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Full Chapter Sociology 7Th Edition John Farley Michael Flota PDF
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Sociology
This best-selling textbook returns for a seventh edition with material on the most fundamental and
fascinating issues in sociology today. The authors continue their tradition of focusing on the big
picture, with an emphasis on race, class, and gender in every chapter. The text continues to frame
sociological debates around the major theoretical perspectives of sociology and focus on capturing
students’ imaginations with cutting-edge research and real-world events. The hallmark of the book
continues to be clear writing that helps students understand the intricacies of the discipline like no
other textbook on the market.
• Expanded focus on new social movements such as Black Lives Matter, Occupy Wall Street,
and the Tea Party.
• Updates on both the 2012 and 2016 elections.
• New discussions of Donald Trump and the immigration debate; causes and consequences.
• New discussions of “patriot” movements, racism, and the reaction to the first African Ameri-
can president.
• Expanded coverage of sexual orientation and LGBT issues.
• Updates on gay rights and the historic legalization of same-sex marriage.
• New sections on cyber life discussion issues such as cyber bullying and public shaming;
WikiLeaks, Edward Snowden, and NSA spying; sexting and youth culture; the Arab Spring;
and social media activism.
• New coverage of the so-called “he-cession” and the rise of women managers (whom employers
still see as risky but, increasingly, as highly talented).
• Updates on health-care reform, five years on and the efforts to repeal and replace “Obamacare”
• Expanded coverage of mass shootings and the corresponding policy debates.
• Expanded coverage and new focus on police-involved shootings and gun control in the “Devi-
ance, Crime, and Social Control” chapter.
• New discussions of the sociology of finance, including the role of financial derivatives in the
2008 global financial crisis.
• New photos and updated figures and tables throughout the text.
Michael W. Flota is Professor and Chair of the School of Behavioral and Social Sciences at Daytona
State College, Florida.
Sociology
Seventh Edition
John E. Farley
and
Michael W. Flota
Seventh edition published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of John E. Farley and Michael W. Flota to be identified as authors of
this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
First edition published 1990 by Prentice Hall
Sixth edition published 2012 by Paradigm Publishers
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-1-138-69469-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-69468-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-52761-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Berkeley
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
vi
Contents
Part I Introduction
Chapter 1
Sociology: The Discipline 3
What Is Sociology? 4
Characteristics of Sociology 4
Sociology and Common Sense 5
Sociology as a Science 6
Science as a Way of Thinking 6
The Norms of Science 7
Sociology as a Social Science 7
Can Human Behavior Be Studied Scientifically? 7
An Analogy: Meteorology 8
Complications in the Study of Human Behavior 9
The Sociological Imagination 11
Sociology and the Other Social Sciences 13
Sociology 13
The Other Social Sciences 13
The Emergence and Development of Sociology 14
The Nineteenth Century 14
Early Sociologists 16
The Development of Sociology in the United States 18
The Chicago School 18
Symbolic-Interactionism 19
1940–1960: A Turn from Activism 19
The 1960s: Return to Activism 20
The 1970s into the New Millennium: Diversity in Sociological Perspectives 20
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 2
How Sociology Is Done 27
Social Theory and Research 29
Cause and Effect 29
Theory and Values 29
Theories Versus Values: Why Does It Matter? 30
The Relationship Between Theory and Research 30
Using and Measuring Variables 33
Independent Variables 34
Dependent Variables 34
Operational Definitions 34
Validity and Reliability 34
Correlation 35
Control Variables 35
Key Research Methods in Sociology 36
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods 37
Experiments 39
Experimental and Control Groups 39
Field Experiments 40
