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Evaluation of sea sand and river sand properties and their comparison

Research · November 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4906.6327

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

List of Figures 3

List of Tables 4

Abstract 5

I INTRODUCTION 6

1.1 Composition of sand 6

1.2 Sea sand 9

1.3 Chloride in sea sand 10

II CHARACTERIZATION METHODS 11

2.1 pH test 11

2.2 Bulk and Tap density 11

2.3 Optical microscope 11

2.4 X-RAY diffraction (XRD) 12

2.4.1 Bragg’s law 13

2.5 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 14

2.5.1 Image formation 15

2.5.2 Magnification 16

2.5.3 Secondary electron imaging 17

2.5.4 Back scattered electron imaging 17

2.5.5 Resolution of SEM 19

2.6 Compression test on mortar blocks 20

III SCOPE OF THE PROJECT 21

3.1 Objectives of the project 21
IV LITERATURE REVIEW 22

1
V EXPERIMENTAL 24

5.1 Materials 24

5.2 pH test 24

5.3 Bulk and Tap densities 24

5.4 Determination of average grain size 24

5.5 X-RAY diffraction (XRD) 25

5.6 SEM analysis 25

5.7 Compression test 25

VI RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 26

6.1 Physical properties 26

6.1.1 pH test data 26

6.1.2 Bulk and Tap density data 26

6.1.3 Average grain size data 28

6.2 Phase purity 28

6.2.1 X-RAY fluorescence (XRF) result 28

6.2.2 X-RAY diffraction (XRD) result 29

6.3 Morphology 31

6.3.1 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images 31

6.4 Mechanical property 32

6.4.1 Compression test data 32

FUTURE WORK 33

VII CONCLUSIONS 34

REFERENCES 35

2
 LIST OF FIGURES

1. Overview of scanning electron microscopy 19

2. X-ray diffraction pattern of crushed river sand powder 30
3. X-ray diffraction pattern of crushed sea sand powder 30
4. SEM image of river sand grain 31
5. SEM image of sea sand grain 31
6. Compression test graph for river sand mortar block 32
7. Compression test graph for sea sand mortar block 33

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 LIST OF TABLES

1. Chloride content in sea water 19

2. pH test data 26
3. Bulk and tap density for river sand 27
4. Bulk and tap density for sea sand 27
5. Average grain size data for river and sea sand 28
6. Chemical composition of river and sea sand 29
7. Compression test data 32

4
 ABSTRACT

The top most part of the earth which is abundant is the sand which has mostly used in
construction industry. There are different types of sand. The aim of this project titled
“Evaluation of Sea sand and River sand properties and their comparison” is to
compare the difference between the two types of sand by conducting experiments. It
has been known that sea sand is avoided in construction industry due to many
reasons.When sea sand is mixed with cement in place of normal river sand to make
concrete for buildings, the high content of chloride in sea sand leads to structural
integrity problems. This composition absorbs humidity with causes erosion and
rusting in the steel rods used in reinforced concrete. The building structural integrity
is therefore damaged.The experimental part involves testing the PH value of both type
of sand, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) for seeing a detailed image of the sand
grains, X-Ray Diffractometer (XRD) to find the phases present, X-Ray Fluorescence
(XRF) to find the elements present, optical microscope to find out the average grain
size and creating mortar blocks with both the types of sand and testing the
compressive strength. The PH test revealed the high basicity of the sand which is
mostly due to the high salt content compared to river sand, SEM images revealed the
presence of different phase in single sea sand grain and optical microscopic studies
showed that the average grain size of sea sand is higher than that of the river sand.

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 CHAPTER I

1.INTRODUCTION
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock
and mineral particles. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the
local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland
continental settings and non-tropical coastalsettings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2),
usually in the form of quartz.

The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for

example aragonite, which has mostly been created, over the past half billion years, by
various forms of life, like coral and shellfish. It is, for example, the primary form of
sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of
years like the Caribbean.

1.1 COMPOSITION OF SAND

In terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter

from 0.0625 mm (or 1⁄16 mm) to 2 mm. An individual particle in this range size is
termed a sand grain. Sand grains are between gravel (with particles ranging from
2 mm up to 64 mm) and silt (particles smaller than 0.0625 mm down to 0.004 mm).
The size specification between sand and gravel has remained constant for more than a
century, but particle diameters as small as 0.02 mm were considered sand under
the Albert Atterberg standard in use during the early 20th century. A 1953
engineering standard published by the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size at 0.074 mm. A 1938 specification
of the United States Department of Agriculture was 0.05 mm. Sand feels gritty when
rubbed between the fingers (silt, by comparison, feels like flour).

ISO 14688 grades sands as fine, medium and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to
0.2 mm to 0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided into
five sub-categories based on size: very fine sand (1⁄16 – ⅛ mm diameter), fine sand
(⅛ mm – ¼ mm), medium sand (¼ mm – ½ mm), coarse sand (½ mm – 1 mm), and
very coarse sand (1 mm – 2 mm). These sizes are based on the Krumbein phi scale,
where size in Φ = -log2D; D being the particle size in mm. On this scale, for sand the
value of Φ varies from −1 to +4, with the divisions between sub-categories at whole
numbers.

6
 The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings and non-
tropical coastal settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form
of quartz, which, because of its chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is the
most common mineral resistant to weathering.

