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Land Subsidence Mitigation
Aquifer Recharge Using Treated
Wastewater Injection
Land Subsidence Mitigation
Aquifer Recharge Using Treated
Wastewater Injection

Frank R. Spellman
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

Version Date: 20170503

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-05076-1 (Hardback)

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Spellman, Frank R., author.

Title: Land subsidence mitigation : aquifer recharge using treated wastewater
injection / Frank R. Spellman.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, a CRC title, part of the Taylor &
Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic
division of T&F Informa, plc, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017009372 | ISBN 9781138050761 (hardback : acid-free paper)
| ISBN 9781315110943 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Water reuse. | Subsidences (Earth movements)--Prevention. |
Groundwater recharge.
Classification: LCC TD429 .S68 2017 | DDC 628.1/14--dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2017009372

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Dedication

For Kathern Welsh

Contents
Preface...................................................................................................................... xv
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................xvii
Author......................................................................................................................xix
Conversions..............................................................................................................xxi
Acronyms and Abbreviations............................................................................... xxiii

Chapter 1 The Upside-Down Sombrero.................................................................1

Metric Unit Pyramid.............................................................................1
Introduction...........................................................................................1
About 33 to 35 Million Years Ago........................................................2
Chesapeake Bay Bolide: A Whole
Bunchof Shock and Very Little Awe................................................2
Meteorite Terms...............................................................................4
The Earth-Changing Event............................................................... 8
Effects of the Chesapeake Bay Bolide Impact.................................... 11
Location of Chesapeake Bay.......................................................... 12
River Diversion............................................................................... 12
Ground Instability Due to Faulting................................................ 13
Disruption of Coastal Aquifers....................................................... 14
Land Subsidence............................................................................. 15
The Bottom Line................................................................................. 16
References and Recommended Reading............................................. 16

Chapter 2 Soil Basics........................................................................................... 19

Introduction......................................................................................... 19
Soil: What Is It?...................................................................................20
Key Terms Defined.............................................................................. 21
All About Soil.....................................................................................26
Functions of Soil.............................................................................26
Concurrent Soil Functions................................................................... 33
Soil Basics...........................................................................................34
Physical Properties of Soil.................................................................. 36
Soil Separates................................................................................. 38
Soil Formation..................................................................................... 39
Weathering.....................................................................................40
Final Stages of Soil Formation.......................................................44
Soil Characterization........................................................................... 45
Diagnostic Horizons, Temperature, and Moisture Regimes..........46
Soil Taxonomy................................................................................ 48
The Bottom Line................................................................................. 49
References and Recommended Reading............................................. 50

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 3 The Science of Soil Mechanics........................................................... 53

Soil Mechanics.................................................................................... 53
Weight–Volume or Space and Volume Relationships..................... 54
Soil Particle Characteristics........................................................... 55
Soil Stress....................................................................................... 57
Soil Compressibility....................................................................... 58
Soil Compaction............................................................................. 58
Soil Failure..................................................................................... 58
Soil Water............................................................................................ 59
Water and Soil................................................................................ 59
Water: What Is It?...........................................................................60
Water Physical Properties...............................................................60
Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)..................................................... 61
Water Movement in Soil................................................................. 62
References and Recommended Reading............................................. 63

Chapter 4 Basic Water Hydraulics....................................................................... 65

What Is Water Hydraulics?.................................................................. 65
Basic Concepts.................................................................................... 65
Stevin’s Law.................................................................................... 67
Density and Specific Gravity.............................................................. 67
Force and Pressure.............................................................................. 69
Hydrostatic Pressure....................................................................... 70
Effects of Water Under Pressure.................................................... 71
Head.................................................................................................... 72
Static Head...................................................................................... 73
Friction Head.................................................................................. 73
Velocity Head................................................................................. 73
Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head).................................... 74
Pressure and Head.......................................................................... 74
Head and Pressure.......................................................................... 74
Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion...................................... 74
Area and Velocity........................................................................... 76
Pressure and Velocity..................................................................... 77
Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem................................... 77
Conservation of Energy.................................................................. 77
Energy Head................................................................................... 78
Piezometric Surface........................................................................ 78
Head Loss....................................................................................... 79
Hydraulic Grade Line.....................................................................80
Bernoullis’s Theorem.....................................................................80
Bernoulli’s Equation....................................................................... 81
References and Recommended Readings........................................... 83
Contents ix

