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 Statistics
for technology
A COURSE IN APPLIED STATISTICS
Third ed itio n (R evised)
 Statistics
for technology
A COURSE IN APPLIED STATISTICS
Third edition (Revised)

Christopher Chatfield
Reader in Statistics
Bath University, UK

CHAPMAN & HALL/CRC

Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
 L ibrary o f C ongress C ataloging-in-P ublication D ata

Catalog record is available from the Library o f Congress

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material
is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety o f references are listed. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity o f all materials or for the consequences o f their use.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes o f research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
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m ission in writing o f the publishers, or in the case o f reprographic reproduction only in accordance with
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the terms o f the license issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK.
The consent o f CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion,
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LLC for such copying.
Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.

Tradem ark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com

© 1983 by Christopher Chatfield

First edition 1970

Reprinted 1975
Second edition 1978
Third edition 1983
Reprinted 1985, 1986, 1988
Reprinted with revisions 1989, 1991,(twice), 1992, 1994
First CRC Press reprint 1999
Originally published by Chapman & Hall

N o claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number 0-412-25340-2
Printed in the United States o f America 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
 Contents

Preface 11

Part One Introduction

1 Outline of statistics 15

2 Simple ways of summarizing data 20

2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Graphical methods 21
2.3 Summary statistics 28

Part Two Theory

3 The concept of probability 37

3.1 Probability and statistics 37
3.2 Some definitions 38
3.3 Types of events 40
3.4 Permutations and combinations 49
3.5 Random variables 51

4 Discrete distributions 56
4.1 The discrete probability distribution 56
4.2 The binomial distribution 57
4.3 The binomial model 59
4.4 Types of distribution 64
4.5 The mean and variance of the binomial distribution 64
4.6 The Poisson distribution 69
4.7 Bivariate discrete distributions 75

5 Continuous distributions 81
5.1 Definitions 81
5.2 The mean and variance of continuous distributions 86
5.3 The normal distribution 87
5.4 Uses of the normal distribution 92
5.5 Normal probability paper 95
5.6 The exponential distribution 98
5.7 Bivariate continuous distributions 103

5 Contents
 6 Estimation 106
6.1 Point and interval estimates 106
6.2 Properties of the expected value 107
6.3 The sampling distribution of x 111
6.4 The sampling distribution of 116
6.5 Some properties of estimators 118
6.6 General methods of point estimation 121
6.7 Interval estimation 126

7 Significance tests 134

7.1 Introduction 134
7.2 Tests on a sample mean 140
7.3 Comparing two sample means 143
7.4 The i-test applied to paired comparisons 147
7.5 The goodness-of-fit test 148
7.6 TheF-test 155
7.7 Distribution-free or non-parametric tests 157
7.8 Power and other considerations 158

8 Regression and correlation 166

8.1 Scatter diagram 166
8.2 Curve fitting 167
8.3 Regression 171
8.4 Confidence intervals and significance tests in linear regression 174
8.5 The coefficient of determination 177
8.6 Multiple and curvilinear regression 178
8.7 Orthogonal polynomials 180
8.8 The design of regression experiments 185
8.9 The correlation coefficient 185
8.10 Estimating the regression lines 191
8.11 The bivariate normal distribution 194
8.12 Interpretation of the correlation coefficient 196

Part Three Applications

9 Planning the experiment 203
9.1 Preliminary remarks 203
9.2 Measurements 204
9.3 The propagation of error 206
9.4 Improving precision with series and parallel arrangements 215
9.5 Combining dissimilar estimates by the method of least squares 216

10 The design and analysis of experiments - 1 Comparative experiments 224

10.1 Some basic considerations in experimental design 224
10.2 A mathematical model for simple comparative experiments 226

6 Contents
 10.3 The number of replications 227
10.4 Randomization 230
10.5 The analysis of a randomized comparative experiment 231
10.6 The range test 235
10.7 One-way analysis of variance 237
10.8 Follow-up study of the treatment means 241
10.9 Verifying the model 243
10.10 The randomized block experiment 244
10.11 Two-way analysis of variance 248
10.12 Latin squares 252
10.13 Balanced incomplete block designs 253

11 The design and analysis of experiments - 2 Factorial experiments 257

11.1 Introduction 257
11.2 The advantages of complete factorial experiments 258
11.3 The design of complete factorial experiments 260
11.4 The analysis of a complete factorial experiment 263
11.5 Follow-up procedure 269
.11.6 The 2" factorial design 271
11.7 Fixed effects and random effects 276
11.8 Other topics 277
11.9 The examination of residuals 279
11.10 Determination of optimum conditions 280
11.11 Summary 285