Survey Research 41
Questionnaires 41
Telephone Interviews 41
Personal Interviews 42
Survey Questions 42
Sampling 43
Field Observation 43
Field Observation and Theory Generation 44
Participant Observation 44
Unobtrusive Observation 47
Use of Existing Data Sources 47
Data Archives 47
The U.S. Census 48
Content Analysis 48
Reading Tables 48
Summary 50
Key Terms 50
Exercises 51
Contents ix
Chapter 4
Culture and Social Structure 81
Society, Culture, and Social Structure 82
What Is Culture? 82
Shared Truths: Knowledge, Language, and Beliefs 83
Shared Values 86
Ideology 86
Social Norms 87
What Is Social Structure? 88
Social Status 88
Roles 89
Division of Labor 90
x Contents
Stratification 90
Relationships Between Roles and Statuses 91
Institutions 91
Perspectives on Culture and Social Structure 93
The Functionalist Perspective: Adaptation of Culture and Social
Structure to the Environment 93
Cultural and Structural Variation: Do Cultural or Structural Universals Exist? 94
Universal Social Tasks 95
The Conflict Perspective and Culture 97
Incompatibilities Between Culture and Social Structure 100
Sewell’s Duality of Structure Theory 101
Culture Against Structure: The Functionalist Perspective 101
Subcultures in Mass Society 102
Culture Against Structure: The Conflict Perspective 106
PUTTING SOCIOLOGY TO WORK 109
Multiculturalism: A Pathway to Cooperation in a Diverse Society? 109
American Culture 111
Core American Values and Beliefs 111
Ideal Versus Real Culture 111
Recent Changes in American Values and Beliefs 112
Summary 121
Key Terms 121
Exercises 122
Chapter 5
Socialization 123
Becoming “Human” Through Socialization 125
Learning About Norms and Social Roles 125
Theories of Socialization and Development 125
Nature Versus Nurture 125
Interactionist Theories of Socialization: Mead and Cooley 127
Theories About Social Expectations and Personal Dilemmas: Freud and Erikson 130
Cognitive Development Theories of Socialization: Piaget and Kohlberg 131
Overview of Theories of Socialization 137
Agents of Socialization 137
The Family 138
Schools 139
Religion 139
Peers 140
The Media 140
How Socialization Works 142
Conflicting Messages 143
Socialization in Adulthood 145
Life Cycle Roles 145
Role Change, Adult Socialization, and Stress 146
Resocialization in Total Institutions 147
Contents xi
Summary 190
Key Terms 193
Exercises 193
Chapter 7
Race and Ethnic Relations 195
Racial and Ethnic Groups: What Is the Difference? 196
Majority and Minority Groups 197
Racism 197
Ideological Racism 198
Racial and Ethnic Prejudice 198
Individual Discrimination 199
Institutional Discrimination 199
Theories About the Causes of Racial and Ethnic Inequality 200
Social-Psychological Theories of Race Relations 200
The Relationship Between Prejudice and Discrimination 201
Social-Structural Theories of Race Relations 203
Racial and Ethnic Relations: An International Perspective 208
Ethnic Inequality and Conflict: How Universal? 208
Racial Caste in South Africa and the United States 208
Racial Assimilation in Latin America 210
Racial and Ethnic Groups in the United States 211
Minority Groups: African Americans, Hispanic Americans,
and Native Americans 211
Economic Exploitation and the Origins of Intergroup Inequality 213
Segregation and Attacks on Culture 214
The Status of Minority Groups Today 215
Intermediate Status Groups: Asian Americans, Jewish and
Muslim Americans, and “White Ethnics” 219
The Majority Group 224
Current Issues in U.S. Race Relations 224
The Significance of Race Versus Class 225
PUTTING SOCIOLOGY TO WORK 230
The Affirmative Action Debate 230
Is Affirmative Action Reverse Discrimination? 230
Is the System Fair Without Affirmative Action? 231
How Effective Is Affirmative Action? 232
The Legal and Political Status of Affirmative Action 233
Summary 235
Key Terms 235
Exercises 236
Chapter 8
Sex, Gender, and Society 237
What Are Sex and Gender Roles? 238
Sex and Gender Roles 238
Sexism 239
Contents xiii
Chapter 9
Groups, Organizations, and the Workplace 285
Groups and Organizations: What Is the Difference? 286
Group Characteristics and Dynamics 287
Group Size 287
Primary and Secondary Groups 288
Conformity Within Groups 288
xiv Contents
Chapter 10
Deviance, Crime, and Social Control 321
How Sociologists View Deviance 323
The Sociology of Rule Making 323
Social Control 326
PUTTING SOCIOLOGY TO WORK 327