Chapter 5 Groundwater Hydraulics..................................................................... 85

Groundwater........................................................................................ 85
Unconfined Aquifers........................................................................... 86
Saturated Zone................................................................................ 87
Capillary Fringe............................................................................. 87
Unsaturated Zone........................................................................... 88
Capillarity....................................................................................... 88
Hydrologic Properties of Water-Bearing Materials............................ 91
Porosity........................................................................................... 91
Void Ratio.......................................................................................92
Permeability................................................................................... 93
Hydraulic Conductivity..................................................................94
Transmissivity................................................................................94
Water Yielding and Retaining Capacity..............................................94
Specific Yield.................................................................................94
Specific Retention........................................................................... 95
Confined Aquifers............................................................................... 95
Steady Flow of Groundwater..............................................................96
Darcy’s Law....................................................................................97
Velocity...........................................................................................97
Groundwater Flow and Effects of Pumping........................................97
Types of Wells..................................................................................... 98
Shallow Wells................................................................................. 98
Deep Wells.....................................................................................99
Components of a Production Well..................................................99
Well Hydraulics............................................................................ 101
Depleting the Groundwater Bank Account....................................... 105
Overdrawing the Groundwater Bank Account............................. 106
The Bottom Line............................................................................... 106
References and Recommended Reading........................................... 107

Chapter 6 Land Subsidence................................................................................ 109

Vanishing Land................................................................................. 109
Withdrawals from the Groundwater Bank Account.......................... 110
Effective Stress............................................................................. 110
Preconsolidation Stress................................................................ 111
Role of Aquitards in Compaction................................................. 111
Subsidence Model of Antelope Valley.............................................. 112
Project........................................................................................... 112
Study Process............................................................................... 112
Results.......................................................................................... 114
Subsidence in Silicon Valley............................................................. 115
Mining Groundwater in the San Joaquin Valley............................... 117
x Contents

Application................................................................................... 121
Coastal Subsidence in Houston–Galveston Area.............................. 122
In “The Meadows,” Gambling Is More Than a Game...................... 124
Ground Failures............................................................................ 127
Reduced Storage Capacity............................................................ 128
Earth Fissures and Subsidence in South-Central Arizona................ 129
References and Recommended Reading........................................... 133

Chapter 7 The Vanishing of Hampton Roads.................................................... 137

Introduction....................................................................................... 137
Hampton Roads and Sea-Level Rise................................................. 143
Global Warming........................................................................... 144
Greenhouse Effect........................................................................ 145
Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming Combined................... 146
Factors Involved with Global Warming and Cooling................... 147
How Is Climate Change Measured?............................................. 147
Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise........................................... 148
Major Physical Effects of Sea-Level Rise.................................... 150
Major Direct Human Effects of Sea-Level Rise.......................... 150
Global Climate Change................................................................ 151
Land Subsidence in Hampton Roads................................................ 159
Why Land Subsidence Is a Concern
in the Chesapeake Bay Region..................................................... 160
Land Subsidence Contributes to Relative Sea-Level Rise............ 161
Land Subsidence Increases Flooding Risk................................... 161
Land Subsidence Can Damage Wetland
and Coastal Marsh Ecosystems.................................................... 162
Land Subsidence Can Damage Infrastructure............................. 162
Aquifer Compaction..................................................................... 163
Glacial Isostatic Adjustment......................................................... 166
References and Recommended Reading........................................... 167

Chapter 8 Measuring and Monitoring Land Subsidence................................... 171

Measuring Subsidence....................................................................... 171
Borehole Extensometers............................................................... 171
Tidal Stations................................................................................ 172
Geodetic Survey........................................................................... 174
InSAR........................................................................................... 174
Importance of Land Subsidence Monitoring.................................... 175
Monitoring Methods.......................................................................... 176
Ongoing Monitoring by Borehole Extensometers........................ 176
Ongoing Monitoring by Geodetic Surveying............................... 177
Ongoing Monitoring by Tidal Stations......................................... 178
Contents xi

