italy
Matteo Bordiga
Università del Piemonte Orientale Juana Martínez
Novara, Italy Institute of Vine and Wine Sciences
(CSIC-CAR-UR)
Federico Casassa Logroño, Spain
California Polytechnic State University
San Luis Obispo, California Tiziana Nardi
Council for Agricultural Research and
Thomas Collins Economics
Washington State University Research Center for Viticulture and
Richland, Washington Enology (CREA-VE)
Conegliano, Italy
Giuseppe Corradini
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Dawid Ostrowski
Reggio Emilia, Italy Ostra Distillers
Robinvale, Victoria, Australia
Teresa Garde-Cerdán
Institute of Vine and Wine Sciences Eva P. Pérez-Álvarez
(CSIC-CAR-UR) Institute of Vine and Wine Sciences
Logroño, Spain (CSIC-CAR-UR)
Logroño, Spain
Paolo Giudici
University of Modena and Reggio Pilar Rubio-Bretón
Emilia Institute of Vine and Wine Sciences
Reggio Emilia, Italy (CSIC-CAR-UR)
Logroño, Spain
Ana Gonzalo-Diago
Institute of Vine and Wine Sciences Inge Russell
(CSIC-CAR-UR) Heriot-Watt University (ICBD)
Logroño, Spain Edinburgh, Scotland
Paul S. Hughes Frank Vriesekoop

Oregon State University Harper Adams University
Corvallis, Oregon Newport, Shropshire, United Kingdom
xiii
1 Fermentation Process
Tiziana Nardi and Matteo Bordiga
CONTENTS
1.1 Wine...................................................................................................................2
1.1.1 Alcoholic Fermentation......................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Malolactic Fermentation........................................................................3
1.1.2.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria in Grapes and Wine..............................3
1.1.2.2 The Chemistry of MLF........................................................... 5
1.1.3 Sensory Impacts of Malolactic Fermentation........................................ 6
1.1.3.1 Acidity Reduction................................................................... 6
1.1.3.2 Production of Flavor-Active Compounds............................... 6
1.1.3.3 Risk of Organoleptic Defects..................................................8
1.1.4 Current Knowledge on Malolactic Fermentation:
Managing the Process.......................................................................... 10
1.1.4.1 Physicochemical Parameters Affecting MLF Development..... 10
1.1.4.2 Use of Starter Cultures......................................................... 10
1.1.4.3 Control of MLF to Avoid Further Microbial Spoilage......... 14
1.2 Beer.................................................................................................................. 16
1.2.1 Microbial Aspect of Malting and Brewing.......................................... 16
1.2.1.1 Barley.................................................................................... 16
1.2.1.2 Malt....................................................................................... 17
1.2.1.3 Wort...................................................................................... 17
1.2.1.4 Beer....................................................................................... 17
1.2.1.5 Beer Maturation Lagering Tanks with Single Jacket
(Air Cooled).......................................................................... 18
1.2.1.6 Beer Maturation Lagering Tanks with Double Jacket
(Liquid Cooled)..................................................................... 19
1.2.1.7 Brewing Yeast....................................................................... 19
1.2.2 Reaction Mechanisms of Aging Processes in Beer.............................20
1.2.2.1 Reactive Oxygen Species in Stored Beer..............................20
1.2.3 Aging Reactions Producing Carbonyl Compounds............................. 22
1.2.3.1 Oxidation of Higher Alcohols............................................... 22
1.2.3.2 Strecker Degradation of Amino Acids................................. 22
1.2.3.3 Aldol Condensation.............................................................. 22
1.2.3.4 Degradation of Hop Bitter Acids.......................................... 23
1.2.3.5 Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids.................................. 23
1.2.3.6 Acetalization of Aldehydes................................................... 23
1.2.3.7 Maillard Reactions................................................................24
1
2 Post-Fermentation and -Distillation Technology
1.2.3.8 Synthesis and Hydrolysis of Volatile Esters.........................24

1.2.3.9 Degradation of Polyphenols..................................................24
1.2.4 Oxidative versus Nonoxidative Beer Aging........................................24
1.2.4.1 Antioxidants and Reducing Agents versus Pro-Oxidants....25
1.3 Vinegar................................................................................................................ 25
1.3.1 Overview..............................................................................................25
1.3.1.1 Wine Vinegar........................................................................25
1.3.1.2 Beer Vinegar.........................................................................26
1.3.1.3 Fruit Vinegars.......................................................................26
1.3.1.4 Balsamic Vinegar..................................................................26
1.3.1.5 Malt Vinegar......................................................................... 27
1.3.1.6 Rice Vinegar......................................................................... 27
1.3.1.7 Cane Vinegar Production...................................................... 27
1.3.1.8 Others....................................................................................28
1.3.2 Vinegar Production..............................................................................28
1.3.2.1 Bacterial Cultures.................................................................28
1.3.2.2 Processing Methods..............................................................28
1.3.2.3 The Orleans Method............................................................. 29
1.3.2.4 Generator Method................................................................. 29
1.3.2.5 Submerged Fermentation Method......................................... 30
1.3.3 Quality Control.................................................................................... 31
1.3.4 Maturation and “Oaking” of Vinegar.................................................. 32
References.................................................................................................................34
1.1 WINE
1.1.1 Alcoholic Fermentation
Winemaking represents the process of wine production, from the selection of grapes
to the bottling of finished wine. Grapes must be healthy, without defects due to bac-
terial and/or fungal infections. Winemaking must be performed as soon as possible
to prevent wine defects. If grapes are damaged during harvest and/or transport to
the winery, issues or defects may arise due to the activity of acetic and/or lactic
bacteria. It is possible to obtain about 70 L of must from 100 kg of grapes. The stem,
generally separated from the grapes and discarded, represents a lignified vegetable
structure containing a high concentration of polyphenols. Polyphenols and aroma
compounds are present in the skin of grapes. Acids (tartaric, malic, and citric—
about 0.5%–1.5% w/v), sugars (fructose and glucose—about 15%–30% w/v), and
small quantities of aromatic compounds and polyphenols are present in the pulp.
Grape crushing represents the first activity of winemaking. Usually, grapes are
treated with a mechanical crusher/destemmer. Once crushed, berries are then trans-
ferred to the fermentation tank. For white wine production, grape must be treated
very carefully because the compounds present in the skin and stem must not pass
into the must. Usually, for this typology, crushing is generally obtained with a simple
grape pressing. When the must has been prepared, selected yeasts, sulfur dioxide,
and nutrient substances are added. Yeasts are generally already present on the grapes
Fermentation Process 3
and in the winery environment but they can give detrimental results. For this reason,
selected commercial strains of yeast are added to the must. Sulfur dioxide is used
in winemaking (generally at 50–100 mg/L) due to its inhibitory activity against the
natural microflora (bacteria and yeasts) in the juice, thus facilitating the action of
the selected yeasts added to the must. Another activity related to this compound acts
to inhibit oxidative enzymes responsible for wine browning. Ammonium salts and
vitamins (biotin and thiamin) are often added as nutrients for the yeast. If the sugar
concentration is low, sugar may be added. However, this addition is strictly subject
to local regulations. For example, in Italy it is only possible to add concentrated and
rectified must, not sucrose. After about 10 hours from inoculation with yeast, the pri-
mary, alcoholic fermentation (AF) starts. This fermentation generally lasts for about
8 days and, during this period, the yeast cells metabolize the sugars in the must,
producing carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. The temperature during the fermentation
affects the taste of the product. The proper temperature for red wines is typically
from 25°C to 28°C, while for white wines it is from 20°C to 25°C. Other substances
(minor products) are produced during alcoholic fermentation (e.g., glycerol, acetic
acid, higher alcohols, and acetaldehyde). Wine quality is also defined by low concen-
trations of acetic acid, higher alcohols, and acetaldehyde.
1.1.2 Malolactic Fermentation
Malolactic fermentation (MLF) represents the “second fermentation” of wine that
in traditional winemaking used to take place during storage. In modern winemak-
ing the timing of occurrence of MLF is advancing from springtime to autumn (in
the Northern Hemisphere), taking place after alcoholic fermentation or during alco-
holic fermentation, due both to climate change and to an increasingly careful man-
agement of this step. Nevertheless, MLF is the microbial transformation that, more
than others, affects postfermentation stages such as aging, stabilization, and possible
spoilage. In this context, MLF management has been recently recommended by the
Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV), together with other biologi-
cal methods, as a good winemaking practice to avoid wine spoilage that causes major
economic losses (OIV, 2014).
1.1.2.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria in Grapes and Wine

