Research Methods, Statistics, and

Applications Kathrynn A. Adams

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/research-methods-statistics-and-applications-kathryn
n-a-adams/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

https://textbookfull.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-
loucas/

Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology 8th

Edition Coolican

https://textbookfull.com/product/research-methods-and-statistics-
in-psychology-8th-edition-coolican/

Research Methods and Statistics for Public and

Nonprofit Administrators A Practical Guide First
Edition Masami Nishishiba

https://textbookfull.com/product/research-methods-and-statistics-
for-public-and-nonprofit-administrators-a-practical-guide-first-
edition-masami-nishishiba/

Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology 7th Ed

7th Edition Hugh Coolican

https://textbookfull.com/product/research-methods-and-statistics-
in-psychology-7th-ed-7th-edition-hugh-coolican/
Quantitative methods for health research : a practical
interactive guide to epidemiology and statistics Second
Edition Bruce

https://textbookfull.com/product/quantitative-methods-for-health-
research-a-practical-interactive-guide-to-epidemiology-and-
statistics-second-edition-bruce/

Drug utilization research: methods and applications 1st

Edition Monique Elseviers

https://textbookfull.com/product/drug-utilization-research-
methods-and-applications-1st-edition-monique-elseviers/

Research Methods And Applications In Chemical And

Biological Engineering Ali Pourhashemi

https://textbookfull.com/product/research-methods-and-
applications-in-chemical-and-biological-engineering-ali-
pourhashemi/

Case study research and applications : design and

methods Sixth Edition. Edition Campbell

https://textbookfull.com/product/case-study-research-and-
applications-design-and-methods-sixth-edition-edition-campbell/

Data Science and Social Research II: Methods,

Technologies and Applications Paolo Mariani

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-science-and-social-
research-ii-methods-technologies-and-applications-paolo-mariani/
Research Methods, Statistics, and Applications
Second Edition

2
For my departmental colleagues/mentors: Claire, Richie, and Jerry and my ever-supportive guys
—K. A. A.

For my undergraduate research advisor, Grayson Holmbeck, my graduate advisor, Al Farrell,

and my family—E. K. L.

3
Sara Miller McCune founded SAGE Publishing in 1965 to support the dissemination of
usable knowledge and educate a global community. SAGE publishes more than 1000
journals and over 800 new books each year, spanning a wide range of subject areas. Our
growing selection of library products includes archives, data, case studies and video. SAGE
remains majority owned by our founder and after her lifetime will become owned by a
charitable trust that secures the company’s continued independence.

Los Angeles | London | New Delhi | Singapore | Washington DC | Melbourne

4
Research Methods, Statistics, and
Applications
Second Edition

Kathrynn A. Adams
Guilford College
Eva K. Lawrence
Guilford College

Los Angeles
London
New Delhi
Singapore
Washington DC
Melbourne

5
 Copyright © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

All trademarks depicted within this book, including trademarks appearing as part of a
screenshot, figure, or other image are included solely for the purpose of illustration and are
the property of their respective holders. The use of the trademarks in no way indicates any
relationship with, or endorsement by, the holders of said trademarks. SPSS is a registered
trademark of International Business Machines Corporation.

FOR INFORMATION:

SAGE Publications, Inc.

2455 Teller Road

Thousand Oaks, California 91320

E-mail: order@sagepub.com

SAGE Publications Ltd.

1 Oliver’s Yard

55 City Road

London, EC1Y 1SP

United Kingdom

SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.

B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area

Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044

India

SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd.

3 Church Street

#10-04 Samsung Hub

Singapore 049483

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Adams, Kathrynn Ann, author. | Lawrence, Eva K., author.

6
Title: Research methods, statistics, and applications / Kathrynn A. Adams (Guilford College), Eva K. Lawrence
(Guilford College).

Description: Second edition. | Thousand Oaks, California : Sage, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and
index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017046336 | ISBN 9781506350455 (pbk. : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Research—Statistical methods. | Research—Methodology. | Statistics.

Classification: LCC Q180.55.S7 A33 2019 | DDC 001.4/22—dc23 LC record available at

https://lccn.loc.gov/2017046336

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Acquisitions Editor: Leah Fargotstein

Editorial Assistant: Elizabeth Wells

Marketing Manager: Shari Countryman

Production Editor: Veronica Hooper

Copy Editor: Ellen Howard

Typesetter: Hurix Digital

Proofreader: Dennis W. Webb

Indexer: Sheila Bodell

Cover Designer: Glenn Vogel

7
Brief Contents
Preface
About the Authors
Chapter 1 Thinking Like a Researcher
Chapter 2 Build a Solid Foundation for Your Study Based on Past Research
Chapter 3 The Cornerstones of Good Research: Reliability and Validity
Chapter 4 Basics of Research Design: Description, Measurement, and Sampling
Chapter 5 Describing Your Sample
Chapter 6 Beyond Descriptives: Making Inferences Based on Your Sample
Chapter 7 Comparing Your Sample to a Known or Expected Score
Chapter 8 Examining Relationships Among Your Variables: Correlational Design
Chapter 9 Examining Causality
Chapter 10 Independent-Groups Design
Chapter 11 Dependent-Groups Design
Chapter 12 Factorial Designs
Chapter 13 Nonparametric Statistics
Chapter 14 Focusing on the Individual: Case Studies and Single N Designs
Chapter 15 How to Decide? Choosing a Research Design and Selecting the Correct
Analysis
Appendix A Answers to Practice Questions
Appendix B APA Style and Format Guidelines
Appendix C Statistical Tables
Appendix D Statistical Formulas
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index

8
Detailed Contents
Preface
About the Authors
Chapter 1 Thinking Like a Researcher
Learning Outcomes
Critical Thinking
Thinking Critically About Ethics
Ethics Codes
Ethical Principles
Ethical Standards
Practice 1.1: Thinking Critically About Ethics
The Scientific Approach
The Scientific Approach and Decision Making
The Scientific Approach and Knowledge
The Scientific Method: Defined and Refined
Overview of the Research Process (A.K.A. the Scientific Method)
Step 1: Identify Your Topic
Step 2: Find, Read, and Evaluate Past Research
Application 1.1: Step 1: Identify a Research Topic—Focus on Academic
Honesty
Step 3: Further Refine Your Topic and Develop a Hypothesis or
Research Question
Step 4: Choose a Research Design
Practice 1.2: Identifying Different Types of Research Designs
Step 5: Plan and Carry Out Your Study
Step 6: Analyze Your Data
Step 7: Communicate Results
Practice 1.3: Identifying and Avoiding Plagiarism
The Big Picture: Proof and Progress in Science
Application 1.2: The Scientific Method: Plagiarism Study Example
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Chapter 2 Build a Solid Foundation for Your Study Based on Past Research
Learning Outcomes
Types of Sources
Primary Versus Secondary Sources
Scholarly Versus Popular Sources
Types of Scholarly Works
Articles in Academic Journals