Ongoing Monitoring by Remote Sensing..................................... 178

The Bottom Line............................................................................... 178
References and Recommended Reading........................................... 179

Chapter 9 Every Problem Has a Solution........................................................... 181

Hampton Roads Sanitation District................................................... 181
The Solution to Pollution in Chesapeake Bay................................... 188
Problem......................................................................................... 189
Objectives..................................................................................... 192
Nansemond Wastewater Treatment Plant Extensometer Plan.........192
The Bottom Line............................................................................... 195
References and Recommended Reading........................................... 196

Chapter 10 Potomac Aquifer System................................................................... 197

Introduction....................................................................................... 197
Potomac Formation........................................................................... 197
Injection Wells................................................................................... 199
Subsidence Control Wells.............................................................200
Injection Well Hydraulics.............................................................200
Injection Operations..................................................................... 203
Injection Well Capacity Estimation..................................................206
Estimating Specific Capacity and Injectivity...............................206
Available Head for Injection.........................................................208
Flexibility for Adjusting Injection Well Capacities......................208
Number of Injection Wells Required at Each Wastewater
Treatment Plant.............................................................................209
Aquifer Injection Modeling............................................................... 210
Mathematical Modeling............................................................... 211
Groundwater Flow Modeling....................................................... 211
Modeling Results.......................................................................... 216
Sensitivity of Aquifer Parameters..................................................... 218
Transmissivity.............................................................................. 219
Storage Coefficient....................................................................... 220
Injection Rates.............................................................................. 220
Simulation Duration..................................................................... 220
Static Water Levels....................................................................... 220
Well Interference.......................................................................... 221
Hampton Roads Region Groundwater Flow..................................... 221
Model Injection Rates................................................................... 223
Modeling Duration....................................................................... 225
The Bottom Line............................................................................... 225
References and Recommended Reading........................................... 226
xii Contents

Chapter 11 Native Groundwater and Injectate Compatibility............................. 229

Introduction....................................................................................... 229
HRSD’s Water Management Vision.................................................. 230
Geochemical Challenges Facing Swift Project................................. 230
Reduction in Injectivity................................................................ 232
Geochemical Concerns................................................................. 233
Water Quality and Aquifer Mineralogy............................................ 234
Injectate Water Chemistry............................................................ 236
Native Groundwater...................................................................... 237
Geochemical Assessment of Injectate
and Groundwater Chemistry........................................................ 238
Lithology of the Potomac Aquifer System........................................240
Lithology......................................................................................240
City of Chesapeake Aquifer Storage
and Recovery Facility Core Samples........................................... 241
Mineralogy–Geochemical Modeling...........................................244
Stability of Clay Minerals............................................................ 245
Simulated Injectate and Water Interactions.................................. 245
Mixing..........................................................................................246
Injectate and Aquifer Mineral Reactions.....................................248
The Bottom Line............................................................................... 250
References and Recommended Reading........................................... 252

Chapter 12 Feasibility of Advanced Water Purification Processes..................... 255

Introduction....................................................................................... 255
By the Book Only, Please!................................................................. 256
Those Playing by the Book for Indirect Potable Reuse................ 256
Additional Drinking Water Considerations...................................... 259
Injectate Water Quality Concerns..................................................... 261
Advanced Water Treatment Processes.............................................. 263
Treatment Plant Effluent Water Quality............................................ 267
Data Sources for Evaluation......................................................... 268
Data Evaluation............................................................................ 268
Advanced Treatment Product Water Quality.................................... 273
Inorganic Water Quality............................................................... 273
Organic Water Quality................................................................. 275
Mass Balance for Reverse Osmosis Systems.................................... 277
Mass Balance Principle................................................................ 277
Reverse Osmosis Concentrate Disposal Practices............................ 279
Surface Water and Sewer Disposal.............................................. 279
Deep Well Disposal...................................................................... 281
Evaporation Pond Disposal.......................................................... 282
Spray Irrigation Disposal............................................................. 289
Zero Liquid Discharge Disposal.................................................. 295
Contents xiii