12 Quality control 288

12.1 Acceptance sampling 288
12.2 Operating characteristic curve 289
12.3 Types of sampling schemes 293
12.4 Rectifying schemes 296
12.5 The military standard plan 297
12.6 Sampling by variables 298
12.7 Practical problems 298
12.8 Process control 299
12.9 Control charts for samples 301
12.10 Cusum charts 306
12.11 Prediction, system identification and control 312

13 Life testing 319

13.1 Problems in measuring reliability 319
13.2 The mathematical distribution of failure times 321
13.3 The exponential distribution 323
13.4 Estimating the conditional failure rate 324
13.5 The Weibull distribution 327

7 Contents
Appendix A The relationships between the normal, t- and
F-distributions 332

Appendix B Statistical tables 335

Table 1. Areas under the normal curve 335
Table 2. Percentage points of Student’s /-distribution 336
Table 3. Percentage points of the distribution 337
Table 4. Upper percentage points of the F-distribution 338
Table 5. Values of c “* 341
Table 6. Percentage points of the distribution of the Studentized range 342
Table 7. Random numbers 344

Appendix C Further reading 346

Appendix D Some other topics 351

D .l Calculating the mean and standard deviation of a frequency
distribution 351
D.2 Interpretation of the sample standard deviation 354
D.3 How to round numbers 355
D.4 Stem-and-leaf plots and box plots 360
D.5 Estimating and testing a proportion 363

Appendix E Some general comments on tackling statistical problems 365

E. 1 Preliminary questions 365
E.2 Collecting the data 366
E.3 Preliminary data analysis 367
E.4 Choice of a more elaborate method 369
E.5 Using a computer 370
E.6 Using a library 371
E.7 Presenting the results 371

Answers to exercises 373

Index 377

8 Contents
‘It’s p erfectly in te llig ib le ,’ the ca p ta in said , in an o ffen d ed
to n e, ‘to a n y o n e th at u n d erstan d s su ch th in g s.’
 Preface

This book provides an introduction to statistics, with particular

emphasis on applications in the applied sciences and engineering. The
book may be used as a text for a basic course in statistics or for self­
tuition. Although the book was originally intended for ‘service’ courses
to scientists and engineers, I have been pleased to find that the book
has also been widely used for applied statistics courses for students in
mathematics and statistics departments. Although ‘technology’ was an
‘in’ word when the book was written, it may be that a better title today
would be ‘A Course in Applied Statistics’.
The book is divided into three sections. Part One includes an
introduction and some material on descriptive statistics. Part Two
deals with the theory of probability and statistics, while Part Three
considers some applications, including the design and analysis of
experiments, quality control and life-testing. The reader who is
specifically interested in one of these last two topics can proceed
directly from Chapter 7 to Chapter 12 or 13 as appropriate.
The favourable reaction to the first and second editions has prompted
me to make relatively few changes for the third edition. I have clarified
and updated the text in many places but without changing the page
numbering. This should be helpful to teachers who are used to earlier
editions. It will also keep costs down and avoid introducing new
typographical errors.
Appendix E was added to the text in the third edition. It makes some
general comments on how to tackle statistical problems and I strongly
recommend the reader to study this Appendix after taking a conventional
introductory Statistics course. The Appendix includes remarks on such
topics as processing the data, using a library and writing a report. These
vital topics are often omitted from conventional courses.
I have kept the mathematics throughout the book as simple as
possible; an elementary knowledge of calculus plus the ability to
manipulate algebraic formulae are all that is required. I have tried to
introduce the theory of statistics in a comprehensible way without

10 Preface
 getting too involved in mathematical details. 4 few results are stated
without proof where this is unlikely to affect the student’s comprehen­
sion. However, I have tried to explain carefully the basic concepts of
the subject, such as probability and sampling distributions; these the
student must understand. The worst abuses of statistics arise in the
‘cook-book’ approach to the subject where scientists try to analyse
their data by substituting measurements into statistical formulae which
they do not understand.
Many readers will have access to a computer, or at least to a
microcomputer or sophisticated pocket calculator. The statistical
software which is readily available has taken much of the drudgery
out of statistics. There are some remarks on using a computer in
Appendix E.5. I have amended the text in a number of places to make
it clear that the reader need no longer worry too much about some
computational details, although there is much to be said for working
through some of the methods in detail at least once in order to
understand fully what is going on.
I am grateful to many people for constructive comments on earlier
editions and I am always pleased to hear from any reader with new
ideas.
I am indebted to Biometrika trustees for permission to publish
extracts from Biometrika Tables for Statisticians (Appendix B, Table 6)
and to Messrs Oliver and Boyd Ltd, Edinburgh for permission to
publish extracts from Statistical Tables for Biological, Agricultural and
Medical Research (Appendix B, Table 7).
The quotations are, of course, from the works of Charles Lutwidge
Dodgson, better known as Lewis Carroll.

