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ADVANCED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

Course Code: MPC0O4

Assignment Code: MPC 004/ASST/TMA/2022-23

Marks: 100

NOTE: AH QuesUons Are Compulsory

Section A

Answer the following question in about 1000 words each: Marks

15x3=45

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I. Di�cuss the hi�torical developments of socit1J psychology.
2. Explain the anribution theory and its applicability in education.

50 ts.
3. Discuss the differen1 factor.. Lha1 affect helping behavior.

Section B
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Answer the following questions In about 400 words each: Marks
5x5=25
26 m
4. Discuss lhe experimental design in social psychology.
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5. Explain lhe evolutionary theories or human interpersonal atuaction.

6. Describe intervention to reduce a�ion.
7. Explain lhc ruuurc and characteristics of artitudes.
98 ss

8. Discuss the two dimensional model for conflict resolution.

Section c
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Answer the following In about 50 words each: Marks

10x3=30
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9. Chatac1eris1ics of group.
I0. Measurement of group dynamics.
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11. Schemas
12. Ethjcal issues in Social Psychology
13. Obedience
14. Ahruism
15. Social Learnjng theory
16. Stereocypcs
17. Oven Conflict
18. Group Development

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Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the
Questions given in the Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private
Teacher/Tutors/Authors Meenakshi Sharma for the help and guidance ofthe student to get an idea
of how he/she can answer the Questions given the Assignments. We do not claim 100% accu racy
of these sarnple answers as these are based on the knowledge and capability of Private
Teacher/Tutor Meenakshi Shanna. Sample answers may be seen as the GuidR./Help for the
reference to prepare the answers of the Questions given in the assignment. As these solutions and

in
answers are prepared by the priv ate Teacher/Tutor Meenakshi Sharma so the chances of error

50 ts.
or mistake cannot be denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though every care has
been taken while preparing these Sample Answers/ Solutions. Please consult your own
Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Part;cu lar Answer and for up-to-date and exact
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infomwhon, data and solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material
provided by the university.
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Section A Answer the following question in about 1000 words each: Ma1·ks 15x3=45
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1. Discuss the historical developments of social psychology.

ANS: Social psychology is only a bit older than 100 years, with most of the growth occuning
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dming the past 6 decades. In discussing the hist01y of social psychology, it should be noted that
there are two social psychologies, one in psychology and the other in sociology, with the larger of
the two being the psychological branch. TI1e central focus of psychological social psychology is
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how the individual responds to social stimuli, whereas sociological social psychology focuses on
larger group or societal variables, such as people's socioeconomic status, their social roles, and
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culh1ral norms. Although there have been calls to merge the two branches into a single field-and
even a joint psychology-sociology doctoral program at the University of Michigan from 1946 to
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1967-their different 01ientations make it doubtful that this will transpire in the foreseeable future.
In this historical ove1view, the psychological branch of the discipline will be highlighted.
Dawning of a Scientific Discipline: 1862-1895
Geiman psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, who is widely regarded as the founder of psychology, had
a hand in the early development ofwhat would become social psychology. Beginning in the 1870s,
European and North American scholars and students came to the University of Leipzig to lean
r
about Wundt's research on the components of the conscious mind. Among these visitors were
Emile Dmkheim, Charles Judd, Willy Hellpach, and George Herbe1t Mead, who later developed
some of the theoretical underpinnings of the new discipline of social psychology.

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Early in Wundt's career, he predicted that there would be two branches of psychology:
physiological psychology and social or folk psychology (Volke1psychologie). His reasoning in
dividing psychology into two branches was his belief that the type of individual psychology
studied in the laborat01y by physiological psychologists could not account for the type of higher
mental processes exhibited during social interaction. Although social behavior consists of distinct
individuals, Wundt argued that the product of this social interaction is more than the sum of the
individuals' mental activities. Because of this distinction, Wundt asserted that while physiological
psychology was part of the natural sciences, aligned with biology, social psychology was a social
science, with its parent discipline being philosophy. He further argued that whereas physiological
psychologists should conduct experiments in studying their phenomena, social psychologists
should employ nonexpe1imental methods because such an approach best captured the
complexity of social interaction.
TI1e Early Years: 1895-1935

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An American psychologist at Indiana University, Nmman Tripled;, is credited with conducting
the first empirical social psychological study in 1895. Investigating how a person's performance