Pathogen Removal........................................................................ 299

Disinfection Byproducts............................................................... 299
Anticipated Improvements to HRSD’s Existing WWTPs................302
The Bottom Line...............................................................................302
References and Recommended Reading...........................................304

Chapter 13 Membrane Concentrate Management...............................................309

Introduction.......................................................................................309
Evaluation Results.............................................................................309
Regulatory Setting for Surface Water Discharges........................309
Potential Future Membrane Concentrate Permit Requirements......311
Treatment of Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration Concentrate....... 318
Treatment Requirements Based on Discharge Objective............. 318
Projected Pollutant Loading from Treatment Options................. 320
The Bottom Line............................................................................... 321
References and Recommended Reading........................................... 322

Chapter 14 Cost Estimates................................................................................... 325

Introduction....................................................................................... 325
Cost Estimating Approach................................................................ 325
Treatment Trains........................................................................... 325
Injection Well Facilities................................................................ 325
Approach and Assumptions.......................................................... 327
Design Criteria............................................................................. 330
Cost Estimates................................................................................... 330
Capital and Annual Operating Costs............................................ 330
Net Present Value......................................................................... 332
The Bottom Line............................................................................... 336
References and Recommended Reading........................................... 336
Afterword or Beforehand..................................................................................... 337
Glossary................................................................................................................. 339
Index....................................................................................................................... 361
Preface
Land is vanishing at various locations in the southern Chesapeake Bay region. The
impact of this vanishing act is particularly noticeable in Norfolk, Virginia. In this
area, known as the Tidewater or Hampton Roads region, sea-level rise currently
ranges from 0.04331 inch (1.1 mm) to 0.189 inch (4.8 mm) per year. Looking at
the high end of this range, 0.189 inch, one might think, “What’s the big deal? Why
should we be worried about a 0.189-inch rise in sea level?” Such questions typically
surface when you talk with residents of the area—that is, until a coastal storm or
hurricane hits the area, when it is not uncommon for Norfolk’s downtown and Ocean
View areas to be impassable with as much as 8 feet of water in the streets.
Let’s look at the high end number of sea-level rise again, 0.189 inch per year. If we
multiply this number by 10 years, we obtain a total calculated rise of approximately
1.89 inches (4.8 mm). Some might think that we can live with 2 inches of sea-level
rise every 10 years. Maybe. Let’s multiply by 100 years, which gives us a sea-level
rise of almost 19 inches (480 mm). Now we are talking about a serious impact to
the area—a 19-inch rise in sea level is not to be shrugged off. This is especially the
case if one factors in coastal storm events when waves and tides bring the sea level
to damaging levels.
The projected sea-level rise for the southern Chesapeake Bay region and in par-
ticular Norfolk is a serious problem, even though there are those who would agree
that this could be a problem for those who are around 100 years from now but don’t
consider it to be a big deal today (but try driving though Norfolk during a storm event
at high tide—not recommended). The problem is complicated, though. Because
water levels are measured relative to the land, relative sea-level rise in the south-
ern Chesapeake Bay region has two components: global water level and land sub-
sidence. Melting glaciers and the thermal expansion of seawater, both attributed to
global climate change, contribute to eustatic, or worldwide, sea-level rise. Isostatic,
or local, factors contribute to relative sea-level rise through sinking of the land or
subsidence. In the southern Chesapeake Bay area, subsidence of land has occurred
because of excessive withdrawal of groundwater and the geologic features of the
area. This combination has contributed to a relative increase in sea level in the south-
ern Chesapeake Bay area of 1 foot in the last century, and an even greater increase
in sea level is projected over the next 100 years.
The take-home message is that land subsidence due to excessive groundwater
withdrawal is a problem; however, as with all of my environmental presentations, I
take the position that every problem has a solution. This book is about solving the
land subsidence problem caused by excessive groundwater withdrawal. The focus
of the book is on the Norfolk, Virginia, area, but the discussion can be applied to
any area of the world where land subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal is an
issue. Particular attention is paid to the Norfolk area because of the progressive, far-
reaching actions of the Hampton Roads Sanitation District (HRSD). The forward-
thinking, governor-appointed HRSD Commission has taken a bold step forward with
their Sustainable Water Initiative for Tomorrow (SWIFT). The SWIFT program has