9
 Other Types of Scholarly Work
Practice 2.1: Article Comparison
Strategies to Identify and Find Past Research
Searching Library Databases by Topic
More Search Strategies
Application 2.1: Database Search for Factors Impacting Academic
Success in the Social Sciences
Find the Full Text of a Source
Reading and Evaluating Primary Research Articles
Format of Unpublished Manuscripts Versus Published Research Articles
Organization of Primary Research Articles
Application 2.2: Title of Article About Academic Success: Closing the
Social Class Achievement Gap for First-Generation Students in
Undergraduate Biology
Application 2.3: Abstract From Harackiewicz et al. (2014)
Application 2.4: Harackiewicz et al.’s (2014) Introduction
Application 2.5: Identify the Research Design of Harackiewicz et al.
(2014)
Shape of a Primary Research Article
Develop Study Ideas Based on Past Research
Ethics Tip: Give Credit to Your Sources and Avoid Plagiarism
Application 2.6: Develop Study Ideas Based on Harackiewicz et al.
(2014)
APA Format for References
Practice 2.2: Write a Reference Using APA Format
The Big Picture: Use the Past to Inform the Present
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Chapter 3 The Cornerstones of Good Research: Reliability and Validity
Learning Outcomes
Reliability and Validity Broadly Defined
Reliability and Validity of Measurement
Constructs and Operational Definitions
Deciding How to Measure Your Constructs
Scales of Measurement
Practice 3.1: Identifying Scales of Measurement
Types of Measures
Questionnaires
Observational and Unobtrusive Measures
Physiological Measures
Assessing Reliability of Measures

10
 Assessing Reliability
Using Data Analysis Programs: Measurement Reliability
Entering Data
Computing Scale Scores
Computing Internal Consistency
Assessing Validity of Measures
Assessing Validity
Ethics Tip: Using Appropriate Measures to Get Meaningful Results
Practice 3.2: Examples From the Literature
Reliability and Validity at the Study Level
Study Reliability
Internal Validity
Review of Key Concepts: Independent and Dependent Variables
External Validity
Balancing Internal and External Validity
Practice 3.3: Distinguishing Between External Validity, Internal Validity,
and Reliability at the Study Level
Application 3.1: Balancing Internal and External Validity in Research
The Big Picture: Consistency and Accuracy
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Practice Dataset
Chapter 4 Basics of Research Design: Description, Measurement, and Sampling
Learning Outcomes
When Is a Descriptive Study Appropriate?
Understand Prevalence and Trends
Explore a Phenomenon in Depth
Examine a Phenomenon in a Different Population
Review of Key Concepts: Study Validity
Practice 4.1: Which of These Questions Might Be Examined With a
Descriptive Study?
Validity in Descriptive Studies
Review of Key Concepts: Measurement Validity and Study Validity
Measurement Methods
Survey Research
Observational Research
Review of Key Concepts: Scales of Measurement
Archival Research
Ethics Tip: Know When to Get Informed Consent
Practice 4.2: Evaluate Methods for a Descriptive Study on Academic
Honesty

11
 Defining the Population and Obtaining a Sample
Who or What Is the Population of Interest?
How Will You Obtain a Sample From Your Population?
Application 4.1: Examples of Probability Sampling
Application 4.2: Examples of Nonprobability Sampling
The Big Picture: Beyond Description
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Chapter 5 Describing Your Sample
Learning Outcomes
Ethical Issues in Describing Your Sample
Ethics Tip: Maintain the Confidentiality of Your Participants
Practical Issues in Describing Your Sample
Descriptive Statistics
Practice 5.1: Numerical Coding
Practice 5.2: Describe How Often Scores Appear in the Sample
Describe How Often a Score Appears in the Sample
Describe the Central Tendency
Practice 5.3: Calculate the Central Tendency
Describe the Variability of Scores in the Sample
Choosing the Appropriate Descriptive Statistics
Practice 5.4: Calculating Variability
Review of Key Concepts: Scales of Measurement
Describing Variables Measured on a Nominal Scale
Describing Variables Measured on an Ordinal Scale
Describing Variables Measured on Interval and Ratio Scales
Using Data Analysis Programs: Descriptive Statistics
Calculating Frequencies With a Data Analysis Program
Calculating Central Tendency and Variability With a Data Analysis
Program
Reporting Results in a Research Report
Practice 5.5: Identifying the Type of Distribution and Choosing the
Appropriate Descriptive Statistics
Comparing Interval/Ratio Scores With z Scores and Percentiles
z Scores
Percentiles
Example z Score and Percentile Calculation
Practice 5.6: Calculating a z Score and Percentile
Using Data Analysis Programs for z Scores and Percentiles
Application 5.1: Example From the Research Literature
The Big Picture: Know Your Data and Your Sample

12
 Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Practice Dataset and Analyses
Chapter 6 Beyond Descriptives: Making Inferences Based on Your Sample
Learning Outcomes
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Versus Descriptive Statistics
Review of Key Concepts: Population and Sample
Probability Theory
Sampling Distribution Versus Frequency Distribution
Application 6.1: Example of Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis Testing
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Rejecting the Null Hypothesis
Practice 6.1: Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Review of Key Concepts: The Normal Distribution
Testing a One- Versus a Two-Tailed Hypothesis
Practice 6.2: One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Hypotheses
Setting the Criterion Level (p)
Errors in Hypothesis Testing
Type I and Type II Errors
Reducing the Chance of a Type I Error
Application 6.2: Applying the Complete Hypothesis-Testing Process in a
Study
Practice 6.3: Understanding the Hypothesis-Testing Process
Reducing the Chance of a Type II Error
Practice 6.4: Interpreting Results
Effect Size, Confidence Intervals, and Practical Significance
Review of Key Concepts: Confidence Intervals
Application 6.3: Determining the Effect Size, Confidence Interval, and
Practical Significance in a Study
Practice 6.5: Interpreting Effect Size, Confidence Intervals, and Practical
Significance
The Big Picture: Making Sense of Results
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Practice With Statistics
Chapter 7 Comparing Your Sample to a Known or Expected Score
Learning Outcomes
Choosing the Appropriate Test

13
 Review of Key Concepts: Hypothesis Testing
Answers
One-Sample t Tests
Null Hypothesis (H0)
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
Formulas and Calculations: One-Sample t Test
Practice 7.1: Determining Whether a t Test Result Is Significant
Calculating an Effect Size
Calculating a Confidence Interval
Using Data Analysis Programs: One-Sample t Test
Application 7.1: Sample Results and Discussion Sections Following APA
Format
Practice 7.2: Writing Results and Discussion Sections
The Big Picture: Examining One Variable at a Time
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Practice With Statistics
Practice With SPSS
Chapter 8 Examining Relationships Among Your Variables: Correlational Design
Learning Outcomes
Correlational Design
Rationale for Correlational Designs
Limitation of Correlational Designs
Designing Powerful Correlational Designs
Ethics Tip: Ethics and Correlational Research
Basic Statistics to Evaluate Correlational Research
Review of Key Concepts: Scales of Measurement
Relationship Between Two Interval or Ratio Variables
Practice 8.1: Types of Relationships
FORMULAS and CALCULATIONS: Pearson’s r
Review of Key Concepts: Hypothesis Testing
Application 8.1: A Study Examining the Relationship Between Texting
and Literacy
Practice 8.2: Evaluating Correlations
Relationship Between a Dichotomous Variable and an Interval/Ratio
Variable
Application 8.2: An Example of the Use of Point-Biserial Correlation
Practice 8.3: Selecting the Appropriate Statistic
Using Data Analysis Programs: Pearson’s r and Point-biserial r
Pearson’s r
Point-Biserial r