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of a task changes when other people are present, Triplett asked children to quickly wind line
on a fishing reel either alone or in the presence of other children perf01ming the same task. As
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predicted, the children wound the line faster when in the presence of other children. Published in
1897, this study fo1mally introduced the expe1imental method into the social sciences.
Despite this accomplishment, Tiiplett did nothing to establish social psychology as a
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distinct subfield of psychology.
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Credit for establishing social psychology as a scientific discipline is traditionally given to the
first authors of textbooks bearing that title, namely, English psychologist William McDougall
and Arne1ican sociologist Edward Ross, who each published separate texts in 1908.
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During the 1920s, one notable indication that social psychology had become a legitimate area of
inquiry within t he larger discipline of psychology was Morton Prince's decision in 1921 to change
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the name of the publication, Journal of Abno1mal Psychology, to that of the Journal of
Abnonnal and Social Psychology and to add Floyd Allport as a cooperating editor. At
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this time, the personality perspectives employed by American psychologists to understand

mental disorders reflected both European psychoanalytic ideas and American fo1mulations
(such as the trait and behavior-ist approaches) that expressly rejected Freud's basic
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assumptions concerning infantile conflicts and unconscious motives. Including social psychology
within this discussion was a public recognition within A merican psychology that a more complete
understanding of human interaction would be achieved by studying both personality and
situational factors. Fmihennore, this alignment of Allport's behaviorist brand of social
psychology with the area of clinical or abnormal psychology was another means of strengthening
the behav-iorist stamp on American psychology.
The Coming of Age: 1936-1945
During the first three decades of the 20th century, Allport's conception of social psychology
emphasized basic research, with little consideration given to addressing specific social problems
or broader issues beaiing on reform. However, by the mid-1930s, the discipline was poised for

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further growth and expansion. The events that had the greatest impact on social psychology at
this critical juncture in its history were the Great Depression in the United States and the social
and political upheavals in Europe generated by World Wars I and II.
Following the stock market crash of 1929, many young psychologists were unable to find or hold
jobs. Expe1iencing firsth and the impact of societal forces, many of them adopted the liberal
ideals of the Roosevelt New Dealers or the more radical left-wing political views of the
socialist and communist parties. h1 1936 these social scientists fo1med an organization
dedicated to the scientific study of irnpmtant social issues and the support for progressive
social action. This organization, the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
(SPSSI), had as members many social psychologists who were interested in applying their
theories and political activism to real-world problems. One of the important contributions of
SPSSI to social psychology was, and continues to be, the infusion of ethics and values into the
discussion of social life. Its immediate impact on social psychology in the 1930s was to infuse a
more applied character to research. New areas of research spawned dming this decade were

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intergroup relations, leadership, propaganda, organizational behavior, voting behavior, and
consumer behavior.

50 ts.
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2. Explain the attribution theory and its applicability in education.

ANS: Attlibution theory (Weiner, 1980, 1992) is probably the most influential themy with
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implications for academic motivation. It emphasises the idea that learners are strongly motivated
by the pleasant outcome of being able to feel good about themselves. It incorporates cognitive
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theory and self-efficacy theory in the sense that it emphasises that learners' current self-perceptions
will strongly influence the ways in which they will interpret the success or failure of their cunent
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eff01ts and hence their future tendency to perform these same behaviours.
According to attribution theo1y, the explanations that people tend to make to explain success or
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failure can be analysed in tenns of three sets of charactelistics:

1) First, the cause of the success or failure may be internal or external. That is, we may succeed or
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fail because of factors that we believe have their origin within us or because of factors that originate
in our environment.
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2) Second, the cause of the success or failure may be either stable or unstable. If the we believe
cause is stable, then the outcome is likely to be the same if we pe1fonn the same behaviour on
another occasion. If it is unstable, the outcome is likely to be different on another occasion.
3) Third, the cause of the success or failure may be either controllable or uncontrollable. A
controllable factor is one which we believe we ourselves can alter if we wish to do so. An
uncontrollable factor is one that we do not believe we can easily alter. An internal factor can be
controllable (we can control our effort by trying harder) or unconhollable (most people cannot
easily change their basic intellectual ability or change from being an introveit to being
an extrove1t). Likewise, an external factor can be controllable (a person failing a difficult course
could succeed by taking an easier course) or unconh·ollable (if calculus is difficult because it is
absh·act, it will still be absh·act no matter what we do).