xv
xvi Preface

many facets but the focus here is on its innovative pilot study and hoped-for posi-
tive results of injecting treated wastewater (treated to drinking water level) into the
Potomac Aquifer in an attempt to ease and slow land subsidence in the southern
Chesapeake Bay region due to excessive groundwater withdrawal. This book chroni-
cles the efforts of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS); HRSD’s consulting engineer-
ing firm, CH2M; and HRSD internal operations personnel working to make SWIFT
a reality. Land Subsidence Mitigation: Aquifer Recharge Using Treated Wastewater
Injection provides a fair and balanced discussion about the concerns centering on
land subsidence due to excessive groundwater withdrawal. It provides comprehen-
sive coverage of all aspects of the issue, including a discussion of Class V injection
wells and their specific intended purpose. This book is intended as a reference book
and road map for administrators, legal professionals, research engineers, graduate
students, wastewater or sanitary engineers, non-engineering professionals, general
readers, and anyone else concerned with land subsidence and clean water injection
into underground aquifers.
A final word to readers: This book is written in the conversational, engaging,
and reader-friendly style that is the author’s trademark. Simply, I never apologize for
attempting to communicate.
Acknowledgments
This book would not have been possible without the help provided by Ted Henifin,
General Manager of HRSD, in addition to the following other HRSD personnel:
Jennifer See, Safety Manager; Jennifer Cascio, Executive Secretary; John Dano,
Chief of Planning and Design; Germano Salazar-Benites, Recycling Project
Manager; and many Nansemond employees. Also of tremendous help were the staff
of engineers and environmental professionals at the consulting engineering firm
CH2M and, finally, my co-illustrator, artist Kathern Welsh.

xvii
Author
Frank R. Spellman, PhD, is a retired adjunct assistant
professor of environmental health at Old Dominion
University, Norfolk, Virginia, and the author of more
than 110 books covering topics ranging from concen-
trated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) to all areas
of environmental science and occupational health.
Many of his texts are readily available online, and
several have been adopted for classroom use at major
universities throughout the United States, Canada,
Europe, and Russia; two have been translated into
Spanish for South American markets. Dr. Spellman
has been cited in more than 850 publications. He
serves as a professional expert witness for three law groups and as an incident/
accident investigator for the U.S. Department of Justice and a northern Virginia
law firm. In addition, he consults on homeland security vulnerability assessments
for critical infrastructures, including water/wastewater facilities, and conducts pre-
Occupational Safety and Health Administration and Environmental Protection
Agency audits throughout the country. Dr. Spellman receives frequent requests to
co-author with well-recognized experts in several scientific fields; for example, he is
a contributing author to the prestigious text The Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed. Dr.
Spellman lectures on wastewater treatment, water treatment, and homeland secu-
rity, as well as on safety topics, throughout the country and teaches water/waste-
water operator short courses at Virginia Tech in Blacksburg. In 2011, he traced and
documented the ancient water distribution system at Machu Picchu, Peru, and sur-
veyed several drinking water resources in Amazonia, Ecuador. He has also studied
and surveyed two separate potable water supplies in the Galapagos Islands, in addi-
tion to studying Darwin’s finches while there. Dr. Spellman earned a BA in public
administration, a BS in business management, an MBA, and both an MS and a PhD
in environmental engineering.

xix
Conversions
This book uses English units. To determine metric values, use the conversion factors
listed below:
To Convert Multiply by To Get

Length
Inch 25.4 Millimeter
Foot 0.3048 Meter
Mile 1.609 Kilometer

Area
Square foot 0.09290 Square meter
Square mile 2.590 Square kilometer
Acre 0.4047 Hectare

Volume
Acre-foot 1233 Cubic meter
Cubic foot 0.02832 Cubic meter
Gallon 3.785 Liter