Does Capital Punishment Deter Murder? 327
Crime 329
Street Crime 329
Victimless Crime 332
Legalization or Decriminalization of Drugs: Pros and Cons 333
White-Collar and Corporate Crime 335
Organized Crime 337
Political Crime 338
Contents xv
Chapter 12
Politics, Power, and Society 409
Power in Modern Societies 410
Legitimate Power and Authority 410
Other Sources of Power 411
Wealth, Income, and Power 411
Who Has Power in America Today? 412
Measuring Power 412
The Distribution of Power in the United States 413
Three Key Interest Group Coalitions 413
Who Governs? 414
Who Benefits? 415
Who Wins? 415
Overview 416
The State 418
Types of Systems 421
PUTTING SOCIOLOGY TO WORK 422
Welfare Reform: An Effective Tool Against Poverty? 422
Welfare Around the World 425
Liberal Welfare States: The United States, Canada, the United Kingdom 425
Corporatist-Statist Welfare States 426
Social Democratic Welfare States 426
Evaluating the Welfare States 426
Political Ideology 427
Political Parties and Special Interest Groups 429
Lobbyists and Special Interest Groups 430
Voting Patterns of the Major Social Groups 430
The Apathetic Voter 432
Contents xvii
Chapter 13
Marriages and Families 451
Family and Marriage Defined 452
Extended and Nuclear Families 454
Family Memberships 455
Marriage Patterns 455
Mate Selection 456
Romantic Love and Mate Selection 457
Patterns Within Marriages 460
Power and Authority in Marriages 460
Residency Patterns 461
Inheritance and Descent Patterns 464
Functions of Families 464
Changing Functions 464
The Family as a Regulator of Sexual Behavior 466
A Conflict Analysis of the Family 468
Role Inequality Within the Family 468
Violence in the Family and in Courtship 469
The Family in the Larger Social Structure 471
Changing Patterns of Marriages and Families 471
Changing Roles Within Marriages 471
Delayed Marriage and Permanent Singlehood 473
Cohabitation 474
Gay and Lesbian Couples 474
Fewer Children, No Children 477
Marital Disruption and Divorce 478
Divorce in the United States 478
Causes of Divorce 480
Changing Divorce Laws 481
PUTTING SOCIOLOGY TO WORK 483
Should Couples Stay Together “for the Sake of the Kids”? 483
xviii Contents
Remarriage 484
Single-Parent Families 485
Race, Poverty, and the One-Parent Family 486
The Future of Marriages and Families 490
Summary 490
Key Terms 491
Exercises 491
Web-Based Chapter A
Available at www.routledge.com/9781138694682.
Education
Education as a Social Institution
The Origins of Mass Education
Mass Education in the United States
A Global Perspective on Mass Education
The Functionalist Perspective on Education
Manifest Functions of Education
Latent Functions of Education
Race, Class, and Education: Equal Opportunity or Inequality?
Compensatory Education
Desegregation Through Busing
PUTTING SOCIOLOGY TO WORK
Does Busing Improve Minority Student Learning?
The Conflict Perspective on Education
Schools and Unequal Mobility
Unequal Funding of Schools
Symbolic-Interaction and Educational Inequality
The Effect of Teacher Expectations
Factors Affecting Teacher Expectations
Teacher Expectations: The Schoolwide Level
Tracking and Ability Grouping
Testing
The Hidden Curriculum: A Conflict Analysis
Social Class and School Orientation
Schooling and Job Status
Higher Education
Community Colleges
Recent Trends in Access to College
Higher Education for Students of Color
Does College Pay?
Is the Quality of American Education Declining?
Have Educational Changes Reduced Achievement?
Contents xix
Web-Based Chapter B
Available at www.routledge.com/9781138694682.
Religion
What Is Religion?
Forms of Religion
Religion and Society
Religion: The Sociological Perspective
A Functionalist Analysis of Religion
Dysfunctions of Religion
A Conflict Analysis of Religion
Major World Religions
Monotheism, Polytheism, and Sacred Philosophies
History, Beliefs, and Practices of the Major Religions
Religion in the United States and the World
Types of Organized Religion
Religion and the Economy: Weber and the Protestant Ethic
Church and State in America
Civil Religion
Religion and Politics in America
Fundamentalism and the New Religious Right
Religion and Politics: The Current Scene
Two Opposing Trends: Secularization and Fundamentalist Revival
A Trend Toward Secularization?
Fundamentalist Revival?
Why Secularization and Revival?
Web-Based Chapter C
Available at www.routledge.com/9781138694682.