The composition of mineral sand is highly variable, depending on the local

rock sources and conditions. The bright white sands found in tropical and subtropical
coastal settings are eroded limestone and may contain coral and shell fragments in
addition to other organic or organically derived fragmental material, suggesting sand
formation depends on living organisms, too. The gypsum sand dunes of the White
Sands National Monument in New Mexico are famous for their bright, white
colour. Arkose is a sand or sandstone with considerable feldspar content, derived
from weathering and erosion of a (usually nearby) granitic rock outcrop. Some sands
contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum. Sands rich in magnetite are dark to
black in colour, as are sands derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian. Chlorite-
glauconite bearing sands are typically green in colour, as are sands derived
from basaltic (lava) with a high olivine content. Many sands, especially those found
extensively in Southern Europe, have iron impurities within the quartz crystals of the
sand, giving a deep yellow colour. Sand deposits in some areas contain garnets and
other resistant minerals, including some small gemstones.

Sand, as one of the most accessible natural resources, has been used mostly as
a constructionmaterial since the earliest days of civilization. It is defined as
“continuously graded unconsolidated material (sediment) present on the earth's
surface as a result of the natural disintegration of rocks.
The top most mantle of earth, which was once rock, has been transformed to
soil by natural forces of weather .Texturally soil is not one material but a compound
of three ingredients, derived from the same parental rock . They are sand, silt and
clay. Though mostly soil occurs as a combination of the three materials, there are
places where stretches of sand do occur alone where building activity has to be carried
out.
Besides occurrence of sand in a soil (its percentage) mass influences its strength
characteristics to a great extent. For example, while constructing piers and abutments
(of a bridge) which mostly stand on a sandy base, the bearing capacity of sand
becomes the most important criterion in deciding the size and depth of the

7
construction. Besides strength of silt and clay get drastically affected when it comes in
contact with water. But sand except very fine sand, is least affected with water. It is
therefore very important to study the extent to which the strength of sand is affected
with water.
Quartz is the most common mineral on the face of the Earth. It is found in nearly
everygeological environment and is at least a component of almost every rock type. It
frequently isthe primary mineral, >98%. It is also the most varied in terms of
varieties, colours and forms. This variety comes about because of the abundance and
widespread distribution ofquartz. A collector could easily have hundreds of quartz
specimens and not have two thatare the same due to the many broad categories. The
most widely occurring clay minerals in soil or sediments are kaolinite which is
simplest of all the clay minerals. Quartz is usually a important mineral because of the
formation of soil from highly siliceous material, quartz may be accumulated in the
alluvial horizons.
River sand is used in the construction industry mainly for concrete production
and cement-sand mortar production. River sand is obtained by dredging from river
beds. It has the major characteristics that since it has been subjected to years of
abrasion, its particle shape is more or less rounded and smooth, and since it has been
subjected to years of washing, it has very low silt and clay contents.Research to use
sea sand for construction, especially, using sea sand to make the cement concrete is
aimed to exploit maximally the potential of a local material being available, cheap for
socioeconomic developing and prevent from its harmful impaction.
However the study to use sea sand cement concrete is a big problem of civil
engineering field. In many countries sea sand have been using for making cement
concrete since long time ago, naturally, its technology depends on the research
achievement and specific conditions of each country. When sea sand is mixed with
cement in place of normal river sand to make concrete for buildings, the high content
of chloride in sea sand leads to structural integrity problems. This composition
absorbs humidity with causes erosion and rusting in the steel rods used in reinforced
concrete. The building structural integrity is therefore damaged.Buildings made with
reinforced concrete containing sea sand can only last 6-10 years before they must be
abandoned. The root cause of structural failure is the high chloride content in the
sand. Only with costly special treatment of sea sand can chloride be reduced to a safe
level. Because of the chloride content in sea sand reinforced concrete, the formal

8
name for this type of construction should be “high chloride content concrete
construct”.
The illegal use of high-chloride construction material in building leads to weaken
structures. This creates safety hazards not just for residents but also for the public as
concerns about these issues create panic and worry for everybody.
The whole demand of sand is depending on river sand extracted forconstruction
such as manufacture of brick. The uncontrolled extraction of sand, river beds become
lower than the mean sea level for miles and makes river banks become unstable.
The abundant sea sand can also be utilized in construction such as brick production.
The use of sea sand as an abundant material by replacing it with river sand in the
brick might bring some changes in physical properties and also particularly in the
mechanical properties of the brick.
The problem might occur in the brick when sea sand is used as a replacing
material such as improper quality of materials, incorrect specifications, faulty design,
errors in construction process, and exposure of structures to the extreme
environmental conditions.

1.2 SEA SAND

Sea sand can become a potential resource capable of supplying fine
aggregatematerial for domestic civil engineering and construction usage. In addition,
using sea sand is economic than using river sand because river sand is more
expensive.
Sea sand mainly contains much salinity as sodium chloride. If the salt is not treated
and sea sand is directly utilized for civil engineering and construction concrete
project, the durability of the structural may be affected and as the result the concrete
might be swelling, precipitating, sulphating and other adverse consequences.
Therefore, the salt content of the sea sand must be eliminated before it is utilized to
avoid the potential hazards. The sand dunes are formed by sand particles blown by
wind from sea shore. The top most layers of sand dunes contain higher chloride
content due to continuous exposure to sea breeze. However, when sea sand is actually
utilized, the first problem encountered is the salt contained in the sea sand. A
distinction must also be made between sea sand and sand deposits in dry coastal areas.
The latter would tend to have very high chloride contents resulting from salt spray and
evaporation over long periods of time.