C h r is t o p h e r C h a t f ie l d
Bath University
May, 1989

11 Preface
Part one
Introduction

‘Surely,’ said the governor, ‘Her Radiancy would admit

that ten is nearer to ten than nine is - and also nearer
than eleven is.’
 Chapter 1
Outline of statistics

Statistical methods are useful in many types of scientific investigation.

They constitute the science of collecting, analysing and interpreting data
in the best possible way. Statistics is particularly useful in situations
where there is experimental uncertainty and may be defined as ‘the
science of making decisions in the face of uncertainty’. We begin with
some scientific examples in which experimental uncertainty is present.

Example 1
The thrust of a rocket engine was measured at ten-minute intervals
while being run at the same operating conditions. The following thirty
observations were recorded (in newtons x 10 ^):

999-1 1003-2 1002-1 999-2 989-7 1006-7

1012-3 996-4 1000-2 995-3 1008-7 993-4
998-1 997-9 1003-1 1002-6 1001-8 996-5
992-8 1006-5 1004-5 1000-3 1014-5 998-6
989-4 1002-9 999-3 994-7 1007-6 1000-9

The observations vary between 989-4 and 1014*5 with an average

value of about 1000. There is no apparent reason for this variation
which is of course small compared with the absolute magnitude of each
observation; nor do the variations appear to be systematic in any way.
Any variation in which there is no pattern or regularity is called
random variation. In this case if the running conditions are kept uniform
we can predict that the next observation will also be about a thousand
together with a small random quantity which may be positive or
negative.

15 Outline of statistics
 Example 2
The numbers of cosmic particles striking an apparatus in forty con­
secutive periods of one minute were recorded as follows.

3 0 01 0 2 1 0 1 1
0 3 4 1 2 0 2 0 3 1
10 12 0 2 1 0 1 2
3 1 00 2 1 0 3 1 2

The observations vary between zero and four, with zero and one
observed more frequently than two, three and four. Again there is
experimental uncertainty since we cannot exactly predict what the
next observation would be. However, we expect that it will also be
between zero and four and that it is more likely to be a zero or a one
than anything else. In Chapter 4 we will see that there is indeed a
pattern in this data even though individual observations cannot be
predicted.

Example 3
Twenty refrigerator motors were run to destruction under advanced
stress conditions and the times to failure (in hours) were recorded as
follows.

104-3 158-7 193-7 201-3 206-2

227-8 249-1 307-8 311-5 329-6
358-5 364-3 370-4 380-5 394-6
426-2 434-1 552-6 594-0 691-5

We cannot predict exactly how long an individual motor will last,

but, if possible, we would like to predict the pattern of behaviour of a
batch of motors. For example we might want to know the over-all
proportion of motors which last longer than one week (168 hours).
This problem will be discussed in Chapter 13.
When the scientist or engineer finishes his education and enters
industry for the first time, he must be prepared to be faced frequently
with situations which involve experimental uncertainty. The purpose of
this book is to provide the scientist with methods for treating these
uncertainties. These methods have proved to be very useful in both
industry and research.

16 Outline of statistics
 A scientific experiment has some or all of the following character­
istics.
(1) The physical laws governing the experiment are not entirely under­
stood.
(2) The experiment may not have been done before, at least success­
fully, in which case the instrumentation and technique are not fully
developed.
(3) There are strong incentives to run the smallest number of the
cheapest tests as quickly as possible.
(4) The experimenter may not be objective, as for example when an
inventor tests his own invention or when a company tests competitive
products.
(5) Experimental results are unexpected or disappointing. (Engineers
explain disappointing results as illustrating Murphy’s law. The
corresponding law for statistics might be phrased ‘if two events are
equally likely to occur, the worse will happen’.)
(6) Although experimental uncertainty may be present, many industrial
situations require decisions to be made without additional testing or
theoretical study.
To illustrate how statistics can help at different stages of an experi­
ment, let us assume that we have been given the task of improving the
performance of a space pump. The basic design of this machine is
illustrated in Figure 1: gas is passing through the pump which is
driven by an electric motor.
The first step is to study the current technology. Statistical methods
are never a substitute for understanding the physical laws governing