Mass
Ounce 28.35 Gram
Pound 0.4356 Kilogram
Ton (short) 0.9072 Megagram

Temperature
°Farenheit (°F – 32)/1.8 °Celsius

Vertical Datum
In this book, sea level refers to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (for-
merly known as the Sea Level Datum of 1929), a geodetic datum derived from a
general adjustment of the first-order level nets of both the United States and Canada.
Mean sea level is not used with reference to any particular vertical datum; where
used, the phrase means the average surface of the ocean as determined by calibration
of measurements at tidal stations.

xxi
Acronyms and Abbreviations
°C Degrees Celsius
AB Army Base
AFT Alternate filtration technology
ALCR Air–liquid conversion ratio
AOP Advanced oxidation process
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AWT Advanced water treatment
AWTP Advanced water treatment plant
BAC Biological activated carbon
BH Boat Harbor
BNR Biological nitrogen removal
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
BOD5 5-day biochemical oxygen demand
BV Bed volume
CA Cellulose acetate
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate
CAS Conventional activated sludge
CBOD Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand
CEC Contaminant of emerging concern
CFU Coliform forming unit
Cl2 Chlorine
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CPES CH2M’s Parametric Cost Estimating System
CWA Clean Water Act
DBP Disinfection byproduct
DO Dissolved oxygen
DOC Dissolved organic carbon
DPR Direct potable reuse
EDC Endocrine-disrupting compound
FBG Feet below grade
FCV Flow control valve
FLOC Flocculation
GAC Granular activated carbon
GMF Granular media filtration
gpm/sf Gallons per minute per square foot
H2O2 Hydrogen peroxide
HFF Hollow fine fiber
hp Horsepower
HPC Heterotrophic plate count
HRSD Hampton Roads Sanitation District
IMS Integrated membrane system
IPR Indirect potable reuse

xxiii
xxiv Acronyms and Abbreviations

JR James River
kWh Kilowatt hour
LRV Log reduction value
MBR Membrane bioreactor
MCC Motor control center
MCL Maximum contaminant level
MCF Membrane cartridge filtration
MF Microfiltration
mg/L Milligrams per liter
MGD Million gallons per day
µg/L Micrograms per liter
mJ/cm2 Millijoules per square centimeter
mL Milliliter
N Nitrogen
N/A Not applicable
ND No data
NDMA N-nitrosodimethylamine
NF Nanofiltration
ng/L Nanograms per liter
NH3 Ammonia
NH3-N Ammonia nitrogen
NOM Natural organic matter (humic and fulvic acids)
NOx -N Nitrate/nitrite-nitrogen
NP Nansemond Plant
NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NTU Nephelometric turbidity unit
O&M Operations and maintenance
P Phosphorus
PAS Potomac Aquifer System
PCV Pressure control valve
PPCPs Pharmaceuticals and personal care products
PSI Pounds per square inch
RO Reverse osmosis
SAT Soil aquifer treatment
SDI Silt density index
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SED Sedimentation
SWTR Surface Water Treatment Rule
TCEP Tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine
TCEQ Texas Commission on Environmental Quality
TDS Total dissolved solids
THMs Trihalomethanes
TKN Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
TMDL Total maximum daily load
TN Total nitrogen
TOC Total organic carbon
Acronyms and Abbreviations xxv

TOX Total organic halides

TP Total phosphorus
TSS Total suspended solids
TTHMs Total trihalomethanes
UF Ultrafiltration
UOSA Upper Occoquan Service Authority
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
UV Ultraviolet
UVAOP Ultraviolet advanced oxidation process
VFD Variable frequency drive
VIP Virginia Initiative Plant
WB Williamsburg
WWTP Wastewater treatment plant
YR York River
Coastal Environs
We often hear that Hampton Roads is among the U.S. areas most vulnerable to sea
level rise. I double-checked the numbers the other day to make sure that claim still
rings true. I’m sorry to say that it does.
—Dave Mayfield, The Virginia-Pilot, January 1, 2017