14
 Ethics Tip: Interpreting Correlations
Regression
Linear Regression
Formulas and Calculations: Simple Linear Regression
Multiple Regression
Practice 8.4: Practice With Regression Equations
Application 8.3: Example of Multiple Regression
Using Data Analysis Programs: Regression
Application 8.4: Sample Results and Discussion for Pearson’s r and
Regression
The Big Picture: Correlational Designs versus Correlational Analyses
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Practice With Statistics
Practice With Statistical Analysis
Chapter 9 Examining Causality
Learning Outcomes
Testing Cause and Effect
Requirements for Causality
Review of Key Concepts: Validity
Practice 9.1: Testing Cause and Effect
Threats to Internal Validity
Why the One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design Does Not Demonstrate
Causality
Group Designs
Practice 9.2: Identifying Threats to Internal Validity
How an Experiment Can Demonstrate Causality
Review of Key Concepts: Components of an Experiment
Practice 9.3: Design an Experiment
Basic Issues in Designing an Experiment
Review of Key Concepts: Power
Recruiting Participants
Random Assignment
Ethics Tip: Ethically Recruit Participants for an Experiment
Controlling Other Extraneous Variables and Confounds
IV Manipulation
Practice 9.4: Distinguishing Between Variables That Can and Cannot Be
Manipulated
DV Measures
Review of Key Concepts: Sensitivity, and Floor and Ceiling Effects
Application 9.1: Research Examining the Effect of Music Videos

15
 Other Threats to Internal Validity
Demand Characteristics
Experimenter Expectancy Effects
Diffusion of Treatment
Balancing Internal and External Validity
The Big Picture: Benefits and Limits of Experimental Design
Application 9.2: Example and Rationale of a Quasi-Experiment on the
Topic of Academic Honesty
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Chapter 10 Independent-Groups Designs
Learning Outcomes
Designs With Independent Groups
Correlational Designs
Quasi-Experiments
Experiments
Review of Key Concepts: Three Requirements for an Experiment
Review of Key Concepts: Designing an Experiment
Designing a Simple Experiment
Practice 10.1: Simple Experiment Design Practice
Independent-Samples t Tests
Ethics Tip: Experiments and Ethical Concerns
Formulas and Calculations: Independent-Samples t Test
Review of Key Concepts: Type I and Type II Errors
Practice 10.2: Type I and Type II Errors
Confidence Intervals
Effect Size
Review of Key Concepts: Strength of the Effect
Practical Significance
Using Data Analysis Programs: Independent-Samples t Test
Data Entry
Data Analysis
Practice 10.3: Practice Interpreting a Two-Group Design
Application 10.1: Sample Results and Discussion for a Simple
Experiment Using Independent Groups
Designs With More Than Two Independent Groups
Advantages of the Multiple Independent-Groups Design
One-Way Analysis of Variance
Review of Key Concepts: Within- and Between-Groups Variance
Formulas and Calculations: One-Way Independent-Samples ANOVA
Practice 10.4: Practice Completing and Interpreting a Summary Table

16
 Using Data Analysis Programs: One-Way Independent-Samples ANOVA
Application 10.2: Sample Write-Up (of Hypothetical Results and
Discussion) Using APA Format
Practice 10.5: Practice With the Analysis and Interpretation of a
Multiple-Groups Study
The Big Picture: Identifying and Analyzing Independent-Groups Designs
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Practice With Statistics
Practice With SPSS
Chapter 11 Dependent-Groups Designs
Learning Outcomes
Designs With Dependent Groups
Review of Key Concepts: Types of Independent-Groups Designs
Matched-Pairs Design
Repeated Measures Design
Analysis of Dependent Two-Group Designs
Practice 11.1: Considering Dependent Designs
Review of Key Concepts: Assumptions of the Independent-Samples t
Test
Formulas and Calculations: Dependent-Samples t Test
Confidence Intervals
Effect Size
Practical Significance
Using Data Analysis Programs: Dependent-Samples t Test
Data Entry
Computing the Statistical Analysis
Application 11.1: Sample Results and Discussion for a Hypothetical
Experiment Using Two Dependent Groups
Ethics Tip: Control Groups in Interventions
Practice 11.2: Practice With a Dependent Design
Designs With More Than Two Dependent Groups
Analysis of Dependent Multiple-Groups Designs
Practice 11.3: Practice With Participant Assignment in Dependent
Designs
Review of Key Concepts: ANOVA
Formulas and Calculations: Within-Subjects ANOVA
Effect Size
Computing Post Hoc Tests
Practice 11.4: Practice Interpreting a Summary Table for a Dependent-
Samples ANOVA

17
 Using Data Analysis Programs: Within-Subjects ANOVA
Application 11.2: Sample Results and Discussion for a Hypothetical
Experiment Using a Multiple Dependent-Groups Design
Practice 11.5: Practice Interpreting a Dependent-Samples ANOVA
The Big Picture: Selecting Analyses and Interpreting Results for Dependent-
Groups Designs
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Practice With Design and Statistics
Practice With SPSS
Chapter 12 Factorial Designs
Learning Outcomes
Basic Concepts in Factorial Design
Types of Factorial Designs
Factorial Notation
Practice 12.1: Identify Types of Factorial Designs
Main Effects and Interaction Effects
Rationale for Factorial Designs
Investigate Complex Relationships
Systematically Examine Extraneous Variables and Confounds
Review of Key Concepts: Heterogeneity and Control
Application 12.1: Building on Past Research by Designing a Factorial
2 × 2 Designs
Main Effects in a 2 × 2 Design
2 × 2 Tables and Graphs
Interaction Hypotheses
Practice 12.2: Graph a 2 × 2 Interaction
Analyzing Factorial Designs
Ethics Tip: Do Not Fish for Results
Analyzing Independent-Groups Factorial Designs
Review of Key Concepts: Independent-Groups Design
Formulas and Calculations: Two-Way Between-Subjects ANOVA
Calculate the Sum of Squares
Calculate the Degrees of Freedom
Calculate the Mean Squares
Calculate the F Ratios
Effect Size
Practice 12.3: Complete a Two-Way Between-Subjects ANOVA
Summary Table
Post Hoc Analyses
Using Data Analysis Programs: Two-Way Between-Subjects ANOVA

18
 Reporting and Interpreting Results of a Two-Way ANOVA
Results Section
Application 12.2: Sample Results for a Two-Way Between-Subjects
ANOVA
Interpreting Results in the Discussion Section
Beyond Two Ways
Dependent-Groups Factorial Designs
Review of Key Concepts: Dependent-Groups Design
Mixed Designs
The Big Picture: Embracing Complexity
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Practice With Datasets and Analyses
Chapter 13 Nonparametric Statistics
Learning Outcomes
Parametric Versus Nonparametric Statistics
Review of Key Concepts: Assumptions of Parametric Statistics
Nonparametric Tests for Nominal Data
Independent-Groups Designs With Nominal Outcome Measures
Formulas and Calculations: Chi-Square Goodness of Fit
Using Data Analysis Programs: Chi-Square Goodness of Fit
Application 13.1: Sample Results and Discussion Sections Following
APA Format
Practice 13.1: Practice With Chi-Square Goodness of Fit
Formulas and Calculations: Chi-Square Test for Independence
Using Data Analysis Programs: Chi-Square Test for Independence
Dependent-Groups Designs With Nominal Outcome Measures
Application 13.2: Sample Write-Up of the Results of the Example Study
Using Chi-Square Test for Independence
Practice 13.2: Practice With Different Types of Chi-Square
Practice 13.3: Identifying Appropriate Statistics for Nominal Data
Nonparametric Statistics for Ordinal (Ranked) Data
Spearman’s Rho
Formulas and Calculations: Spearman’s Rho
Using Data Analysis Programs: Spearman’s Rho
Two-Group Designs
Multiple-Group Designs
Practice 13.4: Identifying Appropriate Statistics for Ordinal Data
The Big Picture: Selecting Parametric Versus Nonparametric Tests
Chapter Resources
Key Terms