inlet
temperature..^
pressure

outlet
temperature
pressure
Figure 1 Diagram of a space pump

17 Outline of statistics
 the problem under consideration; rather statistics is a tool for the
scientist in the same sense as differential equations and digital
computers.
The second step is to define the objective of the test program as
precisely as possible. For example we may be interested in improving
flow, pressure rise or efficiency, or reducing weight or noise. Alterna­
tively we may be interested in improving the reliability of the machine
by increasing the time between breakdowns.
The objective being defined, a list of variables or factors can be
made which will vary or be varied during the test program. In the space-
pump experiment, the variables include power, inlet temperature, inlet
pressure and speed. The test program must be designed to find the best
way of choosing successive values for the different factors. The problems
involved in designing an experiment are discussed in Chapters 10 and
11.
In order to see if the objective is being achieved, we look at the outputs
or responses. In the space-pump example, these include pressure rise,
flow, efficiency and reliability. Note that these responses are probably
interconnected. For example it may be pointless to increase the flow if,
as a result, the efficiency drops or the reliability falls off (that is, the
pump breaks down more frequently).
During the experiment, measurements of the factors and responses
will be made. The article being tested should be instrumented to obtain
the most precise and accurate data. The problems of instrumentation
are discussed in Chapter 9. The analysis of the resulting data should
attempt to determine not only the individual effect of each variable on
the responses, but also the joint effects of several variables, the inter­
actions. The process of estimating these effects is called inference. These
estimates should have known statistical properties such as a lack of
systematic error (called unbiasedness). Finally any conclusions or
recommendations should be given together with a measure of the risk
involved and/or the possible error in the estimates.
In order to carry out the above procedure successfully it is usually
helpful to set up a mathematical model to describe the physical situation.
This model is an attempt to formulate the system in mathematical
terms and may, for example, consist of a series of formulae connecting
the variables of interest. This model may involve unknown coefficients
or parameters which have to be estimated from the data. After this
has been done, the next step is to test the validity of the model. Finally,
if the model is sound, the solution to the problem can be obtained from
it.

18 Outline of statistics
 The key point to note in this Chapter is that experimental
uncertainty is present in most practical situations and that there is
nothing abnormal about it. Despite its presence, the study of statistics
enables us to collect, analyse and interpret data in a sensible way.

Additional reading
Many other books provide an introduction to statistical techniques.
The references in the list given below have been selected to provide a
non-technical easy-to-read approach. They motivate the subject,
provide examples where statistics has been used successfully, and also
give examples where statistics has been used in a misleading way. The
book by Darrell Huff is particularly amusing and could profitably be
read by everyone. The book by Peter Sprent explains the key prin­
ciples of Applied Statistics, and would serve as a useful complement
to a more formal text book such as this one. The text book by Andrew
Ehrenberg adopts a refreshing non-technical approach with the
emphasis on improving numeracy.

Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1982), A Primer in Data Reduction, Wiley.

H o p k in s , H. (1973), The Numbers Game, Seeker and AVarburg.
H uff , D . (1973), How to Lie with Statistics, 2nd edn. Penguin B ooks.
R e ic h m a n n , W . J. (1961), Use and Abuse of Statistics, Chapman and Hall: paper­
back edn (19 6 4), Penguin B ooks.
S p r e n t , P. (1977), Statistics in Action, Penguin B ooks.

19 Outline of statistics
 Chapter 2
Simple ways of summarizing
data

2.1 Introduction
The subject ‘Statistics’ is concerned with collecting reliable data and then
analysing and interpreting them. We begin by introducing some simple
methods for summarizing data which are often given the collective title
‘Descriptive Statistics’. They include plotting appropriate graphs and
calculating various summary statistics, possibly using a computer package
such as MINITAB. Note that some supplementary material has been
added in Appendices D .l to D.4 and E.3. The idea is to get a ‘feel’ for
the data and pick out their most important features. The quality of the
data should also be assessed by looking for errors, outliers (see section
11.9), missing observations and other peculiarities. This preliminary
analysis is always advisable before choosing a more advanced statistical
technique, and may prove sufficient anyway.
It may seem strange to consider data analysis before data collection but
it turns out that the topics are easier to learn in this order. Nevertheless,
it is clear that the selected sample must be chosen to be representative of
the population from which it is drawn. Statistics will then enable us to
make deductions about the whole population from the information in the
sample.
The data usually consist of a series of measurements on one or more
quantities of interest, called variates. A discrete variate can only take a
sequence of distinct values which are usually integers. For example, the
number of cosmic particles striking a recorder in one minute may be 0, 1 ,
2, . . . . The number U cannot be observed. On the other hand, a
continuous variate can take any value in a specified interval on a
continuous scale. For example, the thrust of a rocket engine can be any
non-negative number. In practice the recorded values of a continuous
variate will be rounded to a specified number of significant figures and

20 Sinnple ways of summarizing data

 may look discrete, but will still be regarded as continuous when the
underlying variate is continuous.
Categorical data (e.g. see section 7.5) typically consist of the frequen­
cies with which one of a list of categories occurs (e.g. frequencies of
different types of defect). Other valid types of data include rankings and
go/no-go measurements. The appropriate analysis naturally depends on
the type of measurement.