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An important assumption of attribution theory is that people will interpret their environment in
such a way as to maintain a positive self-image. That is, they will attribute their successes or
failures to factors that will enable them to feel as good as possible about themselves. In general,
this means that when learners succeed at an academic task, they are likely to want to attribute
this
success to their own efforts or abilities; but when they fail, they will want to attribute their failure
to factors over which they have no control, such as bad teaching or bad luck
The basic principle of attribution theory as it applies to m otivation is that a person's own
perceptions or atributions for success or failure detennine the amount of effort the person will
t
expend on that activity in the future.
Social Cognition:
At1:Iibution Theory

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There are four factors related to attribution theory that influence motivation in education: ability,
task difficulty, effo1t, and luck. In terms of the characteristics discussed previously, these four

50 ts.
factors can be analysed in the following way:
Ability is a relatively internal and stable factor over which the learner does not exercise much
direct control.
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Task difficulty is an external and stable factor that is largely beyond the learner's control.
Effort is an internal and unstable factor over which the learner can exercise a great deal of control.
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Luck is an external and unstable factor over which the learner exercises very little control.
It is the learner's perception that determines how attributions will influence future effort. A learner
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may believe that he is a "lucky person" and for him luck would be an internal and stable
characteristic over which he exercises little control. In other words, for this person "luck" is really
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what the preceding list calls an

"ability" or personality characteristic.
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Likewise, a person may believe that she expended a great deal of effmt, when in fact she did not,
or that an objectively easy task was difficult.
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The basic principle of attribution theory as it applies to motivation is that a person's own
perceptions or at1:Iibutions for success or failure dete1mine the amount of effort the person will
expend on that activity in the future.
Students will be most persistent at academic tasks under the following circumstances:
1) If they attribute their academic successes to either (a) internal, unstable, factors over which they
have control (e.g., effort) or (b) internal, stable, factors over which they have little control but
which may sometimes be clisrnpted by other factors (e.g., ability disrnpted by occasional bad luck);
2) If they attiibute their failures to internal, unstable factors over which they have control (e.g.,
effo1t).

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If we want students to persist at academic tasks, we should help them establish a sincere belief that
they are competent and that occasional imperfections or failures are the result of some other factor
(such as bad luck or a lack of sufficient effo1t) that need not be present on foture occasions. (That
is, ability attiibutions for success are likely to be beneficial, with the exception cited in the next
guideline.)
3) It is not beneficial for students to attribute their successes entirnly to ability.
If they think they aheady have all the ability they need, they may feel that additional effort is
superfluous. The ideal attribution for success is, "I succeeded because I am a competent person
and worked hard."
4) When students fail, they are most likely to persist and eventually succeed if they attribute their
failure to a lack of approp1iate eff01t. Therefore, it is extremely imp01tant that when students
perceive themselves as unsuccessful

in
50 ts.
3. Discuss the different factors that affect helping behavior.
ANS: Internal factors are characte1istics within a person that influence their behavior. In prosocial
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behavior when ref ening to internal factors, we are looking into personality traits that either
enhance or inhibit helping.
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While looking into why or why not people help based on inner attributes, altruism and ego centrism
often come up.
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People either help for the benefit of themselves, egocentrism or solely for the benefit of others,
known as altruism.
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External factors are based off of situations therefore behavior depends on the environment around
the individual.
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In tenns of helping behaviors, the situation one is in could definitely influence whether they engage
in helpful behaviors or not.
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What motivates someone to help another? Kassin, Fein, Markus, & Burke (2013), suggested how
evolution impact the likelihood, to why some people help others. Evolutional scientist proposes
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'the Selfish Gene' as an explanation for helping individual that are blood relatives, also called 'kin
selection'(Kassin et al., 2013; Dawkins, 1976). The Selfish Gene is a concept that describes the
process of helping "kin" to be able to pass on their DNA to future generations (Kassin et al, 2013;
Dawkins, 1976). The evolutionaiy method of helping is motivated by the person's will for survival
of self and kin. That being said, people provide favoritism towai·ds members of their ingroups, as
opposed to strangers. Another explanation of the implication of evolution in helping is reciprocal
altiuism as this concept describes how people that give help will later be more likely to receive
help and if they fail to reciprocate, punishments and social exclusion may follow (Buss, 2004).
Next we will consider the motivation of rewards. Specifically, prior to providing assistance, the
potential helpers analyze if rewards outweigh the costs of helping (Kenrick, Newberg, & Cialdini,