19
 Do You Understand the Chapter?
Practice With Statistics
Practice With SPSS
Chapter 14 Focusing on the Individual Case Studies and Single N Designs
Learning Outcomes
Samples Versus Individuals
Review of Key Concepts: Goals of Descriptive, Correlational, and
Experimental Studies
Review of Key Concepts: Type I and Type II Errors
The Case Study
Conducting a Case Study
Application 14.1: Two Examples of Embedded Case Studies From the
Literature on Academic Honesty
Strengths and Limitations of the Case Study
Single N Designs
Conducting a Single N Study
Stability of the Baseline
More Advanced Single N Designs
Ethics Tip: Return to Baseline Only When It Is Ethically Appropriate
Strengths and Limitations of Single N Designs
Practice 14.1: Single N Designs
The Big Picture: Choosing Between a Sample, Case Study, or Single N Design
Chapter Resources
Key Terms
Do You Understand the Chapter?
Chapter 15 How to Decide? Choosing a Research Design and Selecting the Correct
Analysis
Learning Outcomes
First and Throughout: Base Your Study on Past Research
Choosing a Research Design
Descriptive, Correlational, Quasi-Experimental, or Experimental Design?
Additional Decisions for Correlational Designs, Quasi-Experiments, and
Experiments
Practice 15.1: Choosing a Research Design
Selecting Your Statistical Analyses
Practice 15.2: Deciding Between the Independent- and Dependent-
Groups Designs
Practice 15.3: Selecting Appropriate Statistical Analyses
Application 15.1: Two Examples From the Research Literature
The Big Picture: Beyond This Class
Chapter Resources
Do You Understand the Chapter?

20
Appendix A Answers to Practice Questions
Appendix B APA Style and Format Guidelines
Appendix C Statistical Tables
Appendix D Statistical Formulas
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index

21
Companion Site

The SAGE edge companion site for Research Methods, Statistics, and Applications, Second
Edition, is available at edge.sagepub.com/adams2e.

SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help students accomplish
their coursework goals.

Mobile-friendly eFlashcards strengthen understanding of key terms and concepts

Mobile-friendly self-quizzes allow for independent practice and assessment
Multimedia content includes video and audio links, plus relevant websites for
practice and research
Carefully-selected SAGE journal articles tie important research to chapter concepts
Datasets to accompany material in the book are available for download

SAGE edge for Instructors supports teaching by making it easy to integrate quality
content and create a rich learning environment.

Chapter-specific test banks provide a diverse range of pre-written multiple-choice,

true/false, and short answer/essay questions
Sample syllabi provide suggested course models
A robust Instructor’s Manual contains a wealth of resources for each chapter,
including lesson plans, class activities, and homework assignments
Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint® slides assist in lecture preparation.
Author-selected SAGE journal articles accompanied by discussion questions tie
important research to chapter concepts
Multimedia content includes video and audio links, plus relevant websites for
practice and research
Datasets to accompany material in the book are available for download
Answers to the end-of-chapter practice exercises help assess student progress
Tables and figures from the book are available to download for use in your course

22
Preface

Together, we have over 45 years of experience teaching an integrated research methods and
statistics course. We have used several different texts over the years, but none had quite the
right approach to match our integrated class. Some were too focused on statistics, others
too focused on methods. None had enough examples, applications, and review, and we
found ourselves supplementing these texts with our own material. We finally decided that
we should write a book that would consistently integrate methods and statistics, and
include multiple examples and practical application. We also sought to use conversational
language to make the material more interesting and to take some of the mystery and anxiety
out of learning research methods and statistics.

This textbook is modeled after the Research Methods and Analysis course that we teach at
Guilford College, which is designed to provide students with firsthand experience of being
a researcher as well as the typical content related to the research process. Each semester,
students in the class are actively involved in two lines of research—one that is chosen by the
instructors and a topic of students’ own choosing. We have found that having multiple
opportunities for increasingly complex application improves learning, and the research in
teaching and learning supports our experience. Although most students approach our
course with trepidation, many end up telling us that the course was their most useful
because the content dually prepares them for critical analysis of research as an employee or
informed citizen as well as for more advanced research training in graduate programs.

We organized this book so that the first few chapters introduce students to basic issues of
design, and we then elaborate on these designs in later chapters, detail the statistics used to
analyze the designs, and raise ethical issues that might arise with different designs. The text
is designed so that professors can cover topics in a different order than presented in the
book. In our own research methods course, we have been able to easily skip over some
topics and present topics in a different order than what is presented in the text. The
chapters are written to support different content or sequencing choices by inserting a
“Review of Key Concepts” segment or referring to an earlier chapter when understanding
new concepts or statistics depends on material that is covered previously in the text.

We believe one of the greatest strengths of this text is the consistent integration of research
methods and statistics so that students can better understand how the research process
requires the combination of these elements. Throughout the text, we remind students of
the decision making required to select appropriate designs, which then help to determine
the most appropriate statistical analysis. These elements of research methods and statistics
are set within the context of multiple examples of both proposed and real studies, which
allow students to better understand the entire process. The last chapter helps pull together
all that the students have learned by providing a summary of the major questions one

23
should answer when designing and carrying out research.

To students: Many features of this text are designed to support your learning. Rather than
simply expecting you to remember what you learned in previous chapters, we provide a
“Review of Key Concepts” at key points throughout the text. We also have a strong focus
on ethics. We introduce you to some of the basic ethical issues in Chapter 1, and then
follow up with “Ethics Tips” in subsequent chapters so that you can understand the need to
think critically about ethics throughout the research process. Moreover, we integrate
questions and practice opportunities at key points within the chapters to help you engage
with and learn the material. And we provide answers to these practice questions in the
appendix so that you can immediately check your level of understanding and skill and
decide whether you need to revisit material. Finally, at the end of each chapter, you will
find resources that allow you to further test how well you understand the material.

We hope you will find this textbook useful, and maybe even a little bit enjoyable. Our goal
is to spark your interest in conducting research and increase your ability to critically analyze
research.

24
New to This Edition
We used the first edition in our own research methods and analysis courses for several years
and with great success. Our students appreciated the conversational tone of the writing, the
practice opportunities, and the applications of key concepts. Other professors who adopted
or reviewed the first edition commented positively about the writing style and organization,
and the integration of current research. Many mentioned that they found the final “putting
it all together” chapter to be a unique and important feature of the text. In writing this
second edition, we aimed to build on and strengthen those aspects that students and
professors found most useful.

The second edition includes new and more diverse examples from the current research
literature. As with the first edition, we refer to research on academic honesty throughout
the textbook and provide an APA-style research paper and published manuscript on this
topic in the appendix. For this edition, we added recent examples from the research
literature in criminal justice, politics, education, and counseling.

Each chapter of the second edition ends with “The Big Picture” to help students take a step
back and consider the larger implications of what was covered in the chapter. In chapters
that refer to statistical analyses, we included flow charts and tables in this section to guide
students’ decisions about choosing the most appropriate analysis. In this way, we pulled
some of what was helpful in the final “putting it all together” chapter and provided it to
students earlier and throughout the book.