2.2 Graphical methods

It is always a good idea to plot the data in as many different ways as
possible, as much information can often be obtained just by looking
at the resulting graphs. This section considers data for a single vari­
able, while Section 8.1 describes the scatter diagram for displaying
simultaneous observations on two variables. Two new types of graph,
called stem-and-leaf plots and box plots, are introduced in Appendix
D.4.

2.2.1 The bar chart

Given discrete data as in Example 2, Chapter 1, the first step is to find
the frequency with which each value occurs. Then we find, for example,
that ‘zero’ occurs thirteen times but that ‘four’ only occurs once.
Table 1

Number of
cosmic particles Frequency

0 13
I 13
2 8
3 5
4 I

Total 40

The values in the right hand column form a frequency distribution.

This frequency distribution can be plotted as in Figure 2, where the
height of each line is proportional to the frequency with which the
value occurs.
This diagram is called a bar chart (or line graph or frequency diagram)
and makes it easier to see the general pattern of discrete data.

21 Graphical methods
 > i5r

^0h

....... 4 ..............
number of cosmic particles

Figure 2 Bar chart of data of Table 1

2.2.2 The histogram

The histogram is used to display continuous data. Like the bar chart, it
reveals the general pattern of the data as well as any unusual values (or
outliers). It is best illustrated with an example.

Example 1
The heights of 100 students were measured to the nearest inch and
tabulated as follows.

Table 2

Height Number of
(inches) students

60-62 6
63-65 15
66-68 40
69-71 30
72-74 9

Total 100

The data were divided into five groups as shown and the frequencies
with which the different groups occur form a frequency distribution.
The data can be plotted as a histogram in which rectangles are con­
structed with areas proportional to the frequency of each group.

22 Simple ways of summarizing data

 How to draw a histogram
(1) Allocate the observations to between five and twenty class inter­
vals, which should not overlap but yet cover the whole range. In
Example 1, the first class interval chosen is apparently (60-62)
inches, but more strictly is (59.5-62.5) inches.
(2) The class mark is the midpoint of the class interval. All values
within the interval are considered concentrated at the class mark.
(3) Determine the number of observations in each interval.
(4) Construct rectangles with centres at the class marks and areas
proportional to the class frequencies. If all the rectangles have the same
width then the heights are proportional to the class frequencies.
The choice of the class interval and hence the number of intervals
depends on several considerations. If too many intervals are used
then the histogram will oscillate wildly but if too few intervals are
used then important features of the distribution may be overlooked.
This means that some sort of compromise must be made. As the number
of observations is increased the width of the class intervals can be
decreased as there will be more observations in any particular interval.

Example 2
Plot a histogram of the data given in Example 1, Chapter 1. The
smallest thrust observed is 989*4 and the largest 1014*5. The difference
between them is about twenty-five units so that three units is a reason­
able class interval. Then we will have about ten class intervals. Group
the observations into the ten intervals as in Table 3.

23 Graphical methods
 Table 3
Frequency distribution of thrust

Number of
Class interval observations

987-990 2
990-993 1
993-996 3
996-999 5
999-1002 7
1002-1005 6
1005-1008 3
1008-1011 1
1011-1014 1
1014-1017 1

If an observation falls exactly at the division point (for example

990 0) then it is placed in the lower interval. Note that if we take one
unit to be the class interval then there will only be five intervals out of
twenty-eight with more than one observation and this will give a very
flattened histogram, which is very difficult to interpret.

24 Simple ways of summarizing data

 Histogram shapes. The shape of a histogram can be informative. Some
common shapes are illustrated below.

(a)

(b)

'liilL v

Figure 5 Various histograms

(a) symmetric or bell-shaped
(b) skewed to the right or positively skewed
(c) reverse J-shaped
id) skewed to the left or negatively skewed

25 Graphical methods
 Frequency curve. Where there are a large number of observations
the histogram may be replaced with a smooth curve drawn through
the midpoints of the tops of each box. Such a curve is called a frequency
curve.