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) perform malolactic fermentation and constitute a ubiqui-
tous group of bacteria that occur in a range of environments, including many foods
and beverages. In the oenological environment, they can be found throughout all
stages of winemaking. LAB can be isolated on many surfaces and environments
including grapevine leaves, grapes, various winery equipment, and barrels. At har-
vest, low numbers (fewer than 100 cells/g) of LAB can be found on grapes, although
acetic bacteria and yeast are found in much higher numbers (Fugelsang, 1997).
Lactic acid bacteria display high morphological and physiological diversity; in fact,
the term lactic acid bacteria emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century to
describe a heterogeneous group of bacteria that are currently defined as spherical
(cocci) or rod-shaped (bacilli), Gram-positive, catalase-negative, immobile, non-
sporulating, anaerobic, aerotolerant producers of lactic acid as a primary metabolite
of sugar (Fugelsang, 1997). Concerning the specific environment of winemaking,

the most studied and well-known species of LAB is Oenococcus oenis because it is
the predominant species conducting the biological transformation called malolactic
fermentation. Nevertheless, the LAB composition of grape must at the beginning
of the alcoholic fermentation is much more variable (the most common isolates are
part of the genera Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, Leuconostoc, and Oenococcus) and
generally dominated by Lactobacillus species (Betteridge et al., 2015). Pediococcus
can be found mostly after the MLF as well as in wines of higher pH. Indeed, wine
does not differ from other foodstuffs in which LAB are responsible for a critical
fermentation step (here, MLF), but they can also cause changes that adversely affect
the organoleptic properties of the final product. Therefore, a relevant part of stud-
ies about lactic acid bacteria in foods is the study of the negative effects they have
on the quality and composition of the final product. A number of recent molecular
identification studies have detected new species of lactic acid bacteria in both musts
(Lactobacillus bobalius, Mañes-Lázaro et al., 2008a; and Lactobacillus uvarum,
Mañes-Lázaro et al., 2008b) and wines (Lactobacillus nagelii, Edwards et al., 2000;
Lactobacillus vini, Rodas et al., 2006; and Lactobacillus oeni, Mañes-Lázaro et al.,
2009). Moreover, in recent studies, genera and species not frequently detected in
wines such as Weissella, Fructobacillus, and species such as Oenococcus kitaharae
and Lactobacillus fabifermentans were identified during AF (González-Arenzana
et al., 2016) or in grape marc after fermentation (Maragkoudakis et al., 2013). The
density of LAB in the initial phases of winemaking (the must phase and first stages
of AF) ranges from approximately 103 to 104 colony forming units/mL. Afterwards,
only a few species are capable of surviving in grape must and fermenting wine
because of the hostile conditions that they encounter: mainly low pH, a lack of nutri-
ents, and the presence of ethanol.
In an interesting recent work, molecular advanced techniques—next-generation
sequencing (NGS)—have been used to obtain a more complete picture of how micro-
bial communities change during grape fermentation and how different fermentation
techniques might affect the microbial community composition, including bacteria
with undesirable effects on wine quality (Piao et al., 2015). A better understand-
ing of the microbial dynamics and their effect on the final product will likely be of
great importance to help winemakers produce wine styles of consistent and high
quality in the future. Both implantation effectiveness and bacterial metabolism can
differ widely depending on species and strains involved in MLF. In general, lacking
heme-linked cytochromes and catalase, all LAB obtain energy from carbohydrates
by fermentative metabolism (Kandler, 1983). Overall, the LAB group can utilize a
wide range of carbohydrates, including the hexoses (glucose, fructose, mannose, and
galactose), as well as other pentoses, polyols, and oligosaccharides. This capability
is dependent on the species and strains involved, as well as the pH of the medium.
Moreover, since malic acid cannot be used by wine LAB as a sole carbohydrate
source (see next paragraph), the availability and utilization of fermentable carbo-
hydrates in wine by LAB is essential to enable the onset of bacterial growth and
the occurrence of MLF. Furthermore, recent studies have clearly demonstrated that
grape-derived phenolic glycosides also significantly stimulate the growth of O. oeni
(Schopp et al., 2013).
1.1.2.2 The Chemistry of MLF

The term “malolactic fermentation” describes the enzymatic conversion of l-malic
acid to l-lactic acid and CO2 by LAB (Wibowo et al., 1985); thus it does not tech-
nically refer to a fermentation process, but rather to a decarboxylation reaction
(Figure 1.1). Malic acid is a major acid in wines; the conversion of a dicarboxylic
acid (l-malic acid) into a monocarboxylic acid (l-lactic acid) increases pH and modi-
fies the sensory profile of wine. In 1901, Seifert could already describe for the first
time that lactic acid bacteria from wine transformed l-malic acid into l-lactic acid
and carbon dioxide via a direct reaction, meaning that the intermediate pyruvic
acid was not formed during this conversion (Munoz et al., 2011). This reaction is
catalyzed by the enzyme malate decarboxylase—often referred to as the malolactic
enzyme—that requires cofactors NAD+ and Mn++ (Lonvaud-Funel and De Saad,
1982; Spettoli et al., 1984). The malolactic enzyme, which was purified for the first
time in Lactobacillus plantarum, has been found in all species of lactic acid bacteria
isolated in wine (Munoz et al., 2011).
Malic and citric acids do not serve as the sole energy sources for the growth of
LAB (Liu et al., 1995). Consequently, malolactic bacteria require sugars as a carbon
source. However, under conditions of limiting sugar availability or of low pH, which
inhibit sugar metabolism, energy (ATP) generated from MLF is beneficial to cell
growth (Henick-Kling, 1993). Another, minor (<1%) activity of the malolactic enzyme
has also been suggested to stimulate the metabolic activity and initial growth rates of
wine LAB (Morenzoni, 2006). All wine lactic acid bacteria are able to perform the
malolactic reaction. However, Oenococcus oeni is the major actor that carries out this
fermentation since it is the best, well-adapted wine–associated species (especially
when pH is beyond 3.5) and, for a long time, it has been used almost exclusively for
the induction of malolactic fermentation in wines (Bartowsky et al., 2015; Wibowo
et al., 1985). Among LAB, Oenococcus was separated from the genus Leuconostoc
by 16S rDNA sequence analysis in 1995 (Dicks et al., 1995). For a long time, this
genus only included one species: O. oeni. In 2006, Oenococcus kitahareae (Endo
and Okada, 2006) was described, isolated from a composting distilled shochu residue
and, more lately, a third species was ascribed to the genus Oenococcus alcoholitoler-
ans, isolated from cachaça and ethanol fermentation processes (Badotti et al., 2014).
In recent years, a number of scientific studies have focused on Lactobacillus plan-
tarum as a potential starter for MLF, also leading to industrial interest in this genus
(Berbegal et al., 2016; Iorizzo et al., 2016; Spano and Capozzi, 2011; du Toit et al.,
2011). These studies open a perspective on the potential of Lactobacillus as the next
generation of MLF starter cultures, discussing their occurrence during winemaking,
NAD+, Mn2+
L-malic acid L-lactic acid + CO2
Malolactic enzyme
(malate NAD+ decarboxylase)
FIGURE 1.1 Reaction of decarboxylation, describing the enzymatic conversion of l-malic

acid to l-lactic acid and CO2 by lactic acid bacteria (LAB).
major metabolic activities, factors influencing their growth, and their performance in
conducting MLF that will probably be further developed in the near future.
1.1.3 Sensory Impacts of Malolactic Fermentation

1.1.3.1 Acidity Reduction
The decarboxylation of malic acid to lactic acid is a biological deacidification reac-
tion, well recognized as one of the main metabolic capabilities of LAB in wine,
and its conduct is of major commercial importance to the winemaking process.
Depending on the style of a wine, this enzymatic conversion can be beneficial or det-
rimental. It is a fact that the sensory impact of deacidification is particularly detect-
able and appreciated in wines with high acidity; thus the development of strategies
to favor a microbial deacidification of low pH wines is particularly critical. Wines
produced from grapes cultivated in cool climate areas contain a naturally high level
of malic acid (up to 8 g/L) and are considered to benefit from an acidity reduction
(Lasik, 2013). Moreover, in such wines the induction of MLF is often difficult to
achieve due to harsh conditions (mainly, low pH), so it is important to prevent slug-
gish or stuck fermentation. Thus, many recent investigations focused on wines with
high acidity (cool-climate whites, most of the sparkling base wines, and other variet-
ies), improving knowledge in this field and proposing and optimizing techniques as
the use of bacterial starters with early inoculation as efficient methods for achiev-
ing MLF (Guzzon et al., 2016; Knoll et al., 2012; Ruiz et al., 2012). On the other
hand, wines produced from grapes grown in warm to hot regions have lower total
acidity, and a further reduction in acidity from MLF can have a negative impact on
their quality, causing a flat taste. Nevertheless, in wines characterized by high pH,
biological deacidification is often desired because it results in improved microbial
stability. In these cases, the impact of MLF is rather indirect, although the lack of
acidity caused by this transformation is not strongly perceivable or even detrimen-
tal to freshness. It is usually accepted in order to remove nutrients (malic acid as
a possible carbon substrate, and other compounds consumed by LAB) that would
leave place for late, uncontrolled, and possibly incomplete malolactic fermentations
(eventually ascribed to Pediococcus spp.) or for other microbial transformations
including development of Brettanomyces in wines during aging (Morenzoni, 2006).
Furthermore, a very recent frontier research approach introduced the perspective
of using Lactobacillus strains with ability to induce biological acidification in low
acidity grape musts to obtain more acidic wines, together with the achievement of
malolactic fermentation. This recent study shows a selection of Lactobacillus strains
that can grow in must, carry out MLF, and at the same time acidify grape must by
synthesizing lactic acid from sugars. Indeed, homofermentative or facultative hetero-
fermentative bacteria such as Lactobacilli are good candidates to be used as acidi-
fying starters since they can synthesize only lactic acid from grape must sugars by
lactic fermentation and have no danger of acetic acid synthesis (Lucio et al., 2016).
1.1.3.2 Production of Flavor-Active Compounds