The second edition has an updated and more user-friendly companion website. Students
and professors can find videos, web resources, and practice datasets on the companion
website, including three datasets from actual studies the authors conducted with students.
Students will find flash cards and web quizzes to help them solidify their knowledge, and
instructors will find resources including in-class activities, lecture slides, homework
assignments, answers to end of chapter statistics exercises, and test banks. Visit
edge.sagepub.com/adams2e

25
New Student Study Guide and IBM® SPSS® Workbook
The Student Study Guide and IBM® SPSS® Workbook is a new companion text for the second
edition. Students can use the study guide as a self-guided tool to reinforce and apply
concepts from the textbook, it can be used as an in-class or in-lab workbook, or professors
may wish to assign exercises as homework. We pilot tested the study guide in our research
methods and analysis course and students reported the exercises to be invaluable. We found
students were much more prepared for class and asked better questions.

The study guide includes review questions that help students solidify and distinguish key
terms as well as application exercises that encourage students to make meaningful
connections and require critical thinking and active engagement with the material.
Additionally, most chapters of the study guide include a “Your Research” exercise so that
students can apply key terms and concepts to their own research projects.

Step-by-step directions for IBM® SPSS® data analysis and interpretation are included in
relevant chapters. We also provide guidelines and examples for writing up results in APA
style. Practice exercises are provided to help students gain competence using the program as
well as interpreting and writing up results. We have used this IBM® SPSS® workbook in our
research methods and analysis course for over 12 years, and students tell us that they cannot
imagine getting through the course without it. Many students keep the workbook for use as
a reference book in future classes and research projects.

26
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our students, who were the inspiration for this book. To all of our
former, current, and future students, we appreciate what you have taught and will continue
to teach us about how to better present concepts and skills associated with the research
process.

We are particularly grateful to two students, Sandi Coon and Tabbie Smith, who read
through our entire first draft and gave incredibly useful feedback. They helped remind us
that students need examples and repetition when learning new material. Sandi also drew
many of the cartoons in the book, and we are grateful for her creativity and artistic skill.
Thanks also go to Virginia Ferguson, Phil Hong, Celeste Prose, and Nicole Carter for
helping to format tables and graphs.

We were fortunate to have reviewers who took the time to provide thorough and
constructive feedback for our first and second editions. We took their feedback seriously as
we worked on our revisions, and the final version of the book is much improved because of
the incorporation of their thoughtful suggestions.

Finally, we extend special thanks to the editorial staff at SAGE, especially Vicki Knight, the
editor of the first edition of this book who helped us get this book off the ground, and Leah
Fargotstein, our current editor who helped us make improvements for our second edition
and encouraged us to add the Student Study Guide and IBM® SPSS® Workbook. It is obvious
to us that this book would be little more than an idea without their encouragement,
prompt response to our questions, and knowledgeable guidance throughout the process of
writing the text and companion materials.

27
Publisher’s Acknowledgments
SAGE wishes to acknowledge the valuable contributions of the following reviewers.

Anne-Marie Armstrong, Colorado Technical University

Eliane M. Boucher, Providence College
Malaika Brown, Citrus College
Derrick M. Bryan, Morehouse College
Isabelle Chang, Temple University
Wendie N. Choudary, University at Albany
Diane L. Cooper, University of Georgia
Erin M. Fekete, Ph.D., University of Indianapolis
John D. Foshay, Central Connecticut State University
Charles Fountaine, University of Minnesota Duluth
Paula M. Frew, Emory University
David Han, University of Texas at San Antonio
John M. Hazy, Youngstown State University
Erin Henshaw, Denison University
C. Ryan Kinlaw, Marist College
Karin Lindstrom Bremer, Minnesota State University, Mankato
Joshua C. Watson, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi

We extend special thanks to Qingwen Dong of University of the Pacific for the skillful
technical proofreading to ensure precision in the text.

28
About the Authors

Kathrynn (Kathy) A. Adams

earned her PhD in general experimental psychology from the University of Alabama
in 1977. She was a Charles A. Dana Professor of Psychology at Guilford College
when she retired in 2017 after 37 years of teaching. Her professional interests include
gender issues, relationships, and teaching pedagogy. She worked with the Preparing
Future Faculty Program for 20 years and helped establish the Early College at
Guilford, a nationally ranked high school. In her spare time, she spends as much time
as possible outdoors, practices yoga, and bakes chocolate desserts.
Eva K. Lawrence
earned her PhD in clinical psychology from Virginia Commonwealth University in
2002. She is a Professor of Psychology at Guilford College, where she has taught
since 2003. Her research interests include environmental psychology and computer-
mediated communication. Eva enjoys walking, yoga, and bike riding, and she loves to
listen to live music.

29
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 PSALTER IN GREEK. Byzantine, 11th Century
Solomon, David, Gideon, and the Annunciation
(Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 19352. 9¼ × 8 inches)

There are comparatively few of these extravagant relics now in existence.

Their intrinsic value made them favorite objects of pillage, and hundreds were
destroyed for their jewels and precious metals. In many of those that have
endured, like the Codex Argenteus, at Upsala, in Sweden, the silver letters have
turned black, the gold ink has become a rusty red, and the stained vellum now
supplies a tawdry background.