2.2.3 The cumulative frequency diagram

Another useful way of plotting data is to construct what is called a
cumulative frequency diagram. If the observations are arranged in
ascending order of magnitude, it is possible to find the cumulative
frequency of observations which are less than or equal to any particular
value. It is usually sufficient to calculate these cumulative frequencies at
a set of equally spaced points. The cumulative frequencies are easier to
interpret if they are expressed as relative frequencies, or proportions,
by dividing by the total number of observations. When these values are
plotted, a step function results which increases from zero to one.
Interest in cumulative frequencies arises if, for example, we wanted to
find the proportion of manufactured items which fall below a particular
standard, but note that the diagram is not particularly helpful as an
exploratory tool.

Example 3
Plot the cumulative frequency diagram of the data given in Example 1,
Chapter 1.
Using Table 3 it is easy to calculate the cumulative frequencies at
the divisions between the class intervals.

26 Simple ways of summarizing data

 Table 4

Cumulative Relative
Thrust frequency frequency

987 0 0000
990 2 0-067
993 3 0-100
996 6 0-200
999 11 0-367
1002 18 0-600
1005 24 0-800
1008 27 0-900
1011 28 0-933
1014 29 0-967
1017 30 1-000

The relative frequencies have been plotted in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Cumulative frequency diagram of thrust data

27 Graphical methods
 2.3 Summary statistics
In addition to the graphical techniques, it is useful to calculate
some figures to summarize the data. Any quantity which is calculated
from the data is called a statistic (to be distinguished from the subject
statistics). Thus a statistic is a function of the measurements or observa­
tions.
Most simple statistics can be divided into two types; firstly quantities
which are ‘typical’ of the data and secondly quantities which measure
the variability of the data. The former are usually called measures of
location and the latter are usually called measures of spread.

2.3.1 Measures o f location

There are three commonly used measures of location, of which the
mean is by far the most important.

The mean. Suppose that n measurements have been taken on the variate
under investigation, and these are denoted by Xj, X2, . . . , The
(arithmetic) mean of the observations is given by

Xi + X 2 + . . .-hX,
X = ”= y ^ 2.1
n’

In everyday language we say that x is the average of the observations.

Example 4
Find the average thrust of the rocket engine from the data in Example 1,
Chapter 1.
999* 1 +1003-2+ ... +1000*9
We find X = _

- 1000- 6.

Data are often tabulated as in Tables 1 and 2 and this makes it

somewhat easier to calculate the mean. If the values Xi, X2, . . . , of the
variate occur with frequency/i, / 2, . . . . , /v, then the mean is given by
the equivalent formula

28 Simple ways of summarizing data

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anchor on a boat is to run the line through a pulley at the bow and
fasten the end of it to a cleat, near the seat of the person handling
the craft. Care must be taken, in a canoe or small boat, that sufficient
line is provided to reach the bottom of the anchorage, as otherwise
the craft may be overturned.—Contributed by B. E. Dobree,
Battleford, Sask., Canada.

¶The use of gasoline instead of turpentine for a thinner will prevent

the sagging of colors in striping.
 Oiler for a Hand-Drill Press

On stationary hand-power drill presses, where both hands are

required to turn the crank and hold the work, some means must be
provided for applying lubricant to the drill, or the machine would have
to be stopped from time to time to apply the oil. A very handy
arrangement, for pouring the oil on automatically, is to make a
support of wire to hold an oilcan, as shown. This will provide a slow
and constant dropping of oil on the bit.—Contributed by Bert Verne,
San Diego, Cal.
 Bearing for Playground Swings

To have the playground swing work easily and without friction

make the hangers as shown in the sketch. The ring in the hooks
produces a slight rolling action and gives the swing a free motion.—
Contributed by Edwin J. Bachman, Jr., Fullerton, Pa.
 Die in a Bottle

The die is made of cork and the spots painted white. A small round
bottle is procured, the die is placed in it and the bottle is filled with
water. Be sure to have enough water to prevent any air bubbles
when it is corked tightly. The cork is then sealed in the bottle. If there
is an air bubble, the cork die will not work well.
If the bottle is held bottom up, the cork die will spin around and
float up against the bottom of the bottle where the number of spots
can be seen. It is impossible to manipulate the die to turn up any
desired spots, this being left entirely to chance. A number of bottles
can be prepared so that any of the dice games can be played.—
Contributed by Henry J. Marion, Pontiac, Michigan.
 Small Hook for Hanging a Picture

After an unsuccessful attempt to hang a small picture with a

common pin, I devised the following method: After bending about ³⁄₈
in. of the point on an ordinary pin to an angle of about 45 deg. and
bending up the other end in the opposite direction to form a hook, I
drove the point on a downward slant into the wall. It went in easily
and did not mar the plaster. When making a test I found that the
hook would readily support a weight of several pounds.—Contributed
by C. P. Smith, E. Radford, Va.
 Covering Hinge Wings

In making fancy boxes where ordinary hinges are used, a much

neater job can be done if as much of the hinge as possible is
covered. This can be done by carefully raising a sliver with a sharp
chisel as at A. The wings are bent at an angle, as shown at B, and
are then set in place, as shown at C. The sliver is carefully glued
back in place over the hinge wing, and the surface is leveled with
sandpaper.