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1999). Unconventionally, reward can be characterized by a desire to enhance one's own

emotional state rather than a desire to enhance the welfare of the person in need. For
example, studies suppo1ting the arousal/cost-reward model (Dovidio, Piliavin, Gae1tner,
Schroeder & Clark, 1991) and the negative-state relief model (Cialdini, Schaller, Houlihan,
Arps, Fultz, & Beaman, 1987) insinuate that even seemingly altruistic actions may be motivated
instead by a desire to enhance one's own self-esteem or to gain rewards through helping. To
explain, if costs outweigh the rewards, helping is not likely. However, if rewards aTe greater
than cost, helping is more probable.

Section B Answer the following questions in about 400 words each: Marks 5x5=25
4. Discuss the experimental design in social psychology.
ANS: Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different groups in an

in
experiment. Types of design include repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs
designs.

50 ts.
Probably the commonest way to design an experiment in psychology is to divide the pa1ticipants
into two groups, the experimental group, and the control group. and then introduce a change to the
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experimental group and not the control group.
The researcher must decide how he/she will allocate their sample to the different experimental
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groups. For example, if there are 10 paiticipants, will all 10 participants take part in both groups
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(e.g., repeated measmes) or will the paiticipants be split in half and take part in only one group
each?
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Three types of experimental designs are commonly used:

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1. h1dependent Measures:
Independent measures design, also known as between-groups, is an experimental design where
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different pa1ticipants are used in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each
condition of the experiment includes a different group of paiticipants.
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TI1is should be done by random allocation, which ensures that each paiticipant has an equal chance
of being assi gned to one group or the other.
Independent measures involve using two separate groups of paiticipants; one in each condition.
For example:

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I\'• flle�p

I. 2.
2 hours JK•r nleftt 10 hours JK'I' nll!hl

Group GroupB
(IOs,�n�) ( IO dt.tfercm, SIudents)

o ,· Rcacuon Tun.: Re-action Tim.:

Con: More people are needed than with the repeated measures design (i.e., more time consuming).

in
Pro: Avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as people patiicipate in one condition
only. If a person is involved in several conditions, they may become bored, tired and fed up by

50 ts.
the time they come to the second condition, or becoming wise to the requirements of the
experiment!
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Con: Differences between pa1ticipants in the groups may affect results, for example; variations in
age, gender or social background. These differences are known as paiticipant variables (i.e., a
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type ofextraneous vmiable).
Contrnl: A fter the paiticipants have been recmited, they should be r andomly assigned to their
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groups. This should ensure the groups are similar , on average (reducing paiiicipant variables).
2. Repeated Measures:
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Repeated Measures design is an experin1ental design where the same paiticipants take pait in each
condition of the independent vmiable. This means that each condition of the expe1iment includes
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the same group of participants.

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Repeated Measmes design is also known as within groups, or within-subjects design.

Pro: As the same pa1ticipants are used in each condition, pa1ticipant vai·iables (i.e., individual
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differences) are reduced.

Con: There may be order effects. Order effects refer to the order of the conditions having an effect
on the participants' behavior. Performance in the second condition may be better because the
pa1ticipants know what to do (i.e. practice effect). Or their performance might be worse in the
second condition because they ai·e tired (i.e., fatigue effect). This limitation can be controlled using
counterbalancing.
Pro: Fewer people are needed as they take pait in all conditions (i.e. saves time).
Contro l: To combat order effects the researcher counter balances the order of the conditions for
the patticipants. Alternating the order in which pa1ticipants perfonn in different conditions of an
experiment.

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Counterbalancing
Suppose we used a repeated measures design in which all of the participants first learned words
in 'loud noise' and then learned it in 'no noise_' We would expect the pai1icipants to show
better learning in 'no noise' simply because of order effects, such as practice. However, a
researcher can contrnl for order effects using counterbalancing.
TI1e sample would split into two groups experimental (A) and control (B). For example, group 1
does 'A' then 'B,' group 2 does 'B' then 'A' this is to eliminate order effects. Although order
effects occur for each participant, because they occur equally in both groups, they balance each
other out in the results.