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1.3 Chloride in sea sand
The chloride content in sea sand depends on the chloride content in sea water.
The sea water contains relatively constant chloride content but more moisture content
in sand retains more chloride around particles. In hot climates, though the moisture
content is less, due to evaporation of moisture chloride coating will be formed around
particles. BS 5328 Part 1: 1991 specifies total chloride limit to 0.4% by weight
specifies. Sea water has an ion chloride (Cl-) content of 1.98%, although there would
be local fluctuations.
Chang (2008) studied that, the determination of the salt content of seawater is an
important area of research since ocean currents and global climate are affected by salt
content. The primary ionic components of seawater are shown in the Table. These
include large amounts of chloride (CI-) and sodium (Na) ions.

Table 1 Chloride content in sea water

Ion Grams per 1000g seawater Mass %

Cl- 19 1.9
Na+ 10.7 1.07
SO42- 2.7 0.27
Mg2+ 1.3 0.13
Ca2+ 0.4 0.04
+
K 0.4 0.04

10
 CHAPTER II
2. CHARACTERIZATION METHODS
2.1 PH TEST
PH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Solutions
with a pH less than 7 are said to beacidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7
are basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH very close to 7. It is generally determined
using a buffer solution and a PH meter which indicates the value once the electrode is
dipped in the solution whose PH is to be determined.

2.2 BULK AND TAP DENSITY

Bulk Density
The bulk density of a powder is the ratio of the mass of an untapped powder
sample and its volume including the contribution of the interparticulate void volume.
Hence, the bulk density depends on both the density of powder particles and the
spatial arrangement of particles in the powder bed. The bulk density is expressed in
grams per millilitre (g/ml) although the international unit is kilogram per cubic metre
(1 g/ml = 1000 kg/m3) because the measurements are made using cylinders.
Tap Density
The tapped density is an increased bulk density attained after mechanically
tapping a container containing the powder sample. The tapped density is obtained by
mechanically tapping a graduated measuring cylinder or vessel containing the powder
sample. After observing the initial powder volume or mass, the measuring cylinder or
vessel is mechanically tapped, and volume or mass readings are taken until little
further volume or mass change is observed. The mechanical tapping is achieved by
raising the cylinder or vessel and allowing it to drop, under its own mass, a specified
distance.

2.3 OPTICAL MICROSCOPE

The optical microscope, often referred to as the "light microscope", is a type
of microscope which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of
small samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were

11
possibly designed in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical
microscopes can be very simple, although there are many complex designs which aim
to improve resolution and sample contrast. Historically optical microscopes were easy
to develop and are popular because they use visible light so that samples may be
directly observed by eye.
There are two basic configurations of the conventional optical microscope: the
simple (single lens) and the compound (many lenses). The vast majority of
modern research microscopes are compound microscopes while some cheaper
commercial digital microscopes are simple single lens microscopes. A magnifying
glass is, in essence, a basic single lens microscope. In general, microscope optics are
static; to focus at different focal depths the lens to sample distance is adjusted, and to
get a wider or narrower field of view a different magnification objective lens must be
used. Most modern research microscopes also have a separate set of optics for
illuminating the sample.
A compound microscope is a microscope which uses multiple lenses to collect
light from the sample and then a separate set of lenses to focus the light into the eye or
camera. Compound microscopes are heavier, larger and more expensive than simple
microscopes due to the increased number of lenses used in construction. The main
advantages of multiple lenses are improved numerical aperture, reduced chromatic
aberration and exchangeable objective lenses to adjust the magnification. A
compound microscope also makes more advanced illumination setups, such as phase
contrast possible.

2.4 X RAY DIFFRACTION (XRD)

About 95% of all solid materials can be described as crystalline. When X-rays
interact with a crystallinesubstance (Phase), one gets a diffraction pattern. The X-ray
diffraction pattern of a pure substance is, therefore, like a fingerprint of the substance.
The powder diffraction method is thus ideally suited for characterization and
identification of polycrystalline phases.

An electron in an alternating electromagnetic field will oscillate with the same

frequency as the field. When an X-ray beam hits an atom, the electrons around the
atom start to oscillate with the same frequency as the incoming beam. In almost all
directions we will have destructive interference, that is, the combining waves are out
of phase and there is no resultant energy leaving the solid sample. However the atoms

12
in a crystal are arranged in a regular pattern, and in a very few directions we will have
constructive interference. The waves will be in phase and there will be well defined
X-ray beams leaving the sample at various directions. Hence, a diffracted beam may
be described as a beam composed of a large number of scattered rays mutually
reinforcing one another.
In powder or polycrystalline diffraction it is important to have a sample with a
smooth plane surface. If possible, we normally grind the sample down to particles of
about 0.002 mm to 0.005 mm cross section. The ideal sample is homogeneous and the
crystallites are randomly distributed. The sample is pressed into a sample holder so
that we have a smooth flat surface.
A typical diffraction spectrum consists of a plot of reflected intensities versus
the detector angle 2θ or θ depending on the goniometer configuration. The 2θ values
for the peak depend on the wavelength of the anode material of the X-ray tube. It is
therefore customary to reduce a peak position to the interplanar spacing d that
corresponds to the h, k, l planes that caused the reflection. The value of the d-spacing
depends only on the shape of the unit cell. We get the d-spacing as a function of 2θ
from Bragg’s law.
Crystalline materials produce distinct x-ray diffraction patterns that can be
used forthe identification of the phases present in a material. Phase identification
using x-ray diffraction relies mainly on the positions of the peaks in a diffraction
profile and quantitative estimations of these phases depend on the relative intensities
of these peaks. The International Centre for Diffraction Data (ICDD) maintains a
diffraction file (PDF), a database of single phase powder diffraction patterns currently
numbering over 60,000.Today, it is supplied in a CD-ROM and is equipped with a
first generation search or match software which uses a list of d-spacing and intensities
from the measured pattern as input. Current approaches do not require individual peak
picking, has powerful peakdeconvolution techniques and uses the entire background
subtracted spectrum.
2.4.1 BRAGG’S LAW
Bragg diffraction occurs when electromagnetic radiation or subatomic particle
waves with wavelength comparable to atomic spacings are incident upon a crystalline
sample, are scattered in a specular fashion by the atoms in the system, and undergo
constructive interference in accordance to Bragg's law. For a crystalline solid, the
waves are scattered from lattice planes separated by the interplanar distance d. Where