¶A bit of rubber insulation stripped from an electric wire makes an

excellent holder for a scarfpin.
 How to Make Hammocks
By CHARLES M. MILLER

PART I—A Twine Hammock

Cordknots
hammocks may be made in two or more different ways, the
being formed by the simple overhand tie, Fig. 1; the flat reef
knot, Fig. 2; the Solomon’s knot, Fig. 3, or by the triple throw-over,
Fig. 4; or they can be knotted by the process known as netting, Fig.
5, in which a special needle, or shuttle, is used.
 When Making a Hammock With the Simple Overhand, Flat Reef, or
Solomon’s Knot, Loop All the Pairs of Cords at the Center about a Rod

In using any one of the first three methods of making the knots it is
necessary to have cords arranged in pairs and long enough to reach
from one end of the hammock to the other, allowing only sufficient
length for the take-up in tying the knots and the spread of the
meshes. The overhand knot is large, and the Solomon’s knot is a
little unwieldy, but is considered more beautiful when tied. The flat
reef knot is small, is easily tied and will not slip. The netting process
has a good knot and has the advantage of a short single cord, as the
meshes are made independently and the cord is carried on the
netting needle.
It is a great advantage, when making a hammock with the simple
overhand, the flat reef, or the Solomon’s knot, to loop all the pairs of
cords at the center about a rod, Fig. 6—which may be any stick such
as an old broom handle—knotting from the center toward each end,
one side being tied, and then the other. When the first pairs are
being tied, the opposite ends should be looped up together out of the
way. Even half the length of a hammock makes a long cord to be
drawn through each time a knot is tied, and each string can be
wound about the fingers into a little bundle and secured with a half
hitch, using the same cord, and left hanging, as shown in Fig. 7,
allowing sufficient cord free to throw large loops in the tying, and to
make about 10 additional meshes. About 3 ft. would be a good
length to be left free.
It will be necessary to have 24 pairs of cords—48 cords in all—
each 18 ft. long to make a hammock by the first two methods of tying
the knots. Seine twine of medium-hard twist and 24-ply can be
obtained from a store carrying sporting goods, and is about the best
material to use for this purpose. When these pairs of cords are
looped on the center rod, and the rod has been anchored to a wall,
as shown in Fig. 8, begin by placing the mesh stick, or rather the
mesh post, Fig. 9, between the first pair of cords, A and B, at the left
end of the center rod, as in Fig. 8 and Fig. 6. The simple device
illustrated in Fig. 9 is very useful for tying any one of the three first-
described knots. The device needs no explanation other than the
illustration. It will be seen that there are two sizes on the top of the
post; the smaller is for the first time across only. The mesh post
should be of convenient height for a person when sitting on an
ordinary chair. One foot rests on the base as the tying proceeds, but
there is no pulling over, as the tie draws both ways on the post, this
also doing away with the pull on the center rod.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
 Fig. 4 Fig. 3
Fig. 5

The Simple Overhand, Flat Reef, Solomon’s Knot, Triple

Throw-Over, and Netting Ties

The cord to the right, B, is taken in the right hand and thrown over
the left cord A, Fig. 8, and is held by the left hand. The left cord A is
then tucked down behind the right, as shown in Fig. 10. If the right
cord goes over in making the first loop, the same cord B must also
go over in the second throw, as in Fig. 11, in order to have a proper
square knot that will not slip. The end of A is then tucked under B, as
shown by the dotted lines. This makes a very serviceable knot for
the hammock, but can be also used for other purposes. The knot is
shown in Fig. 2. Draw it up tightly, very hard, for knotting is not worth
much if it is not tied well.
In case the simple overhand knot is preferred, the mesh post is
placed between the first pair as before, and cords A and B are
brought to the front as in Fig. 12, but are carried parallel into a large
loop that is thrown over as illustrated, then tucked up through as
indicated by the dotted lines. The thumb and first finger of the left
hand now slide up to the point P, while the right hand pulls up the
loop as it nears the finish, the thumb and first finger crowding the
loop down hard against the mesh post. The small part is used for the
first row across. The knot formed is shown in Fig. 1.
 Fig. 6 Fig. 10 Fig. 7
Fig. 9
Fig. 8 Fig. 11

