RESEARCH REPORT

▪ Types of Fossils, Incompleteness of fossils record,

Dating of fossils, Phylogeny of Horse

DEPARTMENT O F
Z O O L O G Y , B A I K U N T H I DEVI
K A N Y A MAHAVIDYALAY A

Affiliated to B.R. Ambedkar University, Agra

In the partial Fulfillment for the requirement

FOR
THE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
ZOOLOGY (SESSION 2023-2024)

SUBMITTED TO : SUBMITTED BY :

D r Aparna Suk la Tanu Yadav

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, Tanu Yadav is a

student of class B.Sc
3rd year 6th sem and has successfully
completed the research on Types of
Fossils, Incompleteness of Fossils
record, Dating of Fossils, Phylogeny
of horse under the guidance of
Dr.Aparna Shukla during the year
2023-24.

SIGNATURE OF
INTERNAL EXAMINER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take the opportunity to acknowledge
everyone who has helped me in every stage of this
project.
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to
my Zoology teacher Dr. Aparna Shukla for his able
guidance and support in completing my project.
I am also very thankful to my parents and my friends
who have boosted me up morally with their continuous
support.
At last but not the least, I am most thankful to god
almighty for showering his divine blessing upon me.
 CONTENT

• CERTIFICATE

• ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

• WHAT IS FOSSILS

• TYPES OF FOSSILS

• INCOMPLETENESS OF FOSSILS
RECORDS

• DATING OF FOSSILS

• PHYLOGENY OF HORSE

• SUMMARY
 WHAT IS A FOSSIL?

Fossils are the geologically altered remains of a once living

organism that has been preserved by natural processes, from
spectacular skeletons to tiny seashells. Imprints, tracks and
trails can also become fossilised, like dinosaur footprints or
worm burrows.

➢Hence, a fossil can be defined as,

“A REMNANT, IMPRESSION, OR TRACE OF AN ORGANISM

OF PAST GEOLOGIC AGES THAT HAS BEEN PRESERVED
IN THE EARTH’S CRUST.”

Because of the conditions necessary for their preservation, not all types of
organisms that existed in the past have left fossils that can be retrieved.

Many people typically think of fossils as bones. However, there are many
different types of fossils and they are typically classified according to how
they are formed. Fossils can be divided into two categories, fossilized body
parts (bones, claws, teeth, skin, embryos, etc.) and fossilized traces, (which are
footprints, nests, dung, tooth marks, etc.), all of which provide valuable clues
about Earth’s past.
❖ Body Fossils
Body fossils, are the fossilized remains of an animal or plant, like bones,
shells, and leaves These can be mould and cast fossils, like most of the
fossilized dinosaur skeletons and big bones we see, replacement fossils, like
petrified wood, or whole-body fossils -----*mammoths caught in the ice, or
insects trapped in amber*.

❖Trace Fossils
Trace fossils, are marks left by an animal or plant that has made an
impression. These fossils include nests, burrows, footprints or any other
markings of the animal’s time on the earth. The structure of the animal or
plant remains as a mineral form. The colours of the minerals that replace
the form can be dazzling. Sometimes they are made into art and jewellery.
 Types of Fossils
Fossils are formed in many different ways, but most are formed when a plant or
animal dies in a watery environment and is buried in mud and silt.

Soft tissues such as muscle, fat, and skin quickly decompose leaving the hard
bones or shells behind.
Over time sediment builds over the top and hardens into rock. Erosion may wear
away some of that rock to reveal a fossil.
 Common Types of Fossils and How
They Form:
Based on the mode of formation of fossils, they can be
categorized in several types. Fossilization is a rare
phenomenon, which takes place under specialized
conditions. The study of natural process of death, burial,
decomposition, preservation and transformation into
fossil is called taphonomy. Fossils are the only direct
evidence of the biological events in the history of earth
and hence important in the understanding and
construction of the evolutionary history of different
groups of animals and plants.