13
the scattered waves interfere constructively, they remain in phase since the path
length of each wave is equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength. The path
difference between two waves undergoing constructive interference is given by
2dsinθ, where θ is the scattering angle. This leads to Bragg's law, which describes the
condition for constructive interference from successive crystallographic planes (h, k,
and l, as given in Miller Notation) of the crystalline lattice.

where ‘n’ is an integer determined by the order given, and λ is the wavelength. A
diffraction pattern is obtained by measuring the intensity of scattered waves as a
function of scattering angle. Very strong intensities known as Bragg peaks are
obtained in the diffraction pattern when scattered waves satisfy the Bragg condition.

2.5 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that

produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The
electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that can be
detected and that contain information about the sample's surface topography and
composition. The electron beam is generally scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the
beam's position is combined with the detected signal to produce an image. SEM can
achieve resolution better than 1 nanometer. Specimens can be observed in high
vacuum, in low vacuum, and (in environmental SEM) in wet conditions.

The most common mode of detection is by secondary electrons emitted by

atoms excited by the electron beam. The number of secondary electrons is a function
of the angle between the surface and the beam. On a flat surface, the plume of
secondary electrons is mostly contained by the sample, but on a tilted surface, the
plume is partially exposed and more electrons are emitted. By scanning the sample
and detecting the secondary electrons, an image displaying the tilt of the surface is
created.

The types of signals produced by a SEM include secondary

electrons (SE), back-scattered electrons (BSE), characteristic X-rays, light
(cathodoluminescence )(CL), specimen current and transmitted electrons. Secondary
electron detectors are standard equipment in all SEMs, but it is rare that a single
machine would have detectors for all possible signals. The signals result from

14
interactions of the electron beam with atoms at or near the surface of the sample. In
the most common or standard detection mode, secondary electron imaging or SEI, the
SEM can produce very high-resolution images of a sample surface, revealing details
less than 1 nm in size. Due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM micrographs have
a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three-dimensional appearance useful for
understanding the surface structure of a sample. This is exemplified by the
micrograph of pollen shown above. A wide range of magnifications is possible, from
about 10 times (about equivalent to that of a powerful hand-lens) to more than
500,000 times, about 250 times the magnification limit of the best light microscopes.

Back-scattered electrons (BSE) are beam electrons that are reflected from the
sample by elastic scattering. BSE are often used in analytical SEM along with the
spectra made from the characteristic X-rays, because the intensity of the BSE signal is
strongly related to the atomic number (Z) of the specimen. BSE images can provide
information about the distribution of different elements in the sample. For the same
reason, BSE imaging can image colloidal gold immuno-labels of 5 or 10 nm diameter,
which would otherwise be difficult or impossible to detect in secondary electron
images in biological specimens. Characteristic X-rays are emitted when the electron
beam removes an inner shell electron from the sample, causing a higher-energy
electron to fill the shell and release energy. These characteristic X-rays are used to
identify the composition and measure the abundance of elements in the sample.

2.5.1 IMAGE FORMATION

In a typical SEM, an electron beam is thermionically emitted from an electron

gun fitted with a tungsten filament cathode. Tungsten is normally used in thermionic
electron guns because it has the highest melting point and lowest vapour pressure of
all metals, thereby allowing it to be heated for electron emission, and because of its
low cost. Other types of electron emitters include lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6)
cathodes, which can be used in a standard tungsten filament SEM if the vacuum
system is upgraded and FEG, which may be of the cold-cathode type using tungsten
single crystal emitters or the thermally assistedSchottky type, using emitters
of zirconium oxide.

The electron beam, which typically has an energy ranging from 0.2 keV to 40
keV, is focused by one or two condenser lenses to a spot about 0.4 nm to 5 nm in

15
diameter. The beam passes through pairs of scanning coils or pairs of deflector plates
in the electron column, typically in the final lens, which deflect the beam in
the x and y axes so that it scans in a raster fashion over a rectangular area of the
sample surface.

When the primary electron beam interacts with the sample, the electrons lose
energy by repeated random scattering and absorption within a teardrop-shaped
volume of the specimen known as the interaction volume, which extends from less
than 100 nm to approximately 5 µm into the surface. The size of the interaction
volume depends on the electron's landing energy, the atomic number of the specimen
and the specimen's density. The energy exchange between the electron beam and the
sample results in the reflection of high-energy electrons by elastic scattering, emission
of secondary electrons by inelastic scattering and the emission of electromagnetic
radiation, each of which can be detected by specialized detectors. The beam current
absorbed by the specimen can also be detected and used to create images of the
distribution of specimen current. Electronic amplifiers of various types are used to
amplify the signals, which are displayed as variations in brightness on a computer
monitor (or, for vintage models, on a cathode ray tube). Each pixel of computer
videomemory is synchronized with the position of the beam on the specimen in the
microscope, and the resulting image is therefore a distribution map of the intensity of
the signal being emitted from the scanned area of the specimen. In older microscopes
image may be captured by photography from a high-resolution cathode ray tube, but
in modern machines image is saved to a computer data storage.