After passing the early stages of the art, there are ten examples I
particularly like to keep fresh in my mind as showing the evolution of that
insatiable desire on the part of booklovers of all ages to enrich the book. Four
of these are in the British Museum in London, four in the Bibliothèque
Nationale in Paris, one in the Library of San Marco in Venice, and one in the
Laurenziana Library in Florence. In each of these storehouses of treasure there
are many other manuscripts worthy of all the time a pilgrim can spare; but
these ten represent different schools and different epochs, and in my own
study have combined to make illumination a living art and a romantic history.
The Lindisfarne Gospels is where I start my illuminated pilgrimage. It takes
me back to the seventh century, when the world was shrouded in darkest
ignorance, and is a reminder that except for the development in the Irish
monasteries, as typified by early illuminated volumes such as this, knowledge
of books might have almost wholly disappeared. It recalls the asceticism of
those early Irish monks carried even to a point of fanaticism; their toilsome
pilgrimages to Rome, visiting the different monasteries and collecting, one by
one, the manuscripts to bring back to form those early libraries that kept alive
the light of learning.
The Irish school of writing and painting passed over to England through
the monasteries established by the Irish monks in Scotland, and the earliest of
the English settlements was Lindisfarne. It was here that the Gospels, one of
the most characteristic examples of the Celtic School, as translated to northern
England, was produced. Such knowledge of its date and origin as exists rests
upon a colophon added at the end of the manuscript, probably in the tenth
century, which would seem to place the date of the execution of the work at
about the year 700. For nearly two centuries it remained as the chief treasure
of Lindisfarne. In 875, so the tradition runs, in order to escape from the
invasion of the Danes, it was decided to remove the body of Saint Cuthbert
and the most valued relics to the mainland, and the Gospels was included.
When the attempt was made to cross over to Ireland, according to the legend,
the ship was driven back by storm, and the chest containing the precious
volume was lost overboard. Here is the quaint chronicle:
In this storm, while the ship was lying over on her side, a copy of the Gospels,
adorned with gold and precious stones, fell overboard and sank into the depths of the
sea. Accordingly, after a little while, they bend their knees and prostrate themselves at
full length before the feet of the sacred body, asking pardon for their foolish venture.
Then they seize the helm and turn the ship back to the shore and to their fellows, and
immediately they arrive there without any difficulty, the wind blowing astern.…
Amidst their lamentations in this distress, at length the accustomed help of their pious
 patron came to their aid, whereby their minds were relieved from grief and their bodies
from labor, seeing that the Lord is a refuge of the poor, a helper in time of trouble. For,
appearing in a vision to one of them, Hunred by name, he bade them seek, when the
tide was low, for the manuscript…; for, perchance, beyond the utmost they could hope,
they would, by the mercy of God, find it.… Accordingly they go to the sea and find
that it had retired much farther than it was accustomed; and after walking three miles
or more they find the sacred manuscript of the Gospels itself, exhibiting all its outer
splendor of jewels and gold and all the beauty of its pages and writing within, as
though it had never been touched by water.… And this is believed to be due to the
merits of Saint Cuthbert himself and of those who made the book, namely Bishop
Eadfrith of holy memory, who wrote it with his own hand in honor of the blessed
Cuthbert; and the venerable Æthelwald, his successor, who caused it to be adorned
with gold and precious stones; and Saint Billfrith the anchorite, who, obeying with
skilled hands the wishes of his superior, achieved an excellent work. For he excelled in
the goldsmith’s art.
This quotation from Mr. Eric George Millar’s Introduction to the facsimile
reproduction of this famous manuscript, published by the British Museum, is
given at such length to emphasize at the very beginning of this pilgrimage the
important place given to these manuscripts in the communities for which they
were prepared. The fact that such a legend exists at all attests the personality
the manuscript had assumed. It was my very great pleasure, the last time I
studied the Gospels, to have Mr. Millar, who is an Assistant in the Department
of Manuscripts at the British Museum, explain many things in connection with
it which could not be gleaned without the exhaustive study which he has given
to it.
The Gospels includes 258 leaves of heavy vellum, measuring about 13 by 10
inches. The Latin text is written in beautifully designed, semi-uncial characters.
These differ from the capital letters only by their relatively greater roundness,
inclination, and inequality in height. This style of lettering obtained until the
eighth or ninth century, when the semi-uncial character became the transition
to the minuscule. There are five full pages of decoration, in cruciform design
of most extraordinary elaboration; six pages of ornamented text; four full-page
miniatures of the Evangelists, in which the scribes are drawn in profile, seated,
with cushion, desk, and footstool; sixteen pages of Canon tables, decorated in
pure Celtic style; and numerous initials of various sizes.
The great interest in this manuscript lies in the cruciform pages. When I
first saw them I thought the work a marvelous example of the amount of
intricate design an artist could devise within a given area of space. Then, as I
studied them, came the realization that, complicated as they were, there was a
definite plan the artist had established and followed which preserved the
balance of coloring and design.
In the illustration here given (page 124), Mr. Millar showed me how he has
ingeniously unraveled the knots. It is peculiarly interesting as it demonstrates
the methods by which the expert is able to understand much that the casual
observer fails to see. He pointed out that the background of the page is
occupied by a design of no less than 88 birds, arranged in a perfect pattern,
with 7 at the top, 7 at the bottom, 9 on each side, 12 in the gaps between the
outer panels, four groups of 10 surrounding the rectangular panels, and 4
single birds in the gaps between the points of the cross and the T panels. The
necks and the bodies are so cleverly balanced that even when at first the
scheme seems inconsistent, further examination shows that the artist adhered
religiously to his plan. The color arrangement is carried out with equal thought
and care.
 THE LINDISFARNE GOSPELS. Celtic, about A.D. 700
(Brit. Mus. Cotton MS. Nero. D. iv. 12½ × 10 inches)

The four miniatures of the Evangelists show Byzantine influence, but in

the features, and the hair, and in the frames, the Celtic style prevails. Gold is
used only on two pages.
The Lindisfarne Gospels cannot be called beautiful when compared with the
work of later centuries, but can we fully appreciate the beauty we are
approaching without becoming familiar, step by step, with what led up to it? In
this manuscript the precious Gospels were enriched by the labor of devoted
enthusiasts in the manner they knew best, and with an ingenuity and industry
that staggers us today. Taking what the past had taught them, they gave to it
their own interpretation, and thus advanced the art toward its final
consummation and glory.
 Taken merely as an example of illumination, few would share my interest
in the Alcuin Bible, a Carolingian manuscript of the ninth century; but to any
one interested in printing, this huge volume at the British Museum cannot be
overlooked. In the eighth century the Irish and Anglo-Saxon missionary artists
transplanted their work to their settlements on the Continent, out of which
sprang the Carolingian School in France,—so named in honor of
Charlemagne. Sacred compositions, derived largely from Latin and Byzantine
sources, were now added to the highly ornamental letters. Solid backgrounds
were abandoned, and handsome architectural designs were used to frame the
miniatures.
If you will examine the Alcuin Bible with me, you will note what a
tremendous advance has been made. The manuscript is a copy of the Vulgate
said to be revised and amended by Alcuin of York to present to Charlemagne
on the occasion of that monarch’s coronation. Some dispute this tradition
altogether; some claim that a similar Bible, now in Rome, is entitled to the
honor; but the controversy does not detract from the interest in the book
itself. This Alcuin of York was the instrument of Charlemagne in establishing
the reform in hand lettering, which has been of the utmost importance in the
history of printing. Starting with the foundation of the School of Tours in 796,
the minuscule, or lower-case letter, which is the basis of our modern styles,
superseded all other forms of hand lettering. By the twelfth century the clear,
free-flowing form that developed from the Caroline minuscule was the most
beautiful hand ever developed, and was never surpassed until the humanistic
scribes of the fifteenth century took it in its Italian form as their model and
perfected it.
The volume is a large quarto, 20 by 14¼ inches in size, splendidly written
in double column in minuscule characters with uncial initials (opp. page). There
are four full-page illuminations, and many smaller miniatures, with
characteristic architectural detail that show Roman influence, while the
decorations themselves are reminiscent of the Byzantine and the Celtic
Schools.
 ALCUIN BIBLE. Carolingian, 9th Century
Showing the Caroline Minuscule
(Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 10546. 20 × 14¼ inches)

It is the hand lettering rather than the illumination or the decoration that
particularly interests me. When I first began my work in designing my
Humanistic type, I was amazed that the humanistic scribes of the fifteenth
century, upon whose letters I based my own, could have so suddenly taken
such a stride forward. The mere fact that there was a greater demand for their
work did not seem to explain the phenomenon. Then I discovered that these
fifteenth-century artists, instead of adapting or copying the Caroline
minuscule, set about to perfect it. They mastered the principles upon which it
was based, and with the technical advantages that had come to them through
the intervening centuries, brought the design to its fullest beauty.
 To supplement my study of the Alcuin Bible, I turn to the masterpiece of
the Carolingian School in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. The Golden
Gospels of Saint Médard belongs to the same period as the Alcuin Bible, and its
hand letters are of the same beautiful design, but more brilliant in that they are
written throughout in gold. In spite of the crude and unnatural figures, I am
always impressed with a feeling that the artist is, for the first time, making a
definite effort to break away from past tradition toward more natural design.
The Byzantine atmosphere still clings to the work as a whole (opp. page), but in
the frames and the backgrounds there is an echo of the ivory carving and the
architecture of the new Church of San Vitale at Ravenna, and the powerful
influence of the early Christian symbolism asserts itself in the miniatures.
 GOLDEN GOSPELS OF ST. MÉDARD.
Carolingian, 9th Century
(Bibl. Nat. MS. Lat. 8850. 12 × 7½ inches)