In addition to the deacidification reaction that characterizes MLF, it is becom-
ing increasingly recognized that a diverse range of other metabolic activities are
associated with the growth and development of LAB in wine, which can have a sig-
nificant influence on wine quality. The complex aroma and flavor compounds found
in wine largely originate from the grape, from yeast metabolism during alcoholic
fermentation, and from oak when used. Bacterial metabolism during malolactic fer-
mentation might contribute to wine flavor by the formation of additional compounds
and the modification of grape-, yeast-, and oak-derived compounds (Swiegers et al.,
2005). Indeed, MLF affects the final aroma and taste balance by modifying fruit-
derived aromas and producing aroma-active compounds. Research has shown that
LAB have the potential to impact the aroma profile of wine by
i. The production of volatile secondary metabolites

ii. The modification of grape- and yeast-derived metabolites including ethyl
esters, acetate esters, primary terpene alcohols, glycoside-related aroma
compounds, acids and alcohols
iii. The removal of existing flavor compounds by metabolism and adsorption
to the cell wall (Bartowsky and Henschke, 1995; Bartowsky and Pretorius,
2009; Bartowsky et al., 2015; Lonvaud-Funel, 1999; Nielsen and Richelieu,
1999; de Revel et al., 1999; Ugliano et al., 2003)
In the same studies, flavor attributes imparted by MLF are usually described as but-
tery, lactic, nutty, yeasty, oaky, sweaty, and earthy; MLF may also impact fruity and
vegetative aromas, as well as the mouthfeel of wine. Many of these alterations are
strain dependent; however, the vinification technique can also affect the final wine
aroma profile and these flavor impacts of individual bacterial strains are of great
interest for winemakers (Lerm et al., 2010).
From a molecular point of view, over the last 15 years, research studies have deep-
ened the characterization of O. oeni diverse array of secondary metabolic activities
during MLF, which can modify the sensory properties of wine (Cozzolino, 2016).
These secondary activities include the metabolism of organic acids, carbohydrates,
polysaccharides and amino acids, and numerous enzymes such as glycosidases,
esterases, and proteases, which generate volatile compounds well above their odor
detection threshold. Recent studies using array-based comparative genome hybrid-
ization and genome sequencing of O. oeni strains have revealed the large genomic
diversity within this species, confirming that phenotypic variation between O. oeni
strains is central for producing different wine styles (Bartowsky and Borneman,
2011; Liu et al., 2016).
From an applicative point of view, results based on wide surveys usually show
that lactic acid bacteria modify the fruity notes of wines but without a specific trend
(Antalick et al., 2012), since the impact is strongly dependent on the strain carry-
ing out the fermentation and on its inoculation timing. For example, in recent stud-
ies comparing aromatic compounds released from natural precursors by selected
Oenococcus oeni strains during malolactic fermentation, some bacteria resulted in
good candidates to be used when floral wines are desired, while others were the
best preserving the fruity aroma of wines (Pérez-Martín et al., 2015; Sumby et al.,
2013). Other works comparing the effects of inoculating grape must with malolac-
tic bacteria at various stages of alcoholic fermentation (usually, the beginning of
alcoholic fermentation [co-inoculation with yeast], midalcoholic fermentation, and/

or postalcoholic fermentation) on the wine chemical composition showed important
differences. This often suggested that co-inoculation is a worthwhile alternative for
winemaking if compared with traditional postalcoholic fermentation LAB inocula-
tion or with spontaneous MLF (Abrahamse and Bartowsky, 2012; Cañas et al., 2015;
Guzzon et al., 2016; Knoll et al., 2012). In general, more and more findings illustrate
that MLF is an effective and novel way of modulating the volatile and aroma com-
pound profile of wine.
1.1.3.3 Risk of Organoleptic Defects

Many secondary metabolites produced by bacteria are volatile and potentially affect
negatively wine sensory qualities. Lactic acid bacteria can spoil wine during wine-
making if MLF is not controlled, takes place too early, or gets stuck or, afterwards,
during maturation and aging (Lonvaud-Funel, 1999). In the first case, deviations
of metabolism by the fermenting bacteria (usually O. oeni or L. plantarum) dur-
ing malolactic fermentation can affect wine quality. In the second case, growth
of Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, and even some Oenococcus species in wine, hap-
pening after malolactic fermentation, can lead to numerous spoilage scenarios, as
they can form undesirable aromas and flavor compounds. Overall, the chemicals
involved in LAB-caused wine depreciation include compounds ranging from acet-
aldehyde to acetic acid, diacetyl, tetrahydropyridines, acrolein, beta-glucans, and
biogenic amines, as summarized by Bartowsky (2009). Concerning organic acids,
not only malic acid but also citric acid in the wine is metabolized by O. oeni and
by numerous genera of the lactic acid bacteria, resulting in the production of acetic
acid and diacetyl. One of the intermediary compounds in the metabolism of cit-
ric acid, diacetyl, is considered one of the most important flavors produced during
MLF. When present at a concentration above the sensory threshold, diacetyl gives
the wine an aroma that can be characterized as buttery or nutty. It has been demon-
strated that threshold values in different wines vary from 0.2 mg/L in Chardonnay
wine to 2.8 mg/L in Cabernet Sauvignon. The compound can add pleasant aromas
and complexity to wine at concentrations below 4 mg/L, but above this, it becomes
unpleasant with overt buttery notes (Bartowsky, 2009; Nielsen and Richelieu, 1999;
Swiegers et al., 2005). In general, wines that have undergone MLF have higher con-
centrations of diacetyl (Liu, 2002).
A number of factors, including some that the winemaker can control, particu-
larly during malolactic fermentation, affect the final level of diacetyl in wine. The
bacterial strain used, oxygen exposure, fermentation temperature and duration of
malolactic fermentation, wine type, and sulfur dioxide impact diacetyl production
(Bartowsky, 2009). It should be pointed out that diacetyl is formed chemically from
the oxidative decarboxylation of α-acetolactate, an unstable intermediary compound
produced during citrate metabolism. Its formation and degradation by bacteria are
directly related to growth and to the metabolism of sugar and malic acid together
with citric acid, since it is formed as an intermediate metabolite in the reductive
decarboxylation of pyruvic acid (Swiegers et al., 2005). Moreover, previous stud-
ies observed the utilization of diacetyl by Oenococci, which is not surprising, since
many LAB contain diacetyl reductase that converts the flavorful diacetyl to the
much less flavorful acetoin and 2,3-butanediol; therefore some strains can decrease
the amount of this molecule (Liu, 2002).
Certain strains of lactic acid bacteria (particularly Lactobacillus strains) are also
capable of degrading tartaric acid, although this capacity is much less common than
that of malic and citric acid metabolism. Tartaric acid is only degraded in certain
conditions after the metabolism of other organic acids. The catabolism of this acid
always alters wine by causing a slight reduction in fixed acidity and an increase in
volatile acidity (Munoz et al., 2011). Acetaldehyde, a highly volatile compound with
an apple-like and nutty aroma, is one of the most important sensory carbonyl com-
pounds formed during vinification, constituting more than 90% of the total aldehyde
content in wine, and originates mainly from yeast metabolism (Swiegers et al., 2005).
At low levels, acetaldehyde gives a pleasant fruity aroma, but results in an undesirable
aroma described as green, grassy, or apple-like when present in excess. The aroma
can be masked by the addition of SO2, but binding of SO2 to acetaldehyde reduces its
effectiveness as an antimicrobial compound and its antioxidant effect. The interac-
tion of acetaldehyde with phenolics improves red wine color by forming stable poly-
meric pigments resistant to SO2 bleaching, but it may also induce phenolic haze and
eventual deposition of condensed pigments (Bauer and Dicks, 2004; Swiegers et al.,
2005). Some strains of Oenococcus and Lactobacillus spp. can metabolize free and
SO2-bound acetaldehyde to acetic acid and ethanol (Osborne et al., 2000). Free SO2
released from the degradation of SO2-bound acetaldehyde by SO2-sensitive strains of
O. oeni may cause inhibition, resulting in stuck or sluggish MLF. The chemical and
sensory impact of the ethanol and acetic acid formed by the metabolism of acetalde-
hyde by lactic acid bacteria is believed to be limited, but the reduction in the acet-
aldehyde pool in wine is believed to influence final wine (Osborne et al., 2006). By
using efficient acetaldehyde-degrading strains to conduct MLF, the addition of SO2 to
reduce acetaldehyde aroma can be minimized (Bauer and Dicks, 2004).
Mousy wines result from the metabolism of ornithine and lysine, leading to the
formation of extremely potent and unpleasant nitrogen-heterocylic compounds: tet-
rahydropyridines. These molecules are perceived on the back palate as a persistent
aftertaste reminiscent of caged mice because of interactions with the mouth environ-
ment, since an increase in pH renders the compounds volatile (mousy taint is indeed
described as a taste rather than a smell). Production of these compounds seems to be
limited to the heterofermentative LAB (O. oeni and some species of Lactobacillus)
(Costello et al., 2001). A wine with a viscous and thick texture is referred to as
“ropy” because of the presence of excess exopolysaccharides such as b-d-glucan. In
this context, the production of exopolysaccharides is almost exclusively because of
Pediococcus growth in wine (Bartowsky, 2009).
Biogenic amine (BA) formation results from the decarboxylation of the corre-
sponding amino acids by the action of microorganisms. Many bacterial genera are
able to decarboxylate amino acids. This reaction is thought to favor growth and sur-
vival in acidic media, since it induces an increase in pH. In wine, several amino
acids can be decarboxylated; as a result, histamine, tyramine, putrescine, cadav-
erin, and phenylethylamine are usually found, the first three being the most frequent
(Lonvaud-Funel, 2001). The presence of these compounds is considered by some
authors a fundamental parameter to the detriment of alcoholic beverages, for both
sensory problems and consumer health issues (Marques et al., 2008). Since wine-
making involves the growth of lactic acid bacteria for malolactic fermentation, bio-
genic amines may occur. However, not all bacterial strains are able to produce them.
Since the early 2000s, it has been possible to detect the presence of undesirable
histamine-producing strains by PCR test or DNA probe based on the presence of
the gene encoding histidine decarboxylase, ornithine, and/or tyrosine decarboxylase.
This problem usually arises in spontaneous MLF, where an unknown LAB popula-
tion carries out the fermentation, whereas the absence of these genes is increasingly
required as a selection criterion for selected starters (Lonvaud-Funel, 2001).
1.1.4 Current Knowledge on Malolactic Fermentation:

Managing the Process
1.1.4.1 Physicochemical Parameters Affecting MLF Development
Various studies have reported many factors that influence the occurrence of LAB and
MLF in wines. In addition to oxygen and CO2, Henick-Kling (1993) listed carbohydrates,
amino acids, vitamins and minerals, and organic acid content, as well as the alcohol
level, pH, SO2, the method of vinification, and interrelationships between LAB and other
wine microorganisms to be the most influential factors to affect LAB growth. Much
other research work over the last 20 years has deepened the impact of these factors, pro-
viding to winemakers an interpretation key to understanding MLF problems and some
tools to manage the MLF process (Alexandre et al., 2004; Bauer and Dicks, 2004; Lerm
et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2016; Terrade and de Orduña, 2009). Indeed, if some of the param-
eters affecting MLF feasibility are not easy to change (grape variety, alcohol or potential
alcohol, pH, malic acid content), many others can be managed by the winemaker in order
to minimize risks of stuck or sluggish fermentations (SO2, yeast strain chosen for AF,
temperature, nutrients to be added). Table 1.1 summarizes the main physicochemical
factors affecting MLF and their potential impact, according to recent studies.
1.1.4.2 Use of Starter Cultures
Winemakers started to recognize the benefits of inoculating grape must or wine with
commercial starter cultures of LAB to ensure the successful completion of MLF
and to reduce the risks associated with spontaneous MLF in the 1980s (Davis et al.,
1985). Potential risks include the presence of unidentified/spoilage bacteria that
can produce undesirable or off-flavors, a delay in the onset or completion of MLF,
the production of biogenic amines and the development of bacteriophages—all of
which contribute to a decrease in the quality of the wine (Bauer and Dicks, 2004;
Jaomanjaka et al., 2016; Lerm et al., 2010). Thus, while MLF can occur spontane-
ously, more and more winemakers, particularly in New World winemaking regions,
prefer to minimize the danger of a failed or sluggish MLF by inoculating with a
reliable, commercially available starter culture. By inoculating a commercial starter
culture, most of which contain O. oeni as the single LAB culture, the winemaker can
promote the rapid start and completion of MLF and also encourage a positive flavor
contribution to the wine (Bartowsky et al., 2015; Lerm et al., 2010).
O. oeni is still the main species used in the many commercial starter cultures
available today. Most of the cultures are prepared with single strains or a mixture of
TABLE 1.1
Main Factors Affecting MLF Effectiveness
Mainly Cross
Factor Effect on MLF Linked with Ref.
Temperaturea Temperature affects growth rate, length of the Ethanol Bauer and Dicks,
lag phase, and maximum population of 2004
malolactic bacteria. Optimal growth rate
of O. oeni, in absence of ethanol, is around
25°C. Optimum growth at 10%–14% alcohol
is between 18°C and 20°C.
Ethanol Ethanol decreases optimal growth temperature Temperature, Bauer and Dicks,
of LAB; ethanol tolerance is decreased at SO2 2004; Henick-
elevated temperatures due to membrane Kling, 1993;
fluidity. Generally O. oeni strains are able to Lerm et al., 2010
survive and proliferate in 10% ethanol,
concentrations > 14% (v/v) inhibit O. oeni
growth. Ethanol tolerance in LAB is strain
dependent in Oenococcus and Lactobacillus
species.
pH Wines of pH 3.3 and above generally exhibit SO2 Bauer and Dicks,
few problems, whereas at lower pH, 2004; Henick-Kling,
difficulties may arise. O. oeni usually 1993
represents the dominant species in wine
below pH 3.5. At higher pH Lactobacillus
and Pediococcus spp. may survive and grow.
pH influences SO2 impact on MLF.
SO2a Antimicrobial activity of SO2 strongly affects pH, yeast Bauer and Dicks,
growth of LAB cells and influences 2004; Henick-Kling,
malolactic activity. pH has crucial effect 1993; Krieger and
on the form of SO2 present. The lethal level Silvano, 2016;
of molecular SO2 for most wine LAB is Lerm et al., 2010
<0.3 mg/L (corresponding, e.g., to 5 mg/L
free SO2 at pH 3.2 and 13% ethanol, 15
mg/L free SO2 at pH 3.6 and 13% ethanol).
To a lesser extent, also, bound inhibits MLF
(bound SO2 at 30 mg/L delays the growth of
LAB, bound SO2 > 50 mg/L reduces
malolactic activity by 50%). Some yeast
strains are capable of producing rather large
amounts of SO2 during AF.
Malic acid l-malate stimulates growth and biomass pH Bauer and Dicks,
production by O. oeni up to 3 g/L. Higher 2004; Krieger and
concentrations may show inhibitory effect. Silvano, 2016;
At low pH, l-malate is metabolized at a high Lerm et al., 2010
rate, whereas carbohydrate metabolism
proceeds very slowly.
(Continued )
TABLE 1.1 (CONTINUED)