8 8
Count1!rbalanclng

in
50 ts.
Learn words+ k•ud noiseI Learn v..,ords + no noise I
Learn words+ no nol�Q I
80 en Learn words+ loud nois.? I
-
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3. Matched Pairs:
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A matched pairs design is an experimental design where pairs of participants am matched in tenns
of key variables, such as age or socioeconomic status. One member of each pair is then placed into
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the experimental group and the other member into the control group.
One member of each matched pair must be randomly assign ed to the experimental group and the
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other to the control group.

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IV• sk'ep

I. 2.
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2 hours slee11 Ill hours slerp

Group A Group B
(IO�udenb) ( 10 studcnb, rn:11ch._,d fu1
llf:>e, ge11der, nunnul
sleet>tnl!. len!!lh)
o,·
Reaction Tiinc Reacbou Tmie

Con: If one participant drops out you lose 2 PPs' data.

Pro: Reduces participant variables because the researcher has tried to pair up the paiticipants so
that each condition has people with similai· abilities and charncteristics

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Con: Very time-consmning trying to find closely matched pairs.

Pro: Avoids order effects, and so counterbalancing is not necessary.
Con: Impossible to match people exactly, unless identical twins!

Control: Members of each pair should be randomly assigned to conditions. However, this does not
solve all these problems.

5. Explain the evolutionary theories of human interpersonal attraction.

ANS: The evolutionary theory of human interpersonal attraction states that opposite-sex attraction
most often occurs when someone has physical features indicating that he or she is very fe1iile.
Consideling that one primary purpose of conjugal/romantic relationships is reproduction, it would

in
follow that people invest in paitners who appear very fe1tile, increasing the chance of their genes
being passed down to the next generation. This theory has been criticized because it does not

50 ts.
explain relationships between same-sex couples or couples who do not want children, although
this may have something to do with the fact that whether one wants children or not one is still
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subject to the evolutiona1y forces which produce them.
Another evolutiona1y explanation suggests that fertility in a mate is of greater importance to men
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than to women. According to this theo1y. a woman places significant emphasis on a man's ability
to provide resources and protection. The themy suggests that these resources and protection are
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impo1tant in ensming the successful raising of the woman's offspring. The ability to provide
resources and protection might also be sought because the underlying traits are likely to be passed
on to male offsp1ing. C1itics of this theory point out that most genes are autosomal and non-sex­
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linked (Gould, et al.)

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Evolutiona1y theory also suggests that people whose physical features suggest they are healthy are
seen as more attractive. The theory suggests that a healthy mate is more likely to possess genetic
traits related to health that would be passed on to offspring. People's tendency to consider people
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with facial symmetry more attractive than those with less symmetrical faces is one example.
However, a test was conducted that found that perfectly symmetrical faces were less attractive than
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nonnal faces. According to this study, the exact ratio of symmetric to asymmetric facial featmes
depicting the highest attraction is still undetermined.
It has also been suggested that people are attracted to faces similar to their own. Case studies have
revealed that when a photograph of a woman was superimposed to include the features of a
man's face, the man whose face was superimposed almost always rated that picture the most
attractive. This theory is based upon the notion that we want to replicate om own features in the
next generation, as we have survived thus fm with such features and have instinctive smvival
wishes for our children. Another (non-evolutionary) explanation given for the results of that study
was that the man whose face was supe1imposed may have consciously or subconsciously
associated the photographically altered female face with the face of his mother or other family
member.

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6. Describe intervention to reduce aggression.

ANS: Aggressive behavior is a common problem for many children with autism spectrnm
disorders (ASD). When a child engages in aggression towards others, there may be a need to
create a more restrictive learning environment. Aggression serves as a b arrier to the child's
ability to learn and sometimes, it may create an unsafe environment for adults attempting to
teach the child. Additionally, it limits opportunities for the child to f01m meaingful social
relationships with both
n
adults and peers.
Neutral redi rection is the most common response to aggressive behavior. Neutral redirection
consists of stopping the child from engaging in the aggr essive behavior and guiding him to perfonn
a functionally-approp1iate behavior (for example, a child who hits others as a means to gain
attention may be neutrally redirected to appropriately tap another's shoulder and say "excuse me"

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instead of hitting).