The hand-lettered pages are enclosed in plain borders of green or red tint,
with outside rules of gold. Each picture page covers the entire leaf. Every now
and then, superimposed upon the solid background of the margins, are tiny
figures so far superior in freedom of design to the major subjects as to make
one wonder why the more pretentious efforts are not farther advanced than
they are. Yet why should we be surprised that an artist, under the influence of
centuries of precedent and the ever-present aversion to change, should move
slowly in expressing originality? As it is, the pages of Saint Médard give us for
the first time motivation for the glorious development of the art to come in
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

The rise of Gothic influence forms the great dividing line between the old,
or ecclesiastic, and the new, or naturalistic, spirit in monastic art. The Psalter of
Saint Louis, a Gothic manuscript of the thirteenth century, in the Bibliothèque
Nationale in Paris, is an example of this transition that I like to study.
By the beginning of the thirteenth century the initial—which in the Celtic
style had dominated the entire page—was losing its supremacy, becoming
simply one factor in the general scheme. A delicate fringe work or filigree of
pen flourishes, which had sprung up around the initial as it became reduced in
size, was later to be converted into a tendril or cylindrical stem, bearing a
succession of five leaves and leaflets of ivy, usually entirely filled with
burnished gold. Small figures, and, later, groups of figures, take the place of
the linear ornament in the interior of the letter, and calligraphy and miniature
painting become successfully fused. An exact date cannot be assigned, as it
was the result of a slow and gradual growth.
From certain references made in the Calendar pages of the Psalter, it is
evident that the manuscript was copied and illuminated between the year 1252,
when Queen Blanche of Castile died, and the death of Saint Louis in 1270.
What a story this book could tell! Written in French in red ink on one of the
front end leaves is this inscription:
This Psalter of Saint Louis was given by Queen Jeanne d’Evreux to King Charles,
son of King John, in the year of our Master, 1369; and the present King Charles, son
of the said King Charles, gave it to Madame Marie of France, his daughter, a nun at
Poissy, on Saint Michel’s Day, in the year 1400
The Psalter contains 260 leaves of parchment, 8½ by 6 inches. Of these,
seventy-eight are small, beautiful miniatures, depicting the principal scenes in
the early books of the Old Testament, and eight are illustrations to the Psalms
(page 132), the remaining leaves being occupied by the text. In these miniatures
is shown a refinement and delicacy of treatment combined with unusual
freedom in execution. Here is one of the best examples of the reflection of the
stained-glass windows of the Gothic cathedrals (opp. page), to which reference
has already been made. There is no shading whatever. The body color is laid
on the design in flat tints, finished by strokes of the pen.

PSALTER OF SAINT LOUIS. Gothic, 13th Century

Abraham and Isaac
(Bibl. Nat. MS. Lat. 10525. 8½ × 6 inches)
 PSALTER OF SAINT LOUIS. Gothic, 13th Century
Psalms lxviii. 1–3
(Bibl. Nat. MS. Lat. 10525. 8½ × 6 inches)

All this is interesting because this period marks the end of the needless
limitations illuminators placed upon themselves. Working on vellum as a
medium instead of in glass with lead outlines, should be a much simpler
operation! Still, one can’t help reveling in the bright scarlet and the rich blue of
the stained glass, and would be loath to give it up.
The volume is bound in old boards, covered with blue and rose material
embossed with silver and reinforced with velvet. The clasps are gone.
 The style of illumination in the thirteenth century shows no distinct
national characteristics, for, even in England, some of the work was executed
by French artists. The initial is usually set within a frame shaped to its outline,
the ground being either of gold, slightly raised or burnished, or of color,
especially dark blue and pale tints of salmon, gray, or violet, sometimes edged
with gold.
Queen Mary’s Psalter, a superb example of the English School in the early
fourteenth century, is a landmark in our pilgrimage because, in addition to its
surpassing beauty, it is an example of illumination sought for its own artistic
value instead of being associated wholly with devotional manuscripts. No one
can examine the charming series of little tinted drawings in the margins of the
Litany without being convinced that the artist, whoever he may have been, was
quite familiar with the world outside the Church (see frontispiece).
The earliest note of ownership in this manuscript is of the sixteenth
century:
This boke was sume tyme the Erle of Rutelands, and it was his wil that it shulde
by successioun all way go to the lande of Ruteland or to him that linyally suceedes by
reson of inheritaunce in the saide lande.
How fascinating these records are, made by different hands as the precious
manuscripts are passed on down the ages! Even though we have no absolute
knowledge of which Rutland is meant, an added personality is given to the
pages we are now permitted to turn and to admire. In this manuscript there is
also a second note, written in Latin on the fly leaf at the end, paying a tribute
to a certain Baldwin Smith, “an honest customs officer,” who frustrated an
attempt to ship the volume out of England, and presented it to Queen Mary. It
is now in the British Museum.
Whether or not this was Queen Mary’s first acquaintance with the
manuscript is not known, but from the binding she put on it she surely
considered it a highly prized personal possession. It would naturally be of
special interest to her because of its connection with the old liturgy she was so
anxious to restore. The silver-gilt clasp fittings are missing now. The crimson
velvet with the pomegranate, the Queen’s badge, worked in colored silks and
gold thread on each cover, are worn and shabby; but on the corner plates the
engraved lion, dragon, portcullis, and fleur-de-lys of the Tudors are still
triumphant.
The manuscript, executed upon thin vellum, and consisting of 320 leaves
about 11 by 7 inches, opens with a series of 228 pen and ink drawings. In most
cases there are two designs on each page, illustrating Bible history from the
Creation down to the death of Solomon (page 134). With the drawings is a
running description in French, sometimes in prose, sometimes in rhyme,
which in itself is interesting, as the story does not always confine itself strictly
to the Biblical records but occasionally embodies apocryphal details.
The drawings themselves are exquisite, and in the skill of execution mark
another tremendous advance in the art of illumination. They are delicately
tinted with violet, green, red, and brown. The frame is a plain band of
vermilion, from each corner of which is extended a stem with three leaves
tinted with green or violet.
Following the series of drawings comes a full page showing the Tree of
Jesse, and three other full pages depicting the Saints,—one page of four
compartments and two of six. The text, from this point, represents the usual
form of the liturgical Psalter, the Psalms being preceded by a Calendar, two
pages to a month, and followed by the Canticles, including the Athanasian
Creed, and then by the Litany. In the Psalter, the miniatures show incidents
from the life of Christ; the Canticles depict scenes from the Passion; while in
the Litany are miniatures of the Saints and Martyrs. The initials themselves are
elaborate, many containing small miniatures, and all lighted up with brilliant
colors and burnished gold. In the Litany, in addition to the religious subjects,
there are splendid little scenes of every-day life painted in the lower margins
which make the manuscript unique,—illustrations of the Bestiary, tilting and
hunting scenes, sports and pastimes, grotesque figures and combats, dancers
and musicians. The manuscript ends with the Miracles of the Virgin and the
Lives and Passions of the Saints.
In Queen Mary’s Psalter, and in manuscripts from this period to those of the
sixteenth century, we find ourselves reveling in sheer beauty. “Why not have
started here?” asks my reader. Perhaps we should have done so; but this is a
record not of what I ought to do, but of what I’ve done! To see one beautiful
manuscript after another, without being able to recognize what makes each
one different and significant, would take away my pleasure, for the riotous
colors and gold would merge one into another. Is it not true that there comes
greater enjoyment in better understanding? We admire what we may not
understand, but without understanding there can be no complete appreciation.
In this case, familiarity breeds content!