Main Factors Affecting MLF Effectiveness
Mainly Cross
Factor Effect on MLF Linked with Ref.
Nutrientsa Depending on strains, some amino acids Yeast Krieger and Silvano,
(4 to 9) are essential for growth, while others 2016; Terrade and
are required for optimum growth of O. oeni. de Orduña, 2009
Nicotinic acid, riboflavin, pantothenic acid,
and either thiamine or pyridoxine are
necessary vitamins, manganese an essential
ion. Yeast can consume these nutrients; yeast
autolysis releases nutrients that stimulate
LAB growth and malolactic activity.
Yeast straina Inhibitory and stimulatory effects differ Nutrients, Alexandre et al.,
between strains: AF with SO2 producing SO2 2004; Bauer and
yeast strain results in wine inhibitory to MLF Dicks, 2004;
and medium chain fatty acid production by Lerm et al., 2010;
yeast negatively affects LAB growth and Liu et al., 2016
reduce ability to metabolize malic acid.
Antagonism between yeast and LAB during
alcoholic fermentation may be also explained
by nutrient depletion and production of
specific inhibitory peptides. New nontargeted
studies recently provided insights into other
molecules belonging to classes of
oligopeptides, carbohydrates, amino acids.
Phenolic Polyphenolic compounds impact the growth of Chasseriaud et al.,
compounds bacteria in wine, but research results are very 2015; du Toit et al.,
confusing, with some studies describing the 2011
phenolic compounds as activators, and others
as inhibitors. In a recent study, the addition
of grape tannins and red wine extracts to a
white wine showed a positive influence on
the growth, survival, and malolactic activity
of O. oeni strains; a 3-O-galloyl esterase and
gallate decarboxylase have been found in
L. plantarum. Results showed different
malolactic behaviors in relation to wine
phenolic compositions for O. oeni and
L. plantarum. Diversity was found within
each group.
a Factor that the winemaker can manage during the vinification process.
two or three strains. Nowadays, many commercial starter cultures are available to
induce malolactic fermentation; most consist of strains of lactic acid bacteria, which
have a high malolactic activity and a high tolerance of low pH and high ethanol con-
tent. These starter cultures have been commercialized in various forms, including
fresh, frozen, and lyophilized cultures (Gonzalez et al., 2011; Munoz et al., 2011).
Since the introduction of malolactic starter cultures for improving the induction of
MLF, there has been considerable research and development aimed at optimizing
inoculation strategies and strain selection to further enhance MLF efficiency.
One of the major considerations has been to determine the optimal time point for inoc-
ulation. Starter cultures can be co-inoculated with yeast (at the beginning or towards the
end of alcoholic fermentation) or inoculated sequentially (after alcoholic fermentation).
Generally, relative to sequential inoculation, co-inoculation reduces overall vinification
time. This has important consequences for the wine industry: Speeding up vinification
rate leads to more rapid wine stabilization and reduces the risk of spoilage (Bartowsky et
al., 2015). Indeed, grape must is an environment more suitable than wine for microbial
growth because it does not contain some of the limiting factors; in these conditions, bet-
ter adaptation and activity of malolactic bacteria are expected. The obstacles to microbial
activity, in particular ethanol and eventually some yeast-produced molecules, accumulate
gradually during alcoholic fermentation, allowing time for bacterial biomass adaptation
and ensuring a greater chance of survival for lactic acid bacteria (Guzzon et al., 2016).
Nonetheless, there has been some reluctance by industry to adopt co-inoculation
as a practice. One possible concern for using this tool is that O. oeni is heterofer-
mentative. This means that under certain conditions, one of the products of its sugar
metabolism is acetic acid. Thus it might be assumed that O. oeni has the potential
to produce wines with elevated volatile acidity. Considering that the consumption of
sugar and malic acid can occur simultaneously, the bacteria utilized in this kind of
fermentation must be tailored specifically to avoid spoilage phenomena associated
with the consumption of sugar by lactic acid bacteria via heterolactic fermentation. It
has been demonstrated by several works that, at least under winemaking conditions
and with careful management of fermentations, O. oeni survives better and does not
produce acetic acid when grown in grape juice at low pH (Zapparoli et al., 2015a,b).
Under these conditions, indeed, it preferentially utilizes organic acids (malic and
citric acids) rather than sugars (Henick-Kling, 1993).
There has been growing interest internationally in studying and industrially using
co-inoculation in the production of many red and some white wines. Co-inoculation
strategies have been found to benefit production of a wide range of grape varieties
providing reliable malolactic fermentation (as reviewed by Bartowsky et al., 2015), as
well as in different contexts of harsh situations including high alcohol (Zapparoli et
al., 2009) and low pH (Guzzon et al., 2013, 2016; Knoll et al., 2012; Pan et al., 2011),
and to be appreciated for their aromatic contribution to the final product, as discussed
in Section 1.1.3.2. As the pH increases, there is a shift to a preference for sugar utiliza-
tion of Oenococcus oeni, thus increasing the risk of acetic acid accumulation in case
of early inoculation (Bartowsky et al., 2015). However, in many spontaneous MLFs
in wines exhibiting a pH over 3.5, Pediococcus damnosus and certain unknown
Lactobacillus strains may dominate, creating the risk of organoleptic defects. The
application of proper microbiological selection criteria to wines in this category has
recently led to the isolation of bacterial strains capable of inducing a quality MLF
in high-pH wines. In this context, one of the emerging trends in the application of
malolactic fermentation is to use alternatives to O. oeni as starter cultures, with a
particular interest in Lactobacillus plantarum. This bacterium is homofermentative
for hexoses such as glucose; it will produce only lactic acid and not acetic acid when it
metabolizes glucose, thus eliminating any potential risk of producing volatile acidity.
In addition, L. plantarum has a preference for malate as an energy source at low
pH, making it suitable for MLF in a cofermentation or even prealcoholic fermenta-
tion, when it can begin decarboxylating malate before a yeast starter culture has been
added (Bartowsky et al., 2015; du Toit et al., 2011). From a sensory point of view,
L. plantarum produces a broader range of extracellular enzymes, including glycosi-
dases and esterases, than O. oeni. These enzymes potentially play an important role
in the development of wine sensory properties through the release of flavor molecules;
thus L. plantarum may enhance wine sensory properties more largely than O. oeni
(Bartowsky et al., 2015; du Toit et al., 2011). Last but not least, the wide genetic diver-
sity of the Lactobacillus spp. and in particular of the plantarum species makes it
interesting for recent projects aiming at enhancing regionality of wine through MLF
(Iorizzo et al., 2016; Spano and Capozzi, 2011; Testa et al., 2014). Indeed, recent stud-
ies have shown how microbial activity is an integral part of regionally distinct wine
characteristics (terroir), an important aspect of wine production and consumer appre-
ciation. Wine production and grape and wine microbiota present regionally defined
patterns associated with vineyard and climatic conditions and are objects of increas-
ing interest (Bokulich et al., 2016) thanks to the high-throughput sequencing tech-
nologies that are providing the greatest advance to this sector of research. So, research
has been conducted on regional microbial isolates and their potential application in
winemaking, since grape resident microbial diversity forms an untapped reservoir of
indigenous bacteria strains and may be primarily considered in an MLF starter selec-
tion scheme, and new findings are likely to be expected in this field.
1.1.4.3 Control of MLF to Avoid Further Microbial Spoilage