2.5.2 MAGNIFICATION

Magnification in a SEM can be controlled over a range of up to 6 orders of

magnitude from about 10 to 500,000 times. Unlike optical and transmission electron
microscopes, image magnification in the SEM is not a function of the power of
the objective lens. SEMs may have condenser and objective lenses, but their function
is to focus the beam to a spot, and not to image the specimen. Provided the electron
gun can generate a beam with sufficiently small diameter, a SEM could in principle
work entirely without condenser or objective lenses, although it might not be very
versatile or achieve very high resolution. In a SEM, as inscanning probe microscopy,
magnification results from the ratio of the dimensions of the raster on the specimen
and the raster on the display device. Assuming that the display screen has a fixed size,

16
higher magnification results from reducing the size of the raster on the specimen, and
vice versa. Magnification is therefore controlled by the current supplied to the x, y
scanning coils, or the voltage supplied to the x, y deflector plates, and not by objective
lens power.

2.5.3 SECONDARY ELECTRON IMAGING

The most common imaging mode collects low-energy (<50 eV) secondary
electrons that are ejected from the k-shell of the specimen atoms by inelastic
scattering interactions with beam electrons. Due to their low energy, these electrons
originate within a few nanometers from the sample surface. The electrons are detected
by an Everhart-Thornley detector,which is a type of scintillator-
photomultiplier system. The secondary electrons are first collected by attracting them
towards an electrically biased grid at about +400 V, and then further accelerated
towards a phosphor or scintillator positively biased to about +2,000 V. The
accelerated secondary electrons are now sufficiently energetic to cause the scintillator
to emit flashes of light (cathodoluminescence), which are conducted to a
photomultiplier outside the SEM column via a light pipe and a window in the wall of
the specimen chamber. The amplified electrical signal output by the photomultiplier is
displayed as a two-dimensional intensity distribution that can be viewed and
photographed on an analogue video display, or subjected to analog-to-digital
conversion and displayed and saved as a digital image. This process relies on a raster-
scanned primary beam. The brightness of the signal depends on the number of
secondary electrons reaching the detector. If the beam enters the sample perpendicular
to the surface, then the activated region is uniform about the axis of the beam and a
certain number of electrons "escape" from within the sample. As the angle of
incidence increases, the "escape" distance of one side of the beam will decrease, and
more secondary electrons will be emitted. Thus steep surfaces and edges tend to be
brighter than flat surfaces, which results in images with a well-defined, three-
dimensional appearance. Using the signal of secondary electrons image resolution less
than 0.5 nm is possible.

2.5.4 BACK SCATTERED ELECTRON IMAGING

Backscattered electrons (BSE) consist of high-energy electrons originating in

the electron beam, that are reflected or back-scattered out of the specimen interaction

17
volume by elastic scattering interactions with specimen atoms. Since heavy elements
(high atomic number) backscatter electrons more strongly than light elements (low
atomic number), and thus appear brighter in the image, BSE are used to detect
contrast between areas with different chemical compositions.The Everhart-Thornley
detector, which is normally positioned to one side of the specimen, is inefficient for
the detection of backscattered electrons because few such electrons are emitted in the
solid angle subtended by the detector, and because the positively biased detection grid
has little ability to attract the higher energy BSE. Dedicated backscattered electron
detectors are positioned above the sample in a "doughnut" type arrangement,
concentric with the electron beam, maximizing the solid angle of collection. BSE
detectors are usually either ofscintillator or of semiconductor types. When all parts of
the detector are used to collect electrons symmetrically about the beam, atomic
number contrast is produced. However, strong topographic contrast is produced by
collecting back-scattered electrons from one side above the specimen using an
asymmetrical, directional BSE detector; the resulting contrast appears as illumination
of the topography from that side. Semiconductor detectors can be made in radial
segments that can be switched in or out to control the type of contrast produced and
its directionality.

Backscattered electrons can also be used to form an electron backscatter

diffraction (EBSD) image that can be used to determine the crystallographic structure
of the specimen.

18
 Fig.1. Overview of scanning electron microscopy

2.5.5 RESOLUTION OF SEM

The spatial resolution of the SEM depends on the size of the electron spot,
which in turn depends on both the wavelength of the electrons and the electron-optical
system that produces the scanning beam. The resolution is also limited by the size of
the interaction volume, or the extent to which the material interacts with the electron
beam. The spot size and the interaction volume are both large compared to the
distances between atoms, so the resolution of the SEM is not high enough to image
individual atoms, as is possible in the shorter wavelength (i.e. higher
energy) transmission electron microscope (TEM). The SEM has compensating
advantages, though, including the ability to image a comparatively large area of the
specimen; the ability to image bulk materials (not just thin films or foils); and the

19
variety of analytical modes available for measuring the composition and properties of
the specimen. Depending on the instrument, the resolution can fall somewhere
between less than 1 nm and 20 nm.