QUEEN MARY’S PSALTER. English, 14th Century

From the Life of Joseph
(Brit. Mus. Royal MS. 2B vii. 11 × 7 inches)

After studying the best of fourteenth-century English illumination in Queen

Mary’s Psalter, I like to turn to the Bedford Book of Hours, to make comparison
with one of the most beautiful French manuscripts of a century later. This is
also at the British Museum, so in the brief space of time required by the
attendant to change the volumes on the rack in front of me, I am face to face
with the romance and the beauty of another famous volume, which stands as a
memorial of English domination in France.
Fashions change in illuminated manuscripts, as in all else, and books of
hours were now beginning to be the vogue in place of psalters. This one was
written and decorated for John, Duke of Bedford, son of Henry IV, and was
probably a wedding gift to Anne, his wife. This marriage, it will be
remembered, was intended to strengthen the English alliance with Anne’s
brother, Philip of Burgundy. On the blank page on the back of the Duke’s
portrait is a record in Latin, made by John Somerset, the King’s physician, to
the effect that on Christmas Eve, 1430, the Duchess, with her husband’s
consent, presented the manuscript to the young King Henry VI, who was then
at Rouen, on his way to be crowned at Paris. Such notes, made in these later
illuminated volumes, are interesting as far as they go, but there is so much left
unsaid! In the present instance, how came the manuscript, a hundred years
later, in the possession of Henri II and Catherine de’ Medici, of France? After
being thus located, where was it for the next hundred years, before it was
purchased by Edward Harley, 2d Earl of Oxford, from Sir Robert Worsley’s
widow, to be presented to his daughter, the Duchess of Portland? These are
questions that naturally arise in one’s mind as he turns the gorgeous pages, for
it seems incredible that such beauty could remain hidden for such long
periods. Now, happily, through purchase in 1852, the manuscript has reached
its final resting place.
 BEDFORD BOOK OF HOURS. French, 15th Century
Showing one of the superb Miniature Pages
(Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 18850. 10¼ × 7¼ inches)

Like other books of hours, the Bedford opens with the Calendar pages,
combining the signs of the Zodiac with beautifully executed scenes typical of
each month. Then follow four full-page designs showing the Creation and Fall,
the Building of the Ark, the Exit from the Ark, and the Tower of Babel. The
Sequences of the Gospels come next; then the Hours of the Virgin, with
Penitential Psalms and Litany; the Shorter Hours; the Vigils of the Dead; the
Fifteen Joys; the Hours of the Passion; the Memorials of the Saints; and
various Prayers. Throughout the 289 leaves, a little larger than 10 by 7 inches,
are thirty-eight full-page miniatures that are masterpieces,—particularly the
Annunciation, with which the Hours of the Virgin begin. Every page of text is
surrounded by a magnificent border, rich in colors and gold, with foliage and
birds, and with the daintiest little miniatures imaginable. While these borders
are based upon the ivy-leaf pattern, it resembles the style that carries the
illumination through the leaf, bud, and flower up to the fruit itself, which one
associates more with the Flemish than the French School. The work is really a
combination of the French and Flemish Schools, but is essentially French in its
conception and execution.
It was the custom, in these specially created manuscripts, to immortalize
the heads of the family by including them with other, and, perhaps in some
cases, more religious subjects. In this Book of Hours, the Duke of Bedford is
depicted, clad in a long, fur-lined gown of cloth-of-gold, kneeling before Saint
George, and the portrait is so fine that it has been frequently copied. The page
which perpetuates the Duchess is reproduced here (at page 136). Clad in a
sumptuous gown of cloth-of-gold, lined with ermine, she kneels before Saint
Anne; her elaborate head-dress supports an artificial coiffure, rich in jewels; on
her long train, her two favorite dogs are playing. The Saint is clad in a grey
gown, with blue mantle and white veil, with an open book in front of her. At
her left stands the Virgin in white, with jeweled crown, and the infant Christ,
in grey robe. His mother has thrown her arm affectionately about Him, while
He, in turn, beams on the kneeling Duchess. In His hand He carries an orb
surmounted by a cross. Saint Joseph stands at the right of the background, and
four angels may be seen with musical instruments, appearing above the arras,
on which is stamped the device and motto of the Duchess.
Surrounding the miniature, worked into the border, in addition to the
Duke’s shield and arms, are exquisite smaller pictures, in architectural
backgrounds, showing Saint Anne’s three husbands and her sons-in-law. The
pages must be seen in their full color, and in their original setting, to be
appreciated.
The manuscript is bound in red velvet, with silver-gilt clasps, bearing the
Harley and the Cavendish arms, and dates back to the time of the Earl of
Oxford.
 ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS. French Renaissance, 15th Century
Cyrus permits the Jews to return to their own Country, and to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem
(Bibl. Nat. MS. Français 247. 16¼ × 11½ inches)

In the Antiquities of the Jews, Jean Foucquet’s masterpiece at the Bibliothèque

Nationale in Paris, we find the French Renaissance School. This manuscript
interests me for several and different reasons. In the first place, Foucquet was
one of the founders of the French School of painting, and had his
masterpieces been painted on canvas instead of on vellum, his name would
have been much more familiar to art lovers than it is today. The high degree
attained by the art at Tours, which had become the center of the Renaissance
in France, demanded a setting for the miniatures different from the Flemish
type of decoration that had so dominated illumination in general. This it found
in the Italian style, which at that time was first attaining its glory.
The book itself was originally bound in two volumes, being a French
translation by an unknown writer of Flavius Josephus’ Antiquities and War of the
Jews, the subject being the clemency of Cyrus toward the captive Jews in
Babylon. It is in folio (a little larger than 16 by 11 inches), written in double
column, and contains superb initials, vignettes, and miniatures (page 138). The
work was begun for the Duc de Berry, but was left unfinished at his death in
1416. Later it came into the possession of the Duc de Nemours. Can one
imagine a more aristocratic treasure for a cultured gentleman to own! It was
probably begun very early in the fifteenth century, and completed between the
years 1455 and 1477. A note at the end of the first volume (which contains
311 leaves) by François Robertet, secretary of Pierre II, Duc de Bourbon,
states that nine of the miniatures are “by the hand of that good painter of
King Louis XI, Jean Foucquet, native of Tours.”
For over two hundred years this first volume, containing Books I to XIV
of the Antiquities of the Jews, has been in the Bibliothèque Nationale. It is bound
in yellow morocco, and bears the arms of Louis XV. The second volume was
considered lost. In 1903 the English collector, Mr. Henry Yates Thompson,
purchased the missing copy in London, at a sale at Sotheby’s. This contained
Books XV to XX of the Antiquities of the Jews and Books I to VII of the War of
the Jews; but it was imperfect in that a dozen pages of miniatures had been cut
out. Two years later, Sir George Warner discovered ten of these filched leaves
in an album of miniatures that at some time had been presented to Queen
Victoria, and were in her collection at Windsor Castle.
As soon as Mr. Thompson heard of this discovery, he begged King
Edward VII to accept his volume, in order that the leaves might be combined.
The English monarch received the gift with the understanding that he, in turn,
might present the restored manuscript to the President of the French
Republic. This gracious act was accomplished on March 4, 1906, and now the
two volumes rest side by side in the Bibliothèque Nationale, reunited for all
time after their long separation. If books possess personalities, surely no
international romance ever offered greater material for the novelist’s
imagination!

Now our pilgrimage takes us from Paris to Venice, to study that priceless
treasure of the Library of San Marco, the Grimani Breviary, the gem of the
Flemish School (which should properly be called “Netherlandish”). This style
overlapped, distinctly, into Germany and France, and further complicated any
certainty of identification by the fact that the number of Netherlandish