How best to avoid wine spoilage is not always easy to define. Even appropriate
hygiene practices and the chemically harsh nature of wine cannot be relied on as a
deterrent to unwanted bacteria. As an initial barrier, the high ethanol concentrations
(up to 16% v/v) and high wine acidity (pH as low as 2.9) can inhibit development of
bacterial populations; however, in wines with lower ethanol concentrations and low
acidity (above pH 3.6), it can be challenging to arrest late bacterial growth, since,
unlike the treatment of wort in beer brewing, grape must is not pasteurized prior to
yeast inoculation (Bartowsky, 2009; Ribéreau-Gayon et al., 2006). Some kinds of
risks are easier to avoid than others. For example, injudicious aeration during and/or
after the winemaking process can result in the growth and activity of acetic acid bac-
teria, high volatile acidity, and a vinegary taint in wine. These bacteria are classified
into the genera Acetobacter, Acidomonas, Gluconobacter, and Gluconacetobacter;
of these, Gluconobacter oxydans, Acetobacter aceti, Acetobacter pasteurianus,
Gluconacetobacter liquefaciens, and Gluconacetobacter hansenii are normally
associated with grapes and wine, but can be easily avoided by limiting oxygen
(Swiegers et al., 2005).
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hurled upon the house of Judd. Standing for a moment in silence
and glowering upon them all in turn, the boy swung about with a
defiant gesture, stalked through the open door and out of the house.
Josiah Judd, whose heart was already sinking under the
responsibility of the crown jewels of a kingdom, experienced a
sickening collapse in the presence of the Oriental thunderbolt that
had just exploded on his peaceful New England hearthstone. His jaw
fell, he ceased rocking, and turned his eyes in painful inquiry upon
his guests.
There was an awkward silence. The General and the Prince had
risen to their feet as if in apology to the hostess, but she had
accepted the outburst with unruffled calmness. Her kind, restful,
homely face showed no annoyance. Rising quietly from the table she
followed the stormy guest and found him around in front of the
house, sitting upon the granite doorstep, his chin in his hands,
frowning fiercely upon the quaint old flower-garden before him. He
got up as she approached and stood a few feet away, regarding her
with a hostile scowl. Seating herself upon the step she said, with a
pleasant smile:
“Of course you are tired, sonny, we all understand that, and you are
unhappy to-day, but it won’t be for long.”
These assuring words failed of their purpose, and he eyed her
sidewise, and with suspicion. He was too old a bird to be fooled so
easily. A few sprigs were torn from the box border within his reach as
if the conversation bored him.
“I had a boy once,” continued Mrs. Judd. “I understand boys, and
know just how you feel. We shall be good friends, I’m sure.”
After a pause devoted to serious reflection, he inquired:
“Did your boy like you?”
“Oh, yes.”
He came nearer and stood in front of her. Then, slowly and with the
precision with which he always delivered himself when speaking
English, he said:
“My mother was different from you, and her clothes were more
beautiful, but if one boy liked you another might. I might. Would you
like to see my mother’s portrait?”
Mrs. Judd said she would like very much to see it, and he began
fumbling about and seemed to be tickling himself near the buckle of
his belt. But, as it proved, he was ascertaining the whereabouts of a
locket, which he finally fished up by means of a gold chain about his
neck. The chain was of such a length that the locket, instead of
reposing near the heart of the wearer, hung a little below the centre
of the stomach. When it finally emerged above his collar, he placed
the warm miniature in her hand, saying:
“That is my mother.”
It was a dark face, surmounted by a jewelled head-dress of a style
that Mrs. Judd had never seen, even in pictures. After looking more
carefully at the miniature and then up into the eyes that were
watching hers, she found the same square forehead and sensitive
mouth, and the same dark melancholy, heavily fringed eyes, by far
the most beautiful she had ever seen. The picture in her hand was a
truthful portrait of himself. As she looked from the portrait into the
face before her she felt it was perhaps fortunate this mother was
ignorant of the changes that already had turned the current of his
life. With a brown hand on each of her knees he was looking into her
eyes with the anxious gaze of a hungry soul, seeking for sympathy,
and too proud to ask it. But Mrs. Judd understood. She laid a hand
upon his shoulder with an expression upon her honest face that
rendered words unnecessary. He blinked and swallowed in a mighty
effort to suppress what he evidently considered an undignified and
compromising sentiment. But in vain. Sinking upon his knees he
buried his face in her lap and gave way to the most vehement,
uncontrollable grief. The small frame shook with sobs, while her
apron grew wet with tears. He took his sorrow with the same
passionate recklessness that characterized his anger at the dinner-
table. Mrs. Judd rested her hand upon the short black hair and tried
to summon words of solace for a grief that seemed to threaten the
integrity of his earthly body. She could only stroke his head and tell
him not to be unhappy; that all would end well; that he should soon
return home.
In the midst of these efforts the voice of Mr. Judd came around the
corner calling out that the wagon was here. The boy jumped to his
feet as if he had received a shock. Drawing the sleeve of his jacket
across his tear-stained face, he summoned an expression of severity
and indifference that under other circumstances would have forced a
smile from his newly acquired friend. The soldier was himself again;
the warrior was on parade. As they walked together around the
house to the dining-room, he beside her with a resolute step and
chin in the air, she wondered what manner of training could have
taught him at the age of seven to suppress all boyish emotions, and
put on at will the dignity of a Roman Senator.
The General and the Prince were awaiting them. With many
compliments they thanked the host and hostess for their hospitality,
and regretted the necessity that took them away in such unfortunate
haste; it was a flying trip and their absence must not be lengthened
by an hour, as these were troublous times in their part of India. As
they moved toward the wagon Mrs. Judd held her husband back,
believing there might be a parting at which strangers would not be
welcome. But the parting, like all else, was dignified and
ceremonious. She could not see the boy’s face, for he stood with his
back toward her, but as far as she could judge he also was calm and
self-possessed. She noticed, however, that the General had to
swallow, with a sudden gulp, a large portion of what appeared to be
a carefully constructed sentence.
They drove in silence down the long avenue beneath the maples,
and the driver, perhaps to put them at their ease, said something
about getting along faster in this light wagon than with the stage, but
both his passengers seemed in a silent mood and made no answer.
As they turned into the main road the General, who was on the side
nearest the house, looked back. At the farther end of the avenue
stood the boy in the same position, still watching them. The old
soldier brought his hand to his hat and down again in a military
salute that was evidently familiar to the little person at the farther end
of the driveway, for it was promptly acknowledged, and although a
farewell to the last ties between himself and his country, was
returned with head erect, as from one veteran to another.
II
TWENTY years have passed.
The corner mansion of the Van Koovers is ablaze with light. Long
rows of carriages surmounted by sleepy coachmen extend along
Madison Avenue and into the neighboring street. The temporary
awning from the front door to the curbstone serves only to shield the
coming and departing guest from the gaze of heaven, for the moon
and stars are shining brightly, as if they also would like to enter. But
when the front door opens, which is frequent, it emits a blast of
music, taunting and defiant, reminding the outside universe of its
plebeian origin.
Inside there is a scene of festivity and splendor, of dazzling gayety,
of youth and mirth and decorous joy. The opulence of the Van
Koovers is of sanctifying solidity, and when they give a ball they do it
in a style to be remembered. The house itself, with its sumptuous
furniture, its magnificent ceilings and stately dimensions is
sufficiently impressive in every-day attire, but to-night it reminds you
of the Arabian Tales. The family portraits, the gracious dignity of the
host and hostess, the bearing of the servants, all speak of pedigree
and hereditary honors.
Roses and violets, in lavish profusion, fill every corner, are festooned
around doors and windows, even along the walls and up the stairs,
their perfume mingling with the music. And the music, dreamy yet
voluminous, sways hither and thither a sea of maidens with snowy
necks and shimmering jewels, floating gracefully about in the arms of
anxious youths. These youths, although unspeakably happy, wear
upon their faces, as is usual upon such occasions, an expression of
corroding care.
As a waltz came to an end, a tall, light-haired girl with crimson roses
in her dress, dropped into a seat. She fanned herself rapidly as if to
drive away a most becoming color that had taken possession of her
cheeks. Her breath came quickly, the string of pearls upon her neck
rising and falling as if sharing in the general joy. With her long throat,
her well-poised head, and a certain dignity of unconscious pride she
might be described as old-fashioned from her resemblance to a
favorite type in the portraits of a century ago. Perhaps her prettiest
feature was the low, wide forehead about which the hair seemed to
advance and recede in exceptionally graceful lines. Her charm to
those who know her but superficially was in her voice and manner, in
the frankness of her eyes, and, above all perhaps, in that all-
conquering charm, a total absence of self-consciousness. But
whatever the reason, no girl in the room received more attention.
Her partner, a sculptor with a bald head and a reputation, took the
chair beside her. As her eyes wandered carelessly about the room
she inquired, in an indifferent tone: “Who is that swarthy youth
talking with Julia Bancroft?”
“I don’t know. He looks like a foreigner.” Then he added, with more
interest, “But isn’t he a beauty!”
“Yes, his features are good.”
“He is an Oriental of some sort, and doesn’t quite harmonize with a
claw-hammer coat. He should wear an emerald-green nightcap with
a ruby in the centre, about the size of a hen’s egg, a yellow dressing-
gown and white satin trousers, all copiously sprinkled with
diamonds.”
She smiled. “Yes, and he might be interesting if he were not quite so
handsome; but here he comes!”
The youth in question, as he came down the room and passed them,
seemed to be having a jolly time with his companion and he failed to
notice the two people who were discussing him. It was a boyish face
notwithstanding the regular features and square jaw, and at the
present moment it wore a smile that betrayed the most intense
amusement. When he was well out of hearing, the sculptor
exclaimed: “He is the most artistic thing I ever saw! The lines of his
eyes and nose are superb! And what a chin! I should like to own
him!”
“You couldn’t eat him.”
“No, but I could put him on exhibition at five dollars a ticket. Every
girl in New York would be there; you among them.”
Miss Cabot appeared to consider. “I am not so sure. He probably is
much less interesting than he looks. Handsome males over three
years of age are the deadliest bores in life; sculptors of course
excepted.”
“It does seem to be a kind of prosperity the human male is unable to
support without impairment.” Then addressing a blasé young man
lounging wearily by:
“Horace, do you know who that is talking with Miss Bancroft?”
Horace, a round-shouldered blond whose high collar seemed to
force his chin, not upward, but outward horizontally, fingered the
ends of a frail mustache and asked:
“You mean that pigeon-toed fellow with the dark face?”
Miss Cabot could not help laughing. “There’s a summing up of your
beauty,” she exclaimed, turning to the sculptor.
He smiled as he answered: “It is evident you are an admirer. But do
you know who he is?”
“Yes, I know him.”
“Well, what is it? A Hindu prince, a Persian poet, or a simple corsair
of the Adriatic?”
“He is a Connecticut farmer.”
“Never!”
“And his name is Judd—Amos Judd.”
“Oh, dear!” sighed Miss Cabot. “What a come down! We hoped he
was something more unusual than that.”
“Well, he is more unusual than that. He is a paralyzer of the female
heart. I knew him in college. At dances and parties we were
generally sure to find him tucked away on the stairs or out on a
porch with the prettiest girl of the ball, and he looked so much like an
Oriental prince we used to call him the Bellehugger of Spoonmore.”
“Disgusting!”
“But that is a trifling and unimportant detail of his character, Miss
Cabot, and conveys a cold impression of Mr. Judd’s experiences.
Don Giovanni was a puritanical prig in comparison. Then at college
he had the bad taste to murder a classmate.”
Miss Cabot looked up in horror.
“But then he had his virtues. He could drink more without showing it
than any fellow in college, and he was the richest man in his class.”
“Oh, come now, Horace,” said the sculptor, “you are evidently a good
friend of his, but your desire to do him a good turn may be carrying
you beyond the limits of—how shall I say it?”
“You mean that I am lying.”
“Well, that is the rough idea.”
Horace smiled. “No, I am not lying. It is all true,” and he passed
wearily on.
It was not many minutes before Molly Cabot was again moving over
the floor, this time with the son of the house. Stephen Van Koover
was one of those unfortunates whose mental outfit qualified him for
something better than the career of clothes and conversation to
which he was doomed by the family wealth.
“This recalls old times. Isn’t it three or four years since we have
danced together?” he asked. “Or is it three or four hundred?”
“Thank you! I am glad you realize what you have missed.”
“You do dance like an angel, Miss Molly, and it’s a sin to squander
such talent on me. I wish you would try it with Judd; my sisters say
his dancing is a revelation.”
“Judd, the murderer?”
“Who told you that?”
“Horace Bennett.”
“I might have guessed it. Truth and Horace were never chums. Judd
bears the same relation to Horace as sunshine to a damp cellar.”
As the music ceased they strolled to a little divan at the end of the
room.
“He did kill a man, a classmate, but he had the sympathies of his
entire class. It was partly an accident, anyway.”
“I am glad for his sake, as there seems to be a prejudice against
murder.”
“This was a little of both. We were having a supper, about twenty of
us, just before class-day. After the supper, when we were all a trifle
hilarious, Slade came up behind Judd and poured some wine down
his neck. Judd faced about; then Slade made a mock apology, and
added an insulting speech. He was a master in that sort of thing, and
while doing it he emptied his wineglass into Judd’s face. Now Judd is
overweighted with a peculiar kind of Oriental pride, and also with an
unfortunate temper; not a bad temper, but a sudden, unreliable,
cyclonic affair, that carries the owner with it, generally faster than is
necessary, and sometimes a great deal farther. Now Slade knew all
this, and as he was an all-around athlete and the heavier man, there
was no doubt in our minds that he meant Judd should strike out, and
then he would have some fun with him.
“Well, Judd grew as black as a thundercloud, but he kept his temper.
His hand shook as he wiped his face with his handkerchief and
quietly turned his back upon him. Then it was that the other man
made the crowning error of his life. He was just enough of a bully to
misunderstand Judd’s decent behavior, and his contempt was so
great for one who could accept such an indignity that he kicked him.
Judd wheeled about, seized him by the throat and banged his head
against the wall with a force and fury that sobered every fellow in the
room. Close beside them was an open window reaching to the floor,
with a low iron railing outside. Judd, half lifting him from the floor,
sent him flying through this window, and over the balcony.”
“Gracious! Was he dead from the blows on his head?”
“No, but a blow awaited him outside that would have finished an ox.
This window was about thirteen feet from the ground, and below it
stood a granite hitching post. When Slade came down like a diver
from a boat and struck head foremost against the top of this post
something was sure to suffer, and the granite post is there to-day,
with no signs of injury.”
“How can you speak of it in such a tone!”
“Well, I am afraid none of us had a deep affection for the victim. And
then Judd was so refreshingly honest! He said he was glad Slade