2.6 COMPRESSION TEST ON MORTAR BLOCKS

Examination of many specifications gives the impression that compressive
strength is the most important property of mortar. However, this may not always be
correct as workability and bond are also of great significance. Compressive strength is
frequently highlighted in specifications because it is relatively easy to measure.
Adequate mortar strength is essential but the final strength of a mortar should not
exceed that of the bricks or blocks used. The use of too much cement will produce a
more rigid mortar, which may result in vertical cracking passing through units and
mortar joints as stresses are imposed.
Some of the important factors affecting compressive strength are cement
content, sand grading, entrained air content and water content. Increased cement
contents will give higher strengths, whilst increased fines content of sand, increased
air content or increased water content will reduce strength. The compressive strength
of mortar has a relatively minor influence on the strength of masonry construction
when compared to the strength of the units. Research has shown that wall strengths
increase by only about 10% when mortar compressive strength increases by
130%.Stronger mortars with higher cement contents tend to have higher shrinkage.
This may result in an increased risk of rain penetration due to the greater potential
incidence of fine crack formation. The compressive test is generally done using the
Universal Testing Machine (UTM) which provides all the results required after a
compression test.

20
 CHAPTER III

3.SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

Demand for manufactured fine aggregates for making concrete is increasing
day by day as river sand cannot meet the rising demand of construction
sector.Because of its limited supply, the cost of Natural River sand has sky rocketed
and its consistent supply cannot be guaranteed. Under this circumstances use of
manufactured sand becomes inevitable.In many countries sea sand have been using
for making cement concrete since long time ago, naturally, its technology depends on
the research achievement and specific conditions of each country. Therefore studying
the differences in properties of both river and sea sand will give an idea whether sea
sand can be altered in such a way that it can be used as a substitute for the depleting
river sand. Removal of huge amounts of river sand mainly for construction from river
beds has environmental impacts.

3.1OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

 Study the physical properties such as particle shape, avg. size, bulk & tap
densities.
 Investigate the pH of water contained sand and find the causes.
 Characterize the sand by XRD, Elemental analysis and SEM.
 Fabrication of compacts with sea sand river sand.
 Study the mechanical properties of compacts according to ASTM standards.

21
 CHAPTER IV
4. LITERATURE REVIEW
The Brahmaputra River originating in Tibet and flowing through Tibet and the
north-eastern part of India enters Bangladesh in Nagaswari Thana of Kurigram
District. The system is a very large scale sand bed braided river of a 15 km width with
individual channels of 2-3 km wide. The sediment contains large quantity of sandy
materials, which are generally laid down on the bed of the river, forming sand bars.
The thickness of sand deposits up to gravel bed is 44 m. Alluvial sediments contain
both light and heavy minerals in many countries of the world in the coastal areas as
well as in land areas. For economic exploitation of mineral sands, it is necessary to
identify the minerals present, quantify total reserves of sand deposits, determine the
contents and quality of economic minerals, and find the market demands in the
country and abroad [1].The sediments of the Tapti River have been analyse by the
XRDand SEM techniques. In this investigation the minerals found are Quartz,
Kaolinites, Calcite,Vermiculite, Polygorskite, Micas and Gibbsite [2]. Sand deposits
from River Niger in Anambra State, South Eastern Nigeria, were characterized for its
potential utilization as industrial raw materials for ceramics and enamel wares.
Physical, chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the sand sample were
determined. The results concluded that the samples could be utilized as industrial raw
materials for ceramic and enamel wares [3].
Usually, concrete bricks are made using cement and normal sand such as
Ordinary Portland Cement and river sand. In addition, the concrete brick also must
have its own mix ratio for enabling the content to be a piece of brick. Usually, the use
of river sand in many countries is very widespread in the construction industry.
Therefore, as an alternative river sand can be replaced with other materials to protect
the environment of the river as well as prevent erosion and flooding. Therefore sea
sand can be used as one of the innovation in the construction industry. The use of sea
sand in the brick manufacturing will produce a brick whose strength might be lower
than the strength of a normal brick. However, sea sand is a fine material that is
suitable for producing a brick but the presence of chloride content in the sand
contributes to the brittleness of the brick [4].
In addition to quality, one extremely important factor in concrete production is
consistent supply of the coarse and fine aggregates. In this regard, a coarse aggregate

22
is produced by crushing basaltic stone, and river sand is the major natural resource of
fine aggregate in our country. However, the intensive construction activity is resulting
in a growing shortage and price increase of the natural sand in the country. In
addition, the aggregate and concrete industries are presently facing a growing public
awareness related to the environmental influence of their activities.
The environmental impact is attributed to the non-renewable character of the
natural resources, the environmental impact on neighbourhood, land use conflicts,
high energy consumption needed for aggregate production and the potential
environmental or health impact of materials produced due to leaching of heavy
metals, radioactivity and to special mineral suspects to have hazardous health effects.
Therefore, due to the above-mentioned facts, looking for viable alternatives to a
natural sand is a must. One possible alternative material that can be used as a
replacement for natural sand is the use of manufactured sand. Due to the forecast
shortfall in the supply of natural sands and the increased activity in the construction
sector, it is apparent that time will come, when manufactured sand may play a
significant role as an ingredient in concrete production [5].
Natural river sand is the most preferred choice as a fine aggregate material.
River sand is a product of natural weathering of rocks over a period of millions of
years. It is mined from the river beds and sand mining has disastrous environmental
consequences. River sand is becoming a scarce commodity and hence exploring
alternatives to it has become imminent. Rock crushed to the required grain size
distribution is termed as manufactured sand (M-sand) [6].