xxvii
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insuring
Insurrection
insurrectionary
insurrections
insusceptible
intact
intake
integral
integrity
intellectual
Intelligence
intelligent
intelligently
intelligible
intemperance
intend
Intendants
intended
intending
intends
intense
intensely
intensify
intensity
intent
intention
intentional
intentionally
intentioned
intentions
intently
intents
INTER
interaction
interceded
intercept
intercepted
intercepting
interchange
interchanged
Intercolonial
Intercontinental
intercourse
interdict
interdicted
interdiction
Interest
interested
interesting
interestingly
interests
interfere
interfered
Interference
interfering
interim
interior
interlopers
intermarriage
intermarry
intermediaries
intermediary
intermediate
intermediation
interments
interminable
intermission
intermittent
Intermix
intermixed
intern
internal
International
internationalisation
internationally
internecine
interned
internment
internments
Interoceanic
interparliamentary
Interpellation
interpeller
interposed
interposition
interpret
interpretation
interpretative
interpreted
interpreter
interpreting
interprets
interred
interregnum
interrogated
interrupt
interrupted
interrupters
interrupting
interruption
interruptions
intersected
intersection
interspersed
interstate
interval
intervals
intervene
intervened
intervenes
intervening
intervention
interview
Interviews
interwoven
intestine
intimate
intimated
intimately
intimating
intimation
intimations
intimidate
intimidated
intimidation
intituled
into
intolerable
intolerance
intoxicants
intoxicating
intra
intractable
intrench
intrenched
intrenching
intrenchments
intrepid
intrepidity
intrepidly
intricate
intrigue
intriguers
intrigues
intrinsic
introduce
introduced
introduces
introducing
Introduction
introductory
intruders
intruding
intrusion
intrust
intrusted
intuition
intuitions
intéressants
inundated
inundation
inundations
invade
invaded
invaders
invading
Invalid
invalidate
invalided
Invalides
invalidity
invalids
invaluable
invariable
invariably
invasion
invasions
inveighing
invent
invented
inventing
invention
INVENTIONS
inventive
inventor
inventors
inventory
Inverness
invest
invested
investigate
investigated
investigating
INVESTIGATION
investigations
investigator
investigators
investing
investment
investments
investors
invests
inveterately
inviolability
inviolable
inviolably
inviolate
invisible
invitation
invitations
invite
invited
invites
inviting
invocation
invoice
invoiced
invoices
invoke
invoked
invokes
invoking
involuntary
involve
involved
involves
involving
invulnerability
invulnerable
inward
inwardly
iota
Iowa
irade
Iraq
IRELAND
Irish
irksome
Irkutch
Irkutsk
Iron
ironclad
Irons
Ironside
Iroquois
irrational
irreconcilable
irreconcilables
irregular
irregularities
irregularity
irregularly
irregulars
irrelevant
irremediable
Irreparable
irrepressible
irresistible
irrespective
irresponsible
irrevocable
irrevocably
irrigate
irrigated
irrigates
irrigation
irritable
irritated
irritating
irritation
irritations
Irving
is
Isaac
Isabela
Isham
Ishpeming
Isidro
Iskanderoun
Isla
Islam
island
islanders
islands
Isle
Ismail
Ismid
isolate
isolated
isolating
isolation
Ispahan
Isparhecher