was dead; that the world would be better if all such men were out of
it, and refused to go to the funeral or to wear the usual class
mourning.”
“Which was in disgustingly bad taste!”
“Possibly, but uncommonly honest. And then it is hardly fair to judge
him by our standards. He is built of foreign material, and he had
received something that it was simply not in his nature to forgive.”
Their voices were drowned in the music that again filled the room.
The dance over, they sauntered out into the large hall, where
Flemish and Italian tapestries formed an opulent harmony with Van
Koover portraits. In the air of this apartment one breathed the
ancestral repose that speaks of princely origin. It was not intended,
however, that this atmosphere should recall the founder of the house
who, but four generations ago, was peddling knick-knacks along the
Bowery.
As Miss Cabot was uncomfortably warm and suggested a cooler air
he led her to the farther end of the long hall, beyond the stairs, and
halted at the entrance of a conservatory.
“Delicious!” and she inhaled a long breath of the fresh, moist air.
“Wait for me just a moment, and I will bring you the glass of water,”
and he vanished.
An inviting obscurity pervaded this conservatory, which, like the rest
of the Van Koover mansion, was spacious and impressive. At the
farther end, the gloom was picturesquely broken by rays of
moonlight slanting through the lofty windows. The only living
occupants seemed to be one or two pairs of invisible lovers, whose
voices were faintly audible above the splashing of the little fountain
in the centre. This busy fountain formed a discreet accompaniment
to the flirtations in the surrounding shrubbery. Stepping to the side of
the basin, she stood for a moment looking down into its diminutive
depths. The falling water and the distant music formed a soothing
melody, and a welcome restfulness stole gently upon her senses as
she inhaled, with the fragrance of the tropics, the peace and poetry
of a summer night. She stood for a moment yielding to a gentle
enchantment; it seemed a different world, apart from the great city in
which she lived, a world of flowers, and perfumes, of fountains and
perpetual music; of moonlight and of whispering lovers.
At last, as if waking from a dream, the girl raised her head and
looked toward the windows beyond, where a flood of moonlight
illumined deep masses of exotic foliage, repeating them in fantastic
shadows on the marble floor. Walking slowly from the fountain, she
lingered between the overhanging palms, then stepped into the
moonbeams, a radiant figure with her bare neck and arms and
glistening jewels in this full white light, against the gloom of the
conservatory. The diamonds in the crescent above her forehead
flashed as if quivering into life as she stopped and looked up at the
planet.
A figure close beside her, that had formed part of the surrounding
shadow, started back with a suddenness that caused her, also, to
retreat a step and press a hand to her heart. It was more from
nervousness than fear, as she was simply startled. She at once
recovered herself, ashamed at being taken off her guard, but a
glance at the man beside her, whose face was now also in the light,
filled her with a fresh surprise. It was the Oriental beauty; the
murderer, Judd, and the intensity of his expression almost frightened
her. His eyes were fixed upon her own in speechless wonder, and as
they moved to the crescent in her hair, then back again to her face,
they showed both terror and astonishment. Yet it seemed a look of
recognition, for he bent eagerly forward, as if to make sure he were
not mistaken.
It was all in an instant. Then, with a step backward and an inclination
of the head, he stammered:
“I beg your pardon. I—I was startled. Pray forgive me.”
He gave an arm to his companion, a pretty girl in pink who, standing
behind him, had missed the details of the little scene, and they
walked away among the plants and out of the conservatory.
Later in the evening, as Miss Cabot stood near the door of the ball-
room, the girl with whom she was speaking introduced a friend, and
she found herself again in the presence of the Connecticut farmer,
the young man of the moonlight. But this time he wore a very
different expression from that of the conservatory. There was a
pleasant smile on the dark and somewhat boyish face as he
apologized for the scene among the plants. “I am sorry if it annoyed
you, but I was startled by an unexpected resemblance.”
She looked into his eyes as he spoke, and understood why the
sculptor should have been enthusiastic over such a face. It was of an
unfamiliar type, and bore a curious resemblance to those she had
attributed as a child to the heroes of her imagination. The eyes were
long, dark, and seemed capable of any quantity of expression, either
good or bad. Miss Cabot was uncertain as to whether they pleased
her. At present they looked somewhat anxiously into her own with a
touch of misgiving. Nevertheless, she felt that he was telling her only
a portion of the truth.
“I beg your pardon, I—I was startled”
“If it is my misfortune to startle unsuspecting guests when I come
upon them without notice, it is for me to apologize. No,” then
continuing hastily, as he began a protestation: “You needn’t explain!
Do not trouble yourself to tell me that only the most disturbing types
of beauty cause you just that kind of a shock.”
“But why not, if it is the truth? Besides, as you stepped out into the
moonlight you were a blinding apparition, all in white, against the
darkness behind. I have no doubt the moon herself was a little
startled.”
“You certainly were less happy in concealing your agitation than the
—other victim.”
Although his manner was deferential and gave indications of a
positive but discreetly repressed admiration, she felt ill at ease with
him. It was impossible to forget his repulsive title, and turning partly
away she looked over the room, and answered:
“Since you are completely recovered and my apology is accepted, I
suppose there is nothing more to be done.”
As the words were uttered the opening strains of a waltz came
floating across the hall, and he begged that she give him a dance in
token of absolution. It was easier to grant it than to refuse, and in
another moment they were gliding over the floor. As they moved
away she experienced a new sensation. This partner, while adapting
himself to her own movements, carried her with a gentle force that
relieved her of all volition. While, in effect, borne up and along by the
music, she was governed by a pressure that was hardly perceptible;
yet, at a critical instant, when a reckless dancer came plunging
toward them, she felt herself swung lightly from his path, to relapse
at once into a tranquil security and float peacefully away. This
floating with the music was so easy, so very drowsy and relaxing,
that her consciousness almost drifted with the rhythm of the waltz.
Once, as her eyes were uplifted to the gorgeous frieze, the white-
winged Cupids that a moment before were lolling idly against the
blue and gold background seemed now to be keeping time with the
music, swaying and dancing in their irresponsible nakedness.
Miss Cabot was surprised when the music ceased and at once
regretted having danced such a length of time with a stranger of
unsavory reputation. As they left the ball-room and entered the
ancestral hall she was flushed and out of breath, endeavoring with
one hand to replace a lock of hair that had fallen about her neck.
“It’s a shame,” he muttered.
“What? That we danced so long?”
“Oh, no! That it should ever end!”
They looked about for a resting-place, but all were occupied. Girls in
pink, in white, in pale blue, in delicate yellow, in every color that was
becoming to their individual beauty, or to its absence, were clustered
about the great hall, filling every seat. Around them, like bees in a
flower-garden, hovered men in black.
“There is our chance,” he said, pointing to the stairs. Upon the first
landing, but three steps from the floor, there was a semicircular
recess along whose wall ran a cushioned seat. At the entrance, upon
a pedestal of Sienna marble, sat a Cupid with a finger upon his lips;
a bit of ancient sculpture from a Roman temple. Behind him, within,
an inviting gloom suggested repose and silence. As they stepped
upon the tiger-skin that nearly covered the landing, Miss Cabot was
accosted by a man whose thoughtful face brightened up at the
meeting. When he glanced at her companion there was a similar
welcome, and they called each other John and Amos, and appeared
to be on intimate terms. After a short conversation he left them and
descended into the hall. She was puzzled at the friendship of these
two men, and wondered what there could possibly be in common
between a promising clergyman of exceptional purity of character
and this dissolute, hot-headed Judd. As they seated themselves in
the alcove, she said, in a tone of surprise:
“So you and John Harding are friends!”
He smiled. “Yes; and I lament your astonishment.”
She blushed at her stupid betrayal of the thought, while he made no
effort to conceal his amusement.
“It may be an unkind thing to say of him, but we have been good
friends for several years.”
Laying her fan in her lap, she devoted both hands to the wandering
lock. “Is that what drove him to the church?”
“No. For that I am not responsible, thank Heaven!”
“Why thank Heaven? Is there any harm in being a clergyman?”
“It depends on the man. In this case it certainly seems a waste of
good material.”
Now, it happened that Molly Cabot’s religious convictions were
deeply rooted, and she felt a thrill of indignation at this slur upon a
sacred calling. Of course, it was not surprising that a spoiled youth
with a murderous temper should prove an atheist and a scoffer, but
she was irritated, and instinctively took the field as the champion of a
righteous cause.
“Then you consider it a waste of good material for an honest man to
serve the church?”
Her energy surprised him, but he answered, pleasantly: “I do not say
that. No one is too good for any honest work. I only say that a man of
John Harding’s originality and courage puts himself in a false
position by so doing.”
“I do not see how,” and her eyes were fixed upon his own in open
hostility. He still smiled serenely and met her glance with provoking
calmness.
“Well, at present he is young and full of enthusiasm, believing
everything, and more besides; but he is only twenty-seven now and
will do a heap of thinking before he is forty. The pathetic part of it is
that he binds himself to a creed, and the man who can think for
thirteen years on any subject without modifying his faith ought to be
in a museum.”
“Not if it is the true faith.”
“If it is the true faith, there is danger in thinking, as he may think
away from it; so why waste a brain like Harding’s?”
In spite of a certain deference and gentleness of tone with which he
uttered these positive sentiments there was evident enjoyment in the
shock they created. While he was speaking she noticed in the centre
of his forehead a faint scar about the size of a thimble end. It
seemed an evanescent mark, only visible when he turned his face at
certain angles with the light, and suggested the thought that if all
young men of such opinions were marked in a similar manner it
might serve as a wholesome warning to unbelievers.
She looked down at her fan a moment, then answered, very quietly:
“So all clergymen over forty are either hypocrites or fools. It must be
very satisfying to entertain a thorough contempt for so large a
profession.”
“Oh, don’t say contempt. Rather an excess of sympathy for the
unfortunate.”
At that moment Horace Bennett, in ascending the stairs, stopped for
an instant upon the landing and stood facing them. His eyes rested
upon herself and Mr. Judd, then she saw him glance at the marble
Cupid who, with his finger to his lips, seemed acting as a sentinel for
whatever lovers were within. Then he pulled the ends of his
miserable little mustache, and with a half-suppressed smile muttered
something to his companion, and they passed up the stairs. The hot
blood flew to her cheeks as she recalled what he had said earlier in
the evening of this man beside her: “We were sure to find him tucked
away on the stairs or out on the porch with a girl. So we called him
the Bellehugger of Spoonmore.”
Never in her life had she felt so degraded, so cheapened in her own
esteem. Hot, cold, with burning cheeks, and tears of mortification in
her eyes she rose from her seat, pressing a handkerchief against her
lips, and stepped swiftly out upon the landing and down into the hall.
Mr. Judd followed and inquired anxiously if she were ill; could he do
anything? His solicitude, which was genuine, caused her to realize
how extraordinary her behavior must appear to him. The close air in
the alcove, she answered coldly, must have affected her. It was only
a little dizziness.
To her great relief a young man came hurrying up, and exclaimed:
“I have been looking everywhere for you, Miss Cabot! The cotillion is
on!”
A formal nod to Mr. Judd, and she moved away with an unuttered
prayer that their paths in future might be far apart. Her wish was
granted, at least for that night, for she saw him no more at the Van
Koovers’.
When she reached home and entered her own chamber, the
moonlight was streaming into the room, and before turning up the
lights she had the curiosity to stand near the window with a hand-
glass and study her own reflection. Only the usual face was there,
and as usual, the nose was too short, the chin too long, and all the
other defects were present; but even in the moonlight they seemed
hardly sufficient to frighten a strong young man.
III
A FIRST interview with the Hon. J. W. Cabot, senior member of the
firm of Cabot, Hollingsworth & Perry, generally resulted in a belief
that this distinguished lawyer was a severe, unsympathetic man
whose dignity, under ordinary pressure, was not likely to abate. An
abundant crop of short gray hair covered a square, well-shaped
head; a head that seemed hard and strong. His forehead, his jaw,
and his shoulders were also square, and they also seemed hard and
strong.
His manner was cold, his voice firm and even, and he was never
ruffled. The cool gray eyes rested calmly upon you as if screening,
out of consideration for your own fallacious knowledge, the
profundity of wisdom that reposed behind them. His memory seemed
infallible. The extent and accuracy of his legal knowledge was a
perpetual surprise, even to his partners. For simplifying complex
entanglements his clearness and rapidity amounted to a genius. His
fees were colossal. In short, he seemed just the man who would
never write such a note as this:
TOWHEAD:
I Shall bring an old friend to dinner to-night.
Don’t give us rubber olives or shad of last year’s vintage.
He is not a bric-à-brac shop.
Jimsey.
This document was sent to his daughter, who since her mother’s
death, three years ago, had managed the household. When a child
of five she overheard a friend address him frequently as Jim,
whereupon she adjusted a final syllable to render it less formal, and
ever after continued to use it.
It was an afternoon in March that this note arrived, nearly four
months after the ball at the Van Koovers’, and when, an hour or two
later, her father presented his old friend, Mr. Samuel Fettiplace, she
was struck by his enormous frame and by the extraordinary color of
his face. This color, a blazing, resplendent red, not only occupied his
nose and cheeks, but extended, in quieter tones, over his forehead
and neck, even to the bald spot upon the top of his head. It had
every appearance of being that expensive decoration that can only
be procured by a prolonged and conscientious indulgence in the
choicest Burgundies.
His large, round, light-blue eyes were all the bluer from their crimson
setting. A more honest pair she had never seen. These, with his
silver hair and benevolent forehead, gave the impression of a
pleasantly intemperate bishop. Molly Cabot well knew that her father,
and especially her mother, could never have achieved a warm and
lasting friendship for one whose habits were honestly represented by
such compromising colors.
With old-fashioned courtesy he gave her his arm into the dining-
room, and as they seated themselves at table he said: “You look like
your mother, Miss Molly, and I am glad of it; the same forehead and
eyes, and the same kind expression. I was afraid when I saw you
last you were going to look like your father. He isn’t so bad looking,
considering the life he has led, but it would be a calamitous thing for
a well-meaning girl to resemble any lawyer.”
She laughed: “But papa is not as bad as he looks, you know.”
“Yes, he is; I have known him longer than you have. But there seem
to be honors in dishonor. During these years that I have been trotting
about the globe he has been climbing higher and higher, until now
his legs are dangling from the topmost round. Why, I understand that
none but the solidest billionaires and the fattest monopolies presume
to retain him.”
“I am afraid someone took you for a hay-seed, Sam, and has been
stuffing you.”