50 ts.
A common form of aggression displayed by children with autism is hitting. Hitting can range from
slapping with an open hand to punching with a closed fist with extreme force, thereby causing
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injury ranging in degrees of severity (i.e. bruising, broken skin, frachied or broken bones, or
J
concussions).
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To effectively, neutrally redirect hitting behavior, the adult will prevent the child from making
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contact with her body by moving out of the child's range of motion. When moving away from the
child is not possible, the adult may need to protect the vulnerable paiis of her body with her own
hands or arms. After the adult has successfully avoided injury and the child has stopped aggressing,
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she will then guide him to engage in an approp1iate task. Again, it is very important that the adult
not react to the child with exaggerated body movement or with a change in facial expression.
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If the adult knows of sihiations in which the child is most likely to hit her, it is importai1t for her
to be prepared for this possibility. Arranging the enviromnent so that the child has fewer
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opportunities to hit is advisable; strategies include staying within an arm's length of him, keeping
him seated at a table for instrnction, teaching from across the table outside his range of motion,
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r
and teaching fom a standing position while he is seated. These techniques provide an adult the
safest manner to avoid injury from hitting behavior without needing to physically intervene.

7. Explain the nature and characteristics of attitudes.

ANS: An attihide is a tendency to react positively or negatively in regard to an object. For example,
a person who has a positive attitude towai·ds the religion is likely to enjoy going to worship
se1vices, believe that the religious instirutions foster morality and may, therefore, contribute
financially also. An attirude is always directed toward some object, such as the temple, school, etc.
A person who has an attitude has a readiness or a disposition to react favorable or unfavorably to
anyone ofa large variety of related situations. Until some situation arouses it, however, the attitude
is latent.

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Attitude can be characte1ized by :

Valence: It refers to the magnitude or degree of favorableness or unfavorableness toward the
object/event. If a person is relatively indifferent toward an object then his attitude has low valence.
Multiplicity: It refers to the number of elements constituting the attitude. For example, one
student may show interest in studies, but another not only shows interest, but also works hard, is
sincere, and serious.
Relation to Needs: Attitudes vary in relation to needs they serve. For example, attitudes of an
individual toward the pictures may serve only entertainment needs. On the other hand, attitudes
of an employee toward task may serve strong needs for security, achievement, recognition,
and satisfaction.
Types of Attitudes
A person can have thousands of attitudes, but OB focuses the attention only a very limited number
of job related attitudes. The following are some types of attitudes:

in
Job Satisfaction: It refers to an individual's general attitude toward his or her job. A person with

50 ts.
a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes towards the job, while a person who is
not satisfied holds a negative attitude about the job.
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Job Involvement: It measures the degree to which a person identifies pschologically with his or
her job and considers his or her perceived pe1fom1ance level impo1tant to his or her self w01th.
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Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the
kind of work they do on their job.
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Organizational Commitment: It is defined as a state in which an employee identifies with a

pa1ticular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. So
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high job involvement means identifying with one's specific job, while high organizational
commitment means identifying with one's employing organization.
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8. Discuss the two dimensional model for conflict resolution.

no
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ANS:

Assertive
Collaborating
J'

Cornpro islng

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Avoiding Accomodating

50 ts.
Pas.s,ve

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Ut'lcooper.itlve ...,...:_-------------:-----Coope.tattve-
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The two-dimensional model of conflict handling behaviour
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The conflicting interests of parties to a negotiation can be presented in a two-din1ensio nal

framework, known as a dual-concern model. The model provides a negotiators concerns for
personal outcomes and the outcomes of others independently. The dual concern model of conflict
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resolution is a conceptual perspective that assumes individuals' prefen-ed method of dealing with
conflict is based on two underlying themes
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Section C Answer the following in about 50 words each: Marks 10x3=30

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9. Characteristics of group.
ANS: Size: To fo1m a group, it must be having at least hvo members. Practically, the number of
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group members ranges from 15 to 20. The more the members in the group, the more complex it is
to manage.
Goals: Every group has ce1tain goals, that are the reasons for its existence.
Nmms: A group has certain rnles, for interacting with the group members.
Structure: It has a structure, based on the roles and positions held by the members.
Roles: Every member of a group has ce1tain roles and responsibilities, which are assigned, by the
group leader.
Interaction: The interaction between the group members can occur in several ways, i.e. face to
face, telephonic, in writing or in any other manner.

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Collective Identity: A group is an aggregation of individuals, which aJe separntely

called as members, and collectively called as a group.
Fmthe1more, a group climate is an emotional setting of the group, that relies on pat1icipative spirit,
coordination, t:J.ust and bonding among the members, open communication ai1d other similar
factors.