ISRAEL
Israelite
Israelites
Israélite
issuance
Issue
Issued
issues
Issuing
isthmian
isthmus
Istria
it
ITAGAKI
Italian
Italians
Italy
item
items
Ito
Its
itself
IV
ivory
IVth
ivy
IX
J
Jacinto
Jack
jackals
jacket
jacketed
jackets
jacks
Jackson
Jacob
Jacobinism
Jacobowski
Jacobus
Jacquemyns
jade
Jaffa
jailors
Jalhay
Jalisco
Jallon
JAMAICA
jamais
James
Jameson
jams
Jan
Janeiro
Janeway
JANUARY
Japan
Japanese
jar
Jardine
Jarlin
jarring
jars
Jasen
Javier
Jay
je
jealous
jealousies
jealously
jealousy
Jean
Jedburgh
jeering
JEFFERSON
Jeffersonian
Jehovah
Jehu
Jena
Jenner
jeopardize
jeopardized
jeopards
jeopardy
Jerid
Jerome
Jersey
Jerusalem
Jesse
Jesuit
Jesuits
Jesus
jet
jetties
Jew
jewel
jewels
Jewish
Jews
Jiji
Jiminez
jingo
Jingoism
Joan
Joannes
Joaquin
Job
jobbers
jobbery
jobs
Joel
Johann
Johannes
JOHANNESBURG
Johannesburgers
Johansen
John
Johns
Johnson
Johnston
Johnstown
join
joined
Joining
joins
joint
jointly
joints
Joinville
Joliet
Jolo
Jomalig
Jonah
Jonas
JONATHAN
Jones
Jonkheer
Joppa
Joralemon
Jordan
Jorge
Jorgensen
Jose
JOSEF
Joseph
Josephine
Joshua
Josiah
Joss
Josshouse
José
Joubert
jour
Journal
journalism
journalist
journalistic
journalists
journals
journey
journeyed
journeying
journeys
Joy
joyful
joyfully
joys
João
Jr
Ju
Juan
Juanillo
Juarez
Juba
Jubaland
JUBILEE
Judah
Judean
Judge
judged
Judges
judging
judgment
Judgments
judicature
judicial
judicially
Judiciary
judicious
judiciously
Judson
Judæa
Judæan
jugement
juger
Juggernaut
jugular
jugée
Jui
Juif
Jules
Julian
Julio
Julius
JULY
jumble
jumped
jumps
junction
JUNE
Jung
jungle
jungles
Junior
Junius
Junker
Junkerthum
junks
junta
Jura
jurally
juridiquc
juries
Juris
jurisdiction
jurisdictional
jurisdictions
jurisprudence
Jurist
Jurists
Juror
jurors
Jury
Just
justement
juster
Justice
justices
justifiable
justification
justified
justifies
justify
justifying
Justin
justly
Jutland
Jutlanders
juvenile
juxtaposition
Jêho
k
Kabagambe
Kabarega
Kabayama
Kabayma
Kabul
Kabyle
Kabyles
Kaffir
Kaffirs
Kafiristan
Kafirs
Kafukwe
Kagayan
Kagoshima
Kahoolawe
Kahului
kai
Kaidalovo
kaids
Kaimakam
Kaiphing
Kaiping
Kairwan
Kaiser
Kaishin
Kaishinto
Kaiulani
Kakushinto
Kalabaka
Kalakaua
Kalamines
Kalgoorlie
Kalindero
Kalnoky
Kamchatka
Kamerun
KAMERUNS
Kandahar
Kanem
KANG
Kanitz
Kann
Kansas
Kansu
Kao
Kaph
KAPILAVASTU
Kapiolani
Kara
Karachi
Karahissar
Karatheodory
Karene
Karina
Karl
Karlovich
KARNAK
Karnatik
Karukala
Kasar
Kashgar
Kashmir
Kasr
Kassaba
KASSALA
Kasson
Katholische
Katikiro
KATIPUNAN
Kauai
Kazan
Kazungu
KEARSARGE
Kedleston
Kedong
keel
Keeley
keen
Keene
keener
keenest
keenly
keep
keeper
keepers
Keeping
keeps
Keewatin
Keifer
Kekewich
Kelat
Kellogg
Kelly
Kelvin
Kempff
Kengi
Kensei
Kent
Kentucky
Kepler
kept
Keramia
Kerens
kerosene
Kestner
Ketteler
kew
key
keys
Keystone
KHAIBAR
Khalid
Khalifa
khalifas
Khan
khans
Khaorbin
Kharran
Khartoum
Khartum
Khedival
Khedive
Khedivial
Khel
Khiva
Khodynskoye
Khotan
Khufu
Khulan
Khyber
Ki
KIANG
Kiango
Kiangsi
Kiangsu
KIAO
Kiaochau
Kiaochou
Kiaochow
Kibero
kicking
kidnapped
kidnapping
kidney
kidneys
Kieff
Kiel
Kien
Kienning
Kiffi
Kiggins
Kikuyu
kill
killed
KILLING
Killowen
kilograms
kilometers
kilometre
kilometres
kilomètres
Kimberley
kin
kind
kindle
kindled
kindlier