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Post-Fermentation and -Distillation

Technology: Stabilization, Aging, and

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Food Aroma Evolution: During Food Processing, Cooking,

Food aroma evolution : during food processing, cooking

Microbial Fermentation and Enzyme Technology 1st

Principles of Fermentation Technology 3rd Edition Peter

Food spoilage microorganisms : ecology and control 1st

Distillation 1st Edition Jean-Paul Duroudier

Politics And Technology In The Post Truth Era Anna

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Chapter 1 Fermentation Process............................................................................1

Chapter 2 Distillation Processes and Distillates.................................................. 41

Chapter 3 Proteins and Bentonite in Winemaking: Chemical and Practical

Chapter 4 Wine Aging and Spoilage................................................................. 113

Chapter 5 The Stability and Stabilization of Beer............................................. 159

Chapter 6 Beer Conditioning, Aging, and Spoilage........................................... 183

Chapter 7 Vinegars: Process, Aging, and Spoilage...........................................207

Chapter 8 Stabilization of Distilled Spirits........................................................ 235

Chapter 9 Distillates Cask Aging...................................................................... 251

Tommaso Bonciani Federico Lemmetti

Paul S. Hughes Frank Vriesekoop

1.2.3.8 Synthesis and Hydrolysis of Volatile Esters.........................24

1.1.2.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria in Grapes and Wine

of sugar (Fugelsang, 1997). Concerning the specific environment of winemaking,

1.1.2.2 The Chemistry of MLF

FIGURE 1.1 Reaction of decarboxylation, describing the enzymatic conversion of l-malic

1.1.3 Sensory Impacts of Malolactic Fermentation

1.1.3.2 Production of Flavor-Active Compounds

i. The production of volatile secondary metabolites

alcoholic fermentation [co-inoculation with yeast], midalcoholic fermentation, and/

1.1.3.3 Risk of Organoleptic Defects

1.1.4 Current Knowledge on Malolactic Fermentation:

TABLE 1.1 (CONTINUED)

1.1.4.3 Control of MLF to Avoid Further Microbial Spoilage

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1.1.2.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria in Grapes and Wine

1.1.2.2 The Chemistry of MLF

1.1.3 Sensory Impacts of Malolactic Fermentation

1.1.3.2 Production of Flavor-Active Compounds

1.1.3.3 Risk of Organoleptic Defects

1.1.4 Current Knowledge on Malolactic Fermentation:

1.1.4.3 Control of MLF to Avoid Further Microbial Spoilage