Health, Population, and Aging
Health and Society: A Functionalist View
The Sick Role
Criticisms of the Sick Role
The Health Benefits of Modernization
Health and Society: A Conflict View
Power, Environmental Quality, and Health
Modernization and Health: The Epidemiology of Cancer
Social Inequality and Health
Health and Society: An Interactionist View
The Meaning of Health, Sickness, and Illness
Gender and Health
Personal Outlook and Health
Mental Health
Changing Views of Mental Disorders
xx Contents
Chapter 15
Social Movements and Change 541
Social Movements 542
Types of Social Movements 545
The Causes of Social Movements 547
Necessary Conditions for Social Movements 549
Social Change 556
What Is Social Change? 557
Theories of Social Change 558
Equilibrium (Functionalist) Versus Conflict Theories of Social Change 558
Evolutionary Versus Cyclical Changes 559
Modernization: Escalating Social Change 560
Consequences of Rapid Social Change 561
New Directions in the Study of Social Change 564
Summary 565
Key Terms 566
Exercises 566
Web-Based References
Available at www.routledge.com/9781138694682.
Glossary 569
Index 581
Figures
Chapter 2
2.1 The Cycle of Scientific Inquiry 31
Chapter 4
4.1 Achieved and Ascribed Statuses 89
4.2 The Relationship Between Economic Structure and Ideational
Superstructure (Ideology) in Marxian Theory 98
Chapter 6
6.1 Share of Income Going to Highest 5% and Lowest 20%, United
States: 1967–2014 159
6.2 Median Household Net Worth by Race and Hispanic Origin: 2013 161
6.3 Median Household Net Worth, Excluding Equity in Own Home,
by Race and Hispanic Origin: 2013 162
6.4 Number in Poverty and Poverty Rate: 1959–2014 176
6.5 Poverty Rates by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1974–2014 178
6.6 Work Status of Poor People Age 16 and Over: 2014 179
Chapter 7
7.1 U.S. Hispanic Population 212
7.2 SPLC Chart: Hate Groups: 1999–2015 222
7.3 SPLC Chart: Patriot Groups—Militia Groups and Total Count: 1996–2015 223
Chapter 8
8.1 Labor Force Participation Rates of Men and Women in the United
States: 1948–2016 243
8.2a Percentage of Women Among U.S. Senators and
Representatives: 1980–2017 252
8.2b Percentage of Women Among Statewide Office Holders and State
Legislators: 1980–2017 253
8.3 Median Women’s Income as a Percentage of Median Men’s Income,
Year-Round Full-Time Workers: 1970–2014 257
8.4 Percentage of Women Among Degree Recipients, Selected
Professions: 1949–2012 278
Chapter 9
9.1 The Continuum from Primary to Secondary Groups 289
9.2 An Example of the Cards Used in Solomon Asch’s Experiment 290
xxiii
xxiv Figures
Chapter 10
10.1 Number of Mass Shootings in the United States by Year: 1966–June 2015 330
10.2 Number of Victims of U.S. Mass Shootings: 1966–2015 331
Chapter 11
11.1 Stages of Economic Evolution, According to Karl Marx 377
11.2 How Capital Markets Work 394
Chapter 12
12.1 Hillary Clinton won the 2016 popular vote by 2.8 million votes, but close
wins in several usually Democratic Rust Belt states enabled Donald Trump
to win the electoral vote and thus be elected President 428
Chapter 13
13.1 Percentage of Households by Type: Selected Years: 1970–2000 453
13.2 Median Age at First Marriage by Sex: 1890 to 2010 473
13.3 U.S. Divorce Rates: 1960–2014 479
13.4 Proportion of Married Couple, Female-Householder, and Male-Householder
Families: 2014 486
Web-Based Chapter A
A.1 Percentage of U.S. Population Ages 25 and over Who Have Completed
High School and College: 1940–2015
A.2 Median Earnings of Year-Round, Full-Time Workers, by Sex and
Educational Level: 2014
Web-Based Chapter B
B.1 Religious Preferences in the United States: 2015
B.2 The Continuum from Sect to Church
B.3 Self-Reported Church Attendance of Catholics and Protestants in the
Past Week, 1955–2005
Web-Based Chapter C
C.1 World Population Growth: 7000 B.C.E. to C.E. 2000
C.2 The Demographic Transition
C.3 Life Expectancy by Race and Sex, United States: 1900–2014
C.4 U.S. Total Fertility Rate: 1911–2011
C.5 Age-Sex Pyramids
C.6 Population by Age and Sex, Germany and Indonesia: 2015
C.7 Social Security (OASI + DI) and Medicare (HI + SMI) Costs as a
Percentage of GDP: Historical 1970–2015 and Projected 2015–2090
Chapter 14
14.1 Generalizations of Internal Structures of Cities 524
14.2 Racial Composition of Census Tracts, St. Louis Metropolitan Area: 2000 526
Chapter 15
15.1 A Trend with Embedded Cycles 559
Photographs
Chapter 1
1.1 Immigration and conflict over it continue to be a subject of interest to
sociologists. Opposition to immigration played a role in the election of
President Donald Trump. 5
1.2 Karl Marx 16
1.3 Max Weber 17
1.4 Émile Durkheim 17
1.5 Jane Addams pioneered the collection and mapping of data for cities and urban
neighborhoods. 19
1.6 Events such as the Challenger space shuttle disaster cannot be fully understood