1.Petrification: Petrification is molecule-by-molecule

replacement of organic matter by inorganic compounds, viz.
silica, calcium carbonate or iron pyrites. It literally means
“turned into stone” and takes place in buried situations,
particularly at the bottom of lakes, ponds or sea, where there
are sediments rich in calcium carbonate and silica. Over
millions of years, inorganic matter replaces the entire bony
material, making an exact replica of the original. By this time
sediments transform into sedimentary rocks, in which fossils
can remain preserved for a long time..
 2. Molds and Casts: A molds forms when hard parts of
an organism are buried in the sediment such as sand, slit or
clay. The hard part completely dissolves overtime, leaving
behind a hollow area of organism shape. A cast form as a
result of the mold. Water with dissolved minerals and
sediments fills the mold’s empty space or cavity.

3. Preservation of footprints: When animals walk on

wet soil and sand, they leave trail of footprints or lim bless
animals and worms may leave tracks and trails in mud. If
these footprints are covered by volcanic ash, they can be
preserved for a long time as the clay containing footprints and
the volcanic ash covering it will harden to form different types
of rocks.
4. Trace Fossils : Trace fossils are marks left by an animal or
plant that has made an impression .These fossils includeests,
burrows, footprints or any other markings of the animal’s time
on the earth. The structure of the animal or plant remains as a
mineral form. The colors of the minerals that replace the form
can be dazzling. Sometimes they are made into art and
jewellery.
5. Amber : fossilized resin of more than 20 million years old.
The intermediate state of amber is called copal (less than 20
million years) old. The resin, before becoming amber can
trap insects, arachnids, pollen… in this case is considered a
double fossil.
6. Carbon Fossils : All living things contain an element i.e.
carbon. When an organism dies and is buried in sediment,
the materials that make the organism break down and
eventually only the carbon remains. The thin layer of carbon
left behind can show an organism’s delicate parts like leaves
or plant e.g. Fern fossil 300 million years old.
7. Pseudofossils: Sometimes watery solutions of various
minerals speed through the sediments and it takes the shape
of some plant part or animal. Their study shows that they are
neither plants nor animals. Such fossils are called
pseudofossils.
8. Impressions: Impressions of body parts, skin,
feathers, leaves etc. are formed when they are pressed
hard against the soft clay, which subsequently hardens to
form rock. Fossil of Archaeopteryx is such an impression.
More bird fossils in the form of impressions have been
discovered in China recently, e.g. fossils of
Sinosauropteryx, Caudipteryx and Confusiusornis.

Permineralization occurs
when dissolved minerals carried by
groundwater fill the tiny cellular spaces of
plants and animals.
The dissolved minerals crystallize and
produce rocks in the shape of the animal
or plant.
This is the most common type of fossil
people think of when they think about a
fossil and this process typically preserves
teeth, bones, shells, and wood.

Trace fossils record the activity of an

organism. They include nests, burrows,
imprints of leaves, footprints, and yes...
even poop
 Carbonization is a process where only
the residual carbon of the organism
remains. In nature, this usually happens
over time when the organism is subject to
heat and pressure. Plant fossils are a very
common example.

Preserved remains record intact remains

of animals, often including preserved skin,
muscle, bone, hair, and internal organs.
Fossils form when an entire organism
becomes encased in material such as ice or
volcanic ash or buried in peat bogs. Some
organisms can be also preserved when they
become trapped in tree resin that hardens
into amber after the tree gets buried
underground. Examples include insects,
pollen, lizards, and frogs.
This is a much rarer form of preservation
than the other forms above.

Natural casts form when flowing

water removes all of the original
bone or tissue, leaving just
an impression in sediment.
Minerals fill in the mold,
recreating the original shape
of the organism very common
for marine organisms with shells.
 Incompleteness of the Fossil Record
All organisms that die cannot be fossilized. This is because the
conditions
required for fossil formation are very rare. Many groups of
animals never leave fossils.
Many fossils cannot be searched by human.
The number of species known about through the fossil
record is less than 5% of
the number of species alive today.
Fossilized species may represent less than 1% of all the species
that have ever lived.