The Mesh Post Has Two Sizes on Its Upper End, the Smaller for Knotting the
First Row of Meshes, and the Other for the Remaining Rows. This Illustration
Also Shows the Manner of Tying the Knots

After tying the first pair of cords using the knot preferred, slip the
first mesh so made off the tying post and place the post between C
and D, which is the next, or second, pair. Tie the second pair and
pass on to the third pair, which is E and F. Continue moving and
tying until all the 24 pairs of cords have been similarly knotted in their
first mesh. The last knotting will be the twenty-fourth pair, which is
represented by the cords marked Y and Z. Instead of tying cords of
the same pairs on the return trip across, one cord Y of the twenty-
fourth pair is tied with one cord X of the twenty-third pair, and the
other cord W of the twenty-third pair is tied with the cord V of the
twenty second pair, and so on across the series.
On the second row of tying, the post is first placed between cords
Y and X and they are knotted together, but instead of tying about the
small part of the post the larger size is used. After cords Y and X
have been tied, cords W and V are combined. It will be seen that this
is tying the pairs together instead of combining the two cords of the
same pair. The third time across the combinations are the same as
in the first row. The large mesh is used on all but the first row. The
alternations of rows is continued until the cords are tied to within 2¹⁄₂
ft. of the end.
 Fig. 12
Fig. 13

Tying the Overhand Knot and How to Run the First and Second Rows Across

Pull out the center rod, insert it in the second row of meshes,
loosen the ends that were looped up and begin the knotting of the
opposite ends of the cords. When both sides are completed to within
2¹⁄₂ ft. of the ends, the center rod is removed and inserted in the last
row of meshes. Another simple device will be found efficient, which
consists of a board, 30 in. long, three or more inches wide and 1 in.
thick, with three nails driven in slanting, as shown in Fig. 14, to
prevent the ring and rod from slipping off as the tying proceeds. One
2¹⁄₂-in. galvanized ring will be required for each end. The ring is
attached to the single nail at the end with a string. This will be found
better than just slipping the ring over the nail, as it is necessary to
have a little more play in putting the cords through for the tying. The
distance from the rod to the ring should be 2 ft. The tie is made in
pairs as before, one cord going under and the other over the side of
the ring, using the flat reef knot. There will be a few inches of ends
remaining after the tie is made and these are brought back to the
main body of the cord and wound with an extra cord used for that
purpose. The winding is started by looping the end of the extra cord,
or string, about the whole bundle of cord together with the ends,
pulling tightly and tying securely with the flat reef knot. This is
illustrated in Fig. 15. The winding should be about 1¹⁄₂ in. long where
the turned-back ends are cut off. Each time the cord is wound about
the bundle it should be looped through its own winding and drawn
tightly. This is practically the buttonhole loop. To finish the winding
the cord should be given a double looping through its own winding;
then with an awl, or other pointed tool, work a way through the under
side of the other windings so that the end may be brought out farther
back and pulled tightly, to prevent unwinding when the pull comes on
the hammock. Attach the ring to the opposite end in the same
manner and the hammock is complete.
 Attaching the Rings to the Ends of the Cords and the Binding near the
Rings: All the Pairs of Cords are Looped about a Rod in the Center, and the
Knots are Made toward the Ends

The edge can be bound the same as a tennis net, or a rope can
be run through the outside meshes lengthwise, as desired. A very
pretty effect can be obtained by knotting, in a similar manner to the
body of the hammock, an apron fringe for the sides.
 Homemade Section Liner
For the rapid and uniform hatching of cross sections this little
device will be found to give results equaling most of the high-priced
instruments that can be purchased. It consists of a hardwood block
used in connection with a 45° triangle. The corners are cut to permit
the triangle to slide the desired distance; then, by alternately sliding
the triangle and block with the left hand, equal spacings can be
drawn without measurements of any kind.
 Block Used in a Triangle to Move It at Equal Distances for Making Section
Lines

Two different spacings may be drawn with one block by reversing

it and two blocks having a different location of the angles will give
four spacings, which is about all the draftsman requires in ordinary
practice. No alteration of the triangle is required with this device, and
it requires but little skill to construct it.—Contributed by J. A. Shelly,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
 Tray Attachment for Developing Films

Roller Attached to Tray for Use in Developing a Full-Length Film

An ordinary tray can be used for film development, when there is

no tank at hand, by the use of the attachment shown in the sketch. It
consists of a strip of sheet metal, or tin, bent to fit under the tray and
up on both sides to provide bearings for a roller. The roller is made of
hard rubber and should be of such size that its lower surface will be
under the developer in the tray. The film is drawn back and forth
under this roller.