by looking only at technological factors. Social and organizational processes
often play a role in such disasters. 25
Chapter 2
2.1 An interviewer conducts a personal interview survey. Surveys are one of the
most widely used research methods in sociology. 42
2.2 In unobtrusive observation, the researcher observes human behavior from a
position that is out of sight or relatively unnoticeable. 47
2.3 When people take action such as participating in a demonstration, they are
expressing value judgments—views about how things ought to be. 50
Chapter 3
3.1 NFL quarterback Colin Kaepernick kneels during the national anthem. Unlike
previous similar incidents, no action against him was taken by the league or his
team. What accounts for this change? 56
3.2 The largely destroyed city of Idlib in Syria. When a society loses any sense of
consensus, it may cease to function as a society and descend into chaos or civil war. 60
3.3 The concept of the looking-glass self points out that we use messages from
others like a mirror, to form an image of ourselves. 71
3.4 Small groups, such as students working on a project, can be good places to
view the processes of presentation of self and impression management. 72
3.5 As long as both partners’ needs are being met, it doesn’t matter who takes care
of the house and who goes to the office. However, if a point is reached where
either partner’s needs are not being met, the marriage could be in trouble. 78
Chapter 4
4.1 Language both reflects and influences culture. In the past, this sign might have
said “Flagman Ahead”—but through the use of graphics, as on this sign, signs
can be gender-neutral and understandable in any language. 84
xxv
xxvi Photographs
Chapter 5
5.1 A child has reached the game stage when he or she can interact with roles
rather than merely with individuals. 129
5.2 It is much more common today than in the past for both parents in two-parent
families to work full-time. 130
5.3 At the sensorimotor stage, children develop a physical understanding of the
environment, as shown by this child’s examination of and experimentation
with a toy cell phone. 133
5.4 Stage 6 moral reasoning is most often found in people with formal training in
philosophy, such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. 135
5.5 Going to school or nursery school may be a difficult transition for some
children, because it is their first experience interacting with equals rather than
authority figures. 139
5.6 It matters little where this college campus is located. It is evident that a
nationwide informal dress code for college students prevails. Is this a peer-
group norm, something created by the media or by marketing, or by both? 145
Chapter 6
6.1 Global inequality—the gap between rich (top) and poor (bottom) worldwide—
is by many measures today the greatest in the history of the world. 156
6.2 Larry Ellison (top) and a poor family (below) illustrate the extremes of
economic inequality in the United States. It would take the annual incomes of
twenty-three families living at the poverty level to add up to what Mr. Ellison
received every day in 2009. 156
6.3 Heat, cold, fires, and vermin are among the risks faced by poor families that
live in housing like this home in New Mexico. 162
6.4 Managers, professionals, and small business owners do not fit neatly into
Marx’s classification of social classes. In some ways they resemble the
bourgeoisie, but in others, the proletariat. 169
Chapter 7
7.1 Scottish Highlander wearing a kilt and playing bagpipes. If it were not for his
dress, could you identify the ethnic group of this person? 197
Photographs xxvii
7.2 Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders won a number of primaries and caucuses
in the 2016 campaign, making him the first Jewish American to ever win a
presidential primary. 221
7.3 Through much of the twentieth century, whites used a variety of techniques
to exclude racial and ethnic minorities from the neighborhoods where they
lived. Some such techniques, such as restrictive covenants, were at one time
supported by federal policy and backed by the courts. 224
7.4 Unarmed persons shot and killed by police are very disproportionately African
American. This disparity, along with several incidents that dramatized it, gave
rise to a powerful Black Lives Matter social movement. 229
Chapter 8
8.1 By the age of five, boys and girls play with different toys and can identify
different occupations as “men’s jobs” or “women’s jobs.” 245
8.2 While the gender gap has narrowed compared to the past, women still spend
more time on household work than men. When both partners work full-time,
the result is that men have more leisure time than women. 258
8.3 Occupations dominated by one sex, such as STEM occupations dominated by
males, can often be difficult for the other sex to flourish in. Women in STEM