▪ Fossilisation is an exceptionally rare occurrence that requires an

unusual combination of special conditions

▪ Most living things tend to decompose rapidly (or be scavenged)

following death

▪ Fossilisation tends to favour hard body parts

(bone, teeth, shells, etc.) and exposed fossils will soon be weathered
/ destroyed

▪ Only a small percentage of fossils have been discovered –

fossilisation favours species that were long-lived and widespread

Significance of Incompleteness of the Fossil Record

• Individual fossils may not be representative of species
(e.g. Homo floresiensis - 'Hobbit' man)

• Very few complete skeletons have been discovered, and so

paleoanthropology is an inductive (data-poor) science

• Many conclusions have been drawn on limited data and are frequently
re-interpreted in the light of new discoveries
 Conditions required for
fossilization:
1. If the organism has some hard body part like bone, teeth or
shell etc then
there are more chances of fossil formation. As the harder parts
decompose slowly.

2. There are more chances of formation of fossils of aquatic

animals than
terrestrial animals.

3. The regions which undergoing erosion are not suitable for

fossil formation but
the regions where deposition is going on are suitable for
fossilization.

4. High concentration of minerals is required for the process of

mineralisation or petrifaction.

5. For the beginning of the fossilisation the organisms should be

prevented from decomposition. Many organisms decompose
before they undergo fossilization.

6. For the beginning of fossilisation the dead organism should get

covered by sediments before they undergo decomposition and
can be remain protected
from erosion and environmental damage.

7. The organisms with soft body part rarely fossilized if they

somehow get
oxygen deficient environment so that they can remain
protected from
scavengers. It may possible if it get buried in mud with little
 seepage of
oxygen rich water or there are some other organic things in
that mud which consume the available oxygen more rapidly.

8. And after all the fossil if formed, it should be properly

excavated or should be within the reach of human E.g. a
fossil buried thousands of feet below the ice
of Antarctica cannot be found by human.

The fossil record is very uneven and is mostly comprised of

fossils of organismswith hard body parts, leaving most groups
of soft-bodied organisms with little to no fossil record. Groups
considered to have a good fossil record are the vertebrates,the
echinoderms, the brachiopods, and some groups of
arthropods.
Their hard bones and shells fossilize easily, unlike the bodies
of organisms like cephalopods
or jellyfish.

Romer’s Gap:
In the beginning of carboniferous period i.e. about 360 to 345 million
years ago, there is no relevant fossil record found. There is gap of about
15 million years in the tetrapode fossil record. This gap is recognised by
paleontologist Alfred Romer,
So it is called Romer,s Gap.
According to one group of scientists this gap is due to the geochemical
conditions were not favourable for fossil formation during this period.
According to some other group of scientists it is because the fossils are
not yet discovered..
 Dating of fossils:
The dating of fossils is mainly carried out by radiometry method. This is
the most sensitive and universally accepted method. The age of the fossil
is calculated using radioactive isotopes and their half life. Many rocks are
having one or other radioactive element which undergo decay and
converted into a stable element.
Each radioactive element is having its own specific half life period i.e. the
time in which half amount of the element decayed. Many radiometric
methods using different radioisotopes are available for calculating the age
of fossil.

Uranium lead method:

This method is used by Boltwood (1907).
In this method radioactivity of 238Uranium is counted
for dating. Uranium decay to 206Lead. The half life period of
uranium is 4.51 billion years. The age of rock is calculated by
considering uranium to lead ratio and half life of uranium.

• Limitations:
➢ Uranium is not a common element.It is not found in
all rocks.
➢ Since the half life of uranium is very large,
This method can be used for old rocks only.
➢ The lead formed may get erode by some
environmental factors.
 Potassium Argon Method:
Naturally along with 39K there is radioactive 40K who get
converted into calcium and Argon. Half life of radioactive
potassium is 1350 years. The age of fossil is calculated by
amount of argon emitted in a particular unit time.