10. Measurement of group dynamics.

ANS: The GDI measures group dynamics for each item following a Like1t-type scale ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The higher scores indicate a higher level of
group dynamics. In other words, a mean score of three in the altruism subscale indicates the
existence of more altrnism than a mean score of two.
11. Schemas

in
ANS: A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret infonnation.
Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of

50 ts.
information that is available in our environment.
However, these mental :frameworks also cause us to exclude pe11inent infonnation to focus
80 en
instead only on things that confinn our pre-existing beliefs and ideas. Schemas can
contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new infonnation that does not confonn to
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our established ideas about the world.
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12. Ethical issues in Social Psychology

98 ss

ANS: Ethical issues arise when there is a conflict between different sets of values that relate to
psychological reseai·ch. For example, on the one hand we may believe that we should be honest to
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people because to lie to them demeans them. On the other hand, we know that a person's beliefs
about the situation they are in affect their behaviour in that situation. Consequently we may think
it necessary to deceive people about the hue nature of the situations in which we study them.
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Clearly there is a conflict between the need to be honest and the need to deceive and that is why
there is an issue to be resolved.
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13. Obedience
ANS: Obedience is a form of social influence that involves performing an action under the orders
of an auth01ity figure. It differs from compliance (which involves changing your behavior at the
request of another person) and confo1mity (which involves altering your behavior in order to go
along with the rest of the group).
Instead, obedience involves altering your behavior because a figure of authority has told you to.

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14. Altruism
ANS: Altruism is the unselfish concern for other people-doing things simply out of a desire to
help, not because you feel obligated to out of duty , loyalty, or religious reasons It involves
acting out of concern for the well-being of other people.
In some cases, these acts of altruism lead people to jeopm·dize themselves to help others. Such
behaviors are often perfonned unselfishly and without any expectations of reward. Other
instances, known as reciprocal altrnism, involve taking actions to help others with the
expectation that they will offer help in return.

15. Social Learning theory

ANS: TI1e basis of social learning theory is simple: People learn by watching other people. We
can learn from anyone-teachers, parents, siblings, peers, co-workers, YouTube

in
influencers, athletes, and even celeb1ities. We observe their behavior and we mimic that

50 ts.
behavior. In sho1t, we do what they do. This theory is also known as social cognitive theory.
16. Stereotypes
80 en
ANS: Stereotypes are characteristics imposed upon groups of people because of their race,
nationality, and sexual 01ientation. These characteristics tend to be oversimplifications of the
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groups involved and, even if they seem "positive," stereotypes are harmful. While stereotypes may
refer to a specific gender, race, religion, or countly, often they link various aspects of identity
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together. This is known as intersectionality. A stereotype about Black gaymen, for example,
would involve race, gender, and sexual orientation. Although such a stereotype targets a specific
group rather than Black people as a whole, it's still problematic to insinuate that Black gay men
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are all the same. Too many other factors make up any one person's identity to ascribe a fixed
list of characteristics to him.
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17. Overt Conflict

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ANS: The te1m 'ove1t' means visible or apparent. The te1m 'covert' means hidden or
concealed. Ove1t behaviors can be observed. ... Oveit behaviors are in the fmm of actions
or verbal expressions. Cove1t conflict occurs when people have differences yet do not discuss
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them
openly.... Ove1t conflict occurs when people openly disagree and choose to confront (address) an
issue with the other person. This occurs as a result of different perspectives, expectations, beliefs,
values, and sometimes just info1mation.
18. Group Development
ANS: The stages of group development in organizational behavior and management are a theo1y
of team development - a group-forming model that consists of 5 distinct stages.
According to this stages of group development model, each group or team is likely to go through
the following com1ected S stages dming their joint work:

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1.The F01ming Stage - mainly characterized by team orientation.

2. The Stonning Stage - mainly characterized by a power strnggle.

3. The N01ming Stage - mainly characte1ized by cooperation, integration, and unity.

4. The Pe1f01ming Stage - mainly characte1ized by overall synergy.

in
50 ts.
5. The Adjourning Stage - mainly characte1ized by a sense of closure.

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Norming
98 ss
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Storming
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Time
Image 1: Stages of
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group development diagram

Now, these 5 stages are vital to help you anticipate your team effectiveness, i.e. your ability to be
efficient and productive with your work, both as individuals and as a group.

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