occupations, for example, have encountered considerable resistance. 262
8.4 The popular news anchor Megyn Kelly was among a number of women who
experienced sexual harassment at Fox News. Harassment had been occurring
there for several decades, but most of the women who were victimized were
reluctant to report it until another news anchor, Gretchen Carlson, went public
with her experiences in 2016. 264
Chapter 9
9.1 Donald Trump was uninterested in the details of policy but inspired his
supporters, while Hillary Clinton demonstrated impressive levels of expertise
and experience but was personally disliked by large numbers of the public. 296
9.2 The presence of a leader is characteristic of all organizations. Even
organizations that try to be leaderless usually end up with leaders. 298
9.3 Galaxy Note 7 smartphones repeatedly overheated and caught fire, sometimes
leading to serious injuries. Organizational pressures to meet deadlines, even
if it means cutting corners, is often an underlying factor when dangerous
products are put on the market. 305
9.4 When the potter finishes his job, he can take pride in a visible product that
he has designed and created. In contrast, factory workers may participate in a
process only by adding one part to a larger machine or device. 306
Chapter 10
10.1 Although tobacco kills nearly twenty times as many people every year as all
illegal drugs combined, its use remains legal and brings millions in profits to
large, powerful corporations. 325
10.2 For a variety of reasons, fear of legal punishment is not very effective in
deterring crime. Informal sanctions from disapproving friends and family
members may be more effective in many cases. 329
10.3 The easy availability of assault weapons in the United States plays a role in
our high rate of mass shootings. Since an assault weapons ban was allowed to
expire in 2004, mass shootings are up sharply. 332
xxviii Photographs
Chapter 11
11.1 Nowhere has the demand for services in the postindustrial economy been more
evident than in the growth of fast-food and carry-out food establishments.
These businesses have created many jobs, but most offer low pay and limited
benefits. 370
11.2 The headquarters of Google. For the past century or more, most productive
capability in the United States has been controlled by corporations. In recent
years, corporations in information-related businesses have become particularly
dominant on a global scale. 374
11.3 This KFC near Beijing’s Tiananmen Square illustrates the wide reach of
multinational corporations. 376
11.4 One prediction by Marx that largely has come true is automation: the
replacement of workers by machines, a worldwide trend in today’s high-
technology age. 378
Chapter 12
12.1 Power theorists contend the system is biased toward the wealthy.
When President Obama signed the financial bailout into law, some saw
this act as saving the national, and possibly global, economy from a Great
Depression–type of downward spiral. But power theorists might point out
that the same group of wealthy investors who created the financial crisis
were also the ones to receive the bailout funds. Who do you think is right?
Can both views be right? 416
12.2 Starting in the 1840s, the state increased its role in American life by
obtaining land for railroads and creating uniform standards for railroads in
the United States. 420
12.3 Gerrymandered congressional districts like this one have created more
districts that are “safe” for one party and fewer “swing” districts that
might vote for either party. This has increased political polarization and
decreased the voting influence of moderates and independents. 429
12.4 As the economy has globalized and international travel has become
increasingly commonplace, the United States has become more vulnerable
to international terrorism such as the September 11, 2001 attacks. 443
Chapter 13
13.1 An engaged couple on a prewedding photo shoot in Beijing’s Beihai Park.
As marriage in China has become associated with modern concepts such as
romantic love, the country’s divorce rate has soared. 459
13.2 Men have taken on more child-care responsibilities than in the past, but
these duties tend to be those that are less routine and more “fun.” 472
13.3 Homosexual couples are among the many new types of marriage and
family relationships that have emerged in American society. 476
13.4 With today’s high divorce and remarriage rates, a growing number of
marriages result in families in which one or both of the partners bring
children from previous marriages. 485
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encore là qu’un homme! Or le seul homme qui soit immédiatement
sorti des mains de Dieu, devait avoir quelque chose de divin qui
manque. Mabuse le disait lui-même avec dépit quand il n’était pas
ivre.