Rubidium Strontium Method:

Rubidium decays into Strontium with half life period of 6 billion
years. Age of old fossils can be calculated by this method.

Carbon Method:
This method is introduced by Libby (1956). Tissue of the
organism has carbon. With 12C tissue also have some amount
of 14C. After death of the organism 14C disintegrate to 12C.
The half life of 14C is 5568 years. By calculating the amount of
14C remained in the fossil the age of the fossil is decided.
• Merits: The age of the recent fossils can be calculated accurately with
sensitivity of 30 years plus minus.
• Limitations: a. This method is applicable only when the fossil has some
amount of organic material. b. The fossils which older than 70000 years
cannot be determined by this method.
 Phylogeny of Horse
The origin and evolution of horses signify the most speculative success
of a race in course of its phylogenetic development. The records of the
horses go back all the way with successive links from Eocene to the
recent time and afford a sound basis of descend with modifications of
the train of life.

The evolution of the horse took place mainly in North America. From
there, the animals dispersed to Asia, Africa and Europe several times
and twice to South America. The development of the horse is a process
of trial and error. Many species arise and become extinct again and
many branches run dead; only one line continues. Mindful of "survival of
the fittest" horses, adapted to their environment again and again,
adjusting to their surroundings. These brought changes, horses became
more and more horse, more and more specialized. Eventually horses
died out in America 8,000 years ago and they were reintroduced by the
Spaniards in the 15th century. Indians did not have horses until then.
Luckily horses still live on in the Old World.

The phylogenetic sequences of horses are mostly uni-directional with

few side-lines. The evolutionary sequence of equine evolution becomes
further complicated by the migratory power of the race. It is believed
that the main course of the evolution of horses occurred in North
America with migration at various times to the Old world and South
America
Ancestors of horse:

Eocene - The epoch of four-toed horse: Several forms of

horses have been recorded in Eocene period. Amongst the
Eocene horses Eohippus is regarded as the dawn horse.
Eohippus—the lower Eocene form: In the lower Eocene bed of
North America,

Eohippus - was the first recorded fossil form which showed

equine adaptation. It was a four-toed form. The forelimb had
four complete toes and each terminates in a hoof-like nail.
There was no trace of pollex. But the hind-limb had three digits
with vestigial remnants of the first and fifth digits. The other
forms of the horses recorded in the Eocene period are the
Orohippus and the Epihippus. These two forms show little
difference from the Eohippus excepting certain features in the
nature of dentition.
Orohippus—
The middle Eocene form: The next stage of the equine evolution beyond
the Eohippus is the Orohippus. This form showed some advancement
over the Eohippus as indicated by the loss of the splint of the fifth digit in
the foot. The middle finger of the forelimb becomes slightly increased in
size and the outer fingers become much shortened.

Ephippids—
The upper Eocene form: This form is further developed than the
previous forms where the third and the fourth premolars become
completely molariform. According to many, Ephippids may not stand as
the direct ancestor of Oligocene horses. The outermost digits in the
forelimb become much diminished and in the hindlimb the middle digit
becomes dominant. The Eocene horses are small in size but they show
a gradual increase in size.

Oligocene—
The epoch of three-toed horses: Beyond the Eocene forms, the
Oligocene horses show further advancement towards equine evolution.
The Oligocene horses had to confront many adverse conditions and
they have given origin to some divergent forms.

Mesohippus—
the lower and middle Oligocene form: This form attains a size of about
24 inches in height and possesses three functional digits both in the
fore- and hindlimbs. The middle digit becomes much elongated. The
ulna and fibula are slender bones.

Mesohippus—
the upper Oligocene form: This form basically resembles the
Mesohippus in all respects except that the size is larger.