23
 CHAPTER V
5. EXPERIMENTAL
5.1 MATERIALS
Two types of sand are taken up for the experiment. River sand from Kaveri
river bed and Sea sand from Chennai sea shore. The experiments are conducted on the
sands as received without any alteration.

5.2PH TEST
The PH test for both types of sand was conducted by taking four beakers each
containing 50ml of distilled water (PH=7). The beakers contained 5gram, 10gram,
15gram and 20gram sand respectively. This solution was prepared for both the types
of sand and the PH was calculated using a PH meter by dipping the electrode into the
solution. The buffer solution used in this case was a mixture of ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl) and ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) which had a PH value of 4.01.

5.3 BULK AND TAP DENSITIES

Both the sands are sieved using mesh of different sizes such as mesh 18
(1mm), 30 (0.595mm), 60 (0.250mm), 350 (0.042mm). The bulk and tap densities of
the sand from different mesh are calculated individually. The sand was taken upto
10ml in the measuring cylinder, the weight of which was measured using the
weighing machine. The density was obtained by dividing the weight by volume. The
obtained value is called the Bulk density. The same cylinder containing the sand was
then tapped many times, the new density called the Tap Density is measured by
dividing the weight by new volume after tapping.

5.4 DETERMINATION OF AVERAGE GRAIN SIZE

For determining the average grain size of both the sands optical microscope is
used. Few grains of sand were taken at random and viewed under an optical
microscope at 40x. By making use of the scale in the eyepiece the average grain size
of three larger grains was taken. This was repeated for medium sized and small sized
grains. Finally an average of all the three large, medium and small grains was taken.

24
5.5 X-RAY DIFFRACTION (XRD)
The phase purity and secondary phases of the sample were investigated using
X-ray diffraction method. The X-ray diffraction measurement was carried out using a
Rigaku, Model: MiniFlex 600 diffractometer. The samples were analyzed with Cu-Ka
radiation (l=1.5426 Å) at a scan rate of 5o/min. The indexing of the X-ray diffraction
patterns was carried out using the JCPDS (Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction
Standards - International Centre for Diffraction Data, JCPDS-ICPDD) files.

5.6 SEM ANALYSIS

Two types of images were obtained namely secondary electron image and
back scattered electron image from the scanning electron microscope. The
magnification in case of river sand grain was 500x at a working distance of 24.22mm
but the magnification in case of sea sand was 750x at a working distance of 22mm.
The scanning electron microscope used here in this case was “TESCAN” with a
software named “VEGA-3”.

5.7 COMPRESSION TEST

The compression test was done on mortar cube 7cm*7cm in size which was
made by mixing cement and sand in the proportion 1:3 withappropriate amount of
water. Ordinary Portland cement of grade 43 was usedand sand used in this case was
as received without any alteration. The mortar block was dried in air for 1 day and
then immersed in water for 7 days. Compression test was then conducted on it by
using the Ultimate Testing Machine (UTM). The compressive strengths of both the
blocks were found by applying a constant load on the blocks using the UTM.

25
 CHAPTER VI
6. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

6.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

6.1.1 PH TEST DATA

The acidic and basic behaviour of river sand and sea sand suspended water
was investigated by digital pH meter. The pH of the solution with respect to weight of
the river and sea sand is given in Table 2. It clearly shows the more alkaline nature of
the sea sand. This may be due to the presence of more amounts of different types of
salt in the sand.
Table 2 pH test data

Amount in 50ml Distilled RIVER SAND SEA SAND

S No.
water (gram) (pH) (pH)
1. 5 7.25 8.55
2. 10 7.58 8.65
3. 15 7.66 8.70
4. 20 7.68 8.75

6.1.2 BULK AND TAP DENSITY DATA

The bulk and tap density data of river sand shows that there is much difference
in BD and TD of mesh no. 30, 60, 350 but the BD and TD of mesh no.18 are
approximately same. In case of seas sand BD and TD of all the mesh nos. are
approximately the same except the mesh 350. When observed as a whole the BD and
TD values of sea sand are higher than that of the river sand. The difference between
the BD and TD of river sand is high which shows that it has poor flow characteristics.
The difference between the BD and TD of sea sand is low which shows that it has free
flow characteristics.

26
 Table 3 Bulk and tap density for river sand

S.No. Mesh No. Bulk Density Tap Density

1. 18 1.427 1.456

2. 30 1.368 1.416

3. 60 1.403 1.525

4. 350 1.415 1.572

Table 4 Bulk and tap density for sea sand

S.No. Mesh No. Bulk Density Tap Density

1. 18 1.452 1.452

2. 30 1.568 1.568

3. 60 1.582 1.597

4. 350 1.481 1.575

27
6.1.3 AVERAGE GRAIN SIZE DATA
An optical microscope was used to study the average grain size of both the
sands. The grain size was observed using “1-10” microscopic scale provided in the
eyepiece under a magnification of 40X. It was observed that the average grain size of
the river sand is smaller compared to sea sand though the river sand appears larger
than sea sand when viewed with naked eye.