Miocene—
the epoch of diversification: With the advent of Miocene period there
was extensive branching out of horses towards several lines. Miocene
horses were of several forms and exhibit at least three adaptive lines.
Of the three evolutionary lines, two overcome the evolutionary hurdles
and the other line became extinct .
Parahippus—
the lower Miocene horse: This form represents the transitional stage. In
this stage the valleys between the crests in the teeth started to become
filled up with cement. The lateral toes are much reduced.

Merychippus—
the middle Miocene horse: This form holds the key of the direct line of
equine evolution. The teeth showed a transition from the uncemented
short- crowned forms to the fully cemented long- crowned forms.
Though this form is morphologically three-toed, but functionally they are
one-toed. The orbit, for the first time, was almost complete.

Protohippus—
the upper Miocene form: This form evolved from the Merychippus but
showed certain advancement in that both the milk set as well as the
permanent set were long-crowned and cemented. The limbs were still
threetoed.

Evolutionary sidelines. During Miocene there were two evolutionary

sidelines. Hypohippus. This form had low-crowned teeth suited for
browsing on succulent herbs. They were called as the browsing
horses. Like all other Miocene horses the limbs were three-toed.

They attained the size of pony and were doomed to racial extinction.
Hipparion. They showed certain progressive features than the
previous forms. Perfection of teeth and development of special
features in the skull were progressive in nature.

But they were conservative in retaining three toes in the limbs. They
continued up to the Pliocene time when they became all extinct
excepting few forms who struggled upto the early Pliestocene period.

Pliocene—
witnessed the rise of one-toed true horses: Pliocene period was
geologically of great unrest. Pliohippus originated from the
Protohippus in the upper Miocene period. They were very progressive
forms. The development of the skull characteristics and the perfection
of the teeth were like modern horses.
They were single toed forms and there was almost no trace of the lateral
toes. Plesippus. This form arose in the late Pliocene period and attained
the size of the Arab horse but the limbs were much smaller. They were
one-toed forms with no trace of lateral digits.

The skull was Equine- like. The dental pattern was more advanced than
that of Pliohippus and the teeth were as in Equus. During the Pliocene
period another notable form was the South American form— the
Hippidion, a derivative of the Protohippus. The limbs were one-Toed, but
were very stout rather than slender. The Hippidion continued in the
Pleistocene period and transformed into the Orohippidium.

Triumph of Modern Horses:

The modern horses belong to the genus Equus. Both in North and South
America a large number of extinct species of Equus belonging to
Pleistocene period were recorded.
Several forms of horse-like animals are still surviving to-day in Africa and
Asia. The forms
present in Europe and America are either feral or domesticated. The
modern forms of horses belonging to the genus Equus are the
descendant from the Plesippus.

The original site of the origin and evolution of the horses is North
America, where they were plenty but became extinct in Pleistocene time.
At the beginning of Pleistocene time, Equus had migrated from the
original North American home to the other continents to become world-
wide. In the modern time a number of forms commonly designated as
the horses, Zebras and asses are present in the old world.
 Summary
In conclusion, the study of fossils provides invaluable insights
into Earth's history and the evolution of life forms. By examining
different types of fossils, scientists can reconstruct ancient
environments, understand the diversity of past life, and trace
evolutionary lineages. However, it's important to acknowledge
the inherent incompleteness of the fossil record. Fossilization is
a rare process, and many organisms may never leave behind
recognizable remains. This incompleteness poses challenges in
accurately dating fossils and constructing phylogenetic
relationships.

Despite these challenges, scientists employ various techniques

such as radiometric dating, stratigraphy, and molecular
phylogenetics to decipher the ages of fossils and infer
evolutionary relationships. For example, the phylogeny of the
horse provides a classic example of how fossils can be used to
trace evolutionary changes over time. Through the careful
analysis of fossilized remains, scientists have been able to
reconstruct the evolutionary history of horses, revealing their
gradual transformation from small, multi-toed ancestors to the
large, single-toed animals we see today.

In essence, while the fossil record may be incomplete and dating

methods imperfect, it remains a crucial tool for understanding
the history of life on Earth and unraveling the complexities of
evolutionary processes.
THANK YOU