Table 5 Average grain size data for River and Sea sand

Sno. GRAIN RIVER SAND SEA SAND

1. Large grain average (mm) 0.1291 0.1468

2. Medium grain average (mm) 0.078 0.09553

3. Small grain average (mm) 0.0452 0.0658

4. Average Size (mm) 0.0841 0.1027

6.2 PHASE PURITY

6.2.1. X-RAY Fluorescence (XRF) RESULT
The powderedriver and sea sand were characterized by X-ray Fluorescence (XRF)
Spectroscopy. It was found that silica observed in sea sand and river sand is 43% and
38% respectively. The chemical composition of river and sea sand is given in Table 6

28
 Table 6 Chemical composition of river and sea sand

Elements Present River Sand Sea Sand

Aluminium (%) 3.96 3.26
Silicon (%) 37.88 42.75
Potassium (%) 1.20 0.97
Calcium (%) 0.87 0.73
Titanium (%) 0.20 0.43
Iron (%) 1.29 1.03
Vanadium (ppm) 49.6 63.8
Chromium (ppm) 69.1 37.1
Manganese (ppm) 246.8 215.0
Cobalt (ppm) 4.4 3.5
Nickel (ppm) 27.0 18.7
Zinc (ppm) 27.6 24.3

6.2.2.X-RAY DIFFRACTION RESULT

The obtained peaks for crushed river sand powderwere indexed and matched
with the standard JCPDS (Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards) and the
main phases were found to be Potassium Aluminium Silicate K(AlSi3O8), card
number 89-8573 and Sodium Silicate Na2Si2O5, card number 76-0784. The peaks for
crushed sea sand powder were matched with the standard JCPDS (Joint Committee on
Powder Diffraction Standards) and the main phases were found to be Potassium
Aluminium Silicate K(AlSi3O8), card number 89-8573, Silicon Dioxide SiO2, card
number 86-2237 and Sodium Silicate Na2Si2O5, card number 76-0784.

29
Fig.2. X-ray diffraction pattern of crushed river sand powder

Fig.3. X-ray diffraction pattern of crushed sea sand powder

30
6.3 MORPHOLOGY
6.3.1 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM) IMAGES
The SEM images of river sand (Fig.4) and sea sand (Fig.5) are shown. The
difference lies in the back scattered images of the two sands. It can be easily identified
that there is a presence of another second phase in the BSE image of sea sand seen in
the image as a contrast difference.

Fig.4. SEM image of river sand grain

Secondary
phases

Fig.5. SEM image of sea sand grain

31
6.4 MECHANICAL PROPERTY
6.4.1 COMPRESSION TEST DATA
The mortar blocks using river and sea sand were made under the same
conditions and parameters. The compression test data shows that the mortar block
made with sea sand has lower compression strength than the mortar block made with
river sand.
Table 7 Compression test data

Compressive Strength Peak Load

(N/mm2) (breaking Load)(KN)

River sand block 17.731 86.88

Sea sand block 15.159 74.28

Fig.6. Compression test graph for river sand mortar block

32
 Fig.7. Compression test graph for sea sand mortar block

FUTURE WORK
Since the differences in properties between the two sands have been studied,
one can think of an innovative idea to use the sea sand instead of river sand for
construction purpose etc. this can be achieved by modifying the properties of the sea
sand. The first step towards this must be the removal of salts from the sea sand.

33
 CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSIONS
The pH test revealed the highly alkaline nature of the sea sand when compared
to river sand which may be due to the salts present in the sea sand. This is the first and
foremost reason that sea sand which is abundant in nature is avoided for construction
purpose. The overall inference drawn from the bulk and tap density values reveal that
the river sand has poor flow characteristics due to high difference in the bulk and tap
density values, but this isn’t the same in case of sea sand. Sea sand has very low
difference between bulk and tap density values and hence has free flow
characteristics.The average grain size of the river sand was found to be smaller
compared to sea sand though the river sand appears larger than sea sand when viewed
with naked eye.
The XRF result revealed that silica observed in sea sand and river sand is 43%
and 38% respectively.XRD results revealed the presence of phases such as Potassium
Aluminium Silicate K(AlSi3O8), Sodium Silicate Na2Si2O5 in river sand whereas
Potassium Aluminium Silicate K(AlSi3O8), Silicon Dioxide SiO2, Sodium Silicate
Na2Si2O5 were found to be the main phases in sea sand.
The back scattered images of SEM showed the presence of different phases in
sea sand whereas the same was not observed in case of the back scattered image of
river sand.
It was observed from the compression test that the sea sand mortar block had
lower compressive strength compared to the sea sand mortar block even though both
the types of mortar blocks were made under same conditions and parameters.

34
 REFERENCES

[1] Bangladesh journal of scientific and industrial research, Bangladesh J.Sci.Ind.res

47(2), 167-172, 2012, Page no.1

[2] Scholars Research Library, Archives of Applied Science Research, 2012, 4 (1):78-
84, “XRD and SEM Analysis of Tapti River Sediment: A Case Study” by R. B.
Marathe, VasantaraoNaik College, Shahada(M.S.), India.

[3] American Chemical Science Journal 3(3): 287-293, 2013, “XRD Characterization
of Sand Deposit in River Niger (South Eastern Nigeria)”.

[4] “Investigation of abundant treated sea sand with different percentages in concrete
brick ratio of 1:3”, a final year project by “Mohdsyahmi hafiz bin yasin”, Faculty of
Civil and Environmental Engineering University Malaysia Pahang, December 2010.

[5] “The use of manufactured sand in concreteproduction: test results and cost
comparison”, A thesis by “ShewaferawDinku Belay”, Addis Ababa university School
of graduate studies, July 2006.

[6] “Suitability of manufactured sand (M-Sand) as fine aggregate in mortars and

concrete” (CSIC project: CP 6597/0505/11-330 dated 5th July 2011) by Prof. B.V.
Venkatarama Reddy, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-560012, January 2012.

35

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