Poussin regardait alternativement le vieillard et Porbus avec une
inquiète curiosité. Il s’approcha de celui-ci comme pour lui demander
le nom de leur hôte; mais le peintre se mit un doigt sur les lèvres
d’un air de mystère, et le jeune homme, vivement intéressé, garda le
silence, espérant que tôt ou tard quelque mot lui permettrait de
deviner le nom de son hôte, dont la richesse et les talents étaient
suffisamment attestés par le respect que Porbus lui témoignait, et
par les merveilles entassées dans cette salle.
Poussin, voyant sur la sombre boiserie de chêne un magnifique
portrait de femme, s’écria:—Quel beau Giorgion!
—Non! répondit le vieillard, vous voyez un de mes premiers
barbouillages!
—Tudieu! je suis donc chez le dieu de la peinture, dit naïvement
le Poussin.
Le vieillard sourit comme un homme familiarisé depuis longtemps
avec cet éloge.
—Maître Frenhofer! dit Porbus, ne sauriez-vous faire venir un
peu de votre bon vin du Rhin pour moi.
—Deux pipes, répondit le vieillard. Une pour m’acquitter du plaisir
que j’ai eu ce matin en voyant ta jolie pécheresse, et l’autre comme
un présent d’amitié.
—Ah! si je n’étais pas toujours souffrant, reprit Porbus, et si vous
vouliez me laisser voir votre Belle-Noiseuse, je pourrais faire
quelque peinture haute, large et profonde, où les figures seraient de
grandeur naturelle.
—Montrer mon œuvre, s’écria le vieillard tout ému. Non, non, je
dois la perfectionner encore. Hier, vers le soir, dit-il, j’ai cru avoir fini.
Ses yeux me semblaient humides, sa chair était agitée. Les tresses
de ses cheveux remuaient. Elle respirait! Quoique j’aie trouvé le
moyen de réaliser sur une toile plate le relief et la rondeur de la
nature, ce matin, au jour, j’ai reconnu mon erreur. Ah! pour arriver à
ce résultat glorieux, j’ai étudié à fond les grands maîtres du coloris,
j’ai analysé et soulevé couche par couche les tableaux de Titien, ce
roi de la lumière; j’ai, comme ce peintre souverain, ébauché ma
figure dans un ton clair avec une pâle souple et nourrie, car l’ombre
n’est qu’un accident, retiens cela, petit. Puis je suis revenu sur mon
œuvre, et au moyen de demi-teintes et de glacis dont je diminuais
de plus en plus la transparence, j’ai rendu les ombres les plus
vigoureuses et jusqu’aux noirs les plus fouillés; car les ombres des
peintres ordinaires sont d’une autre nature que leurs tons éclairés;
c’est du bois, de l’airain, c’est tout ce que vous voudrez, excepté de
la chair dans l’ombre. On sent que si leur figure changeait de
position, les places ombrées ne se nettoieraient pas et ne
deviendraient pas lumineuses. J’ai évité ce défaut où beaucoup
d’entre les plus illustres sont tombés, et chez moi la blancheur se
révèle sous l’opacité de l’ombre la plus soutenue! Comme une foule
d’ignorants qui s’imaginent dessiner correctement parce qu’ils font
un trait soigneusement ébarbé, je n’ai pas marqué sèchement les
bords extérieurs de ma figure et fait ressortir jusqu’au moindre détail
anatomique, car le corps humain ne finit pas par des lignes. En cela,
les sculpteurs peuvent plus approcher de la vérité que nous autres.
La nature comporte une suite de rondeurs qui s’enveloppent les
unes dans les autres. Rigoureusement parlant, le dessin n’existe
pas! Ne riez pas, jeune homme! Quelque singulier que vous
paraisse ce mot, vous en comprendrez quelque jour les raisons. La
ligne est le moyen par lequel l’homme se rend compte de l’effet de la
lumière sur les objets; mais il n’y a pas de lignes dans la nature où
tout est plein: c’est en modelant qu’on dessine, c’est-à-dire qu’on
détache les choses du milieu où elles sont, la distribution du jour
donne seule l’apparence au corps! Aussi, n’ai-je pas arrêté les
linéaments, j’ai répandu sur les contours un nuage de demi-teintes
blondes et chaudes qui fait que l’on ne saurait précisément poser le
doigt sur la place où les contours se rencontrent avec les fonds. De
près, ce travail semble cotonneux et paraît manquer de précision,
mais à deux pas, tout se raffermit, s’arrête et se détache; le corps
tourne, les formes deviennent saillantes, l’on sent l’air circuler tout
autour. Cependant je ne suis pas encore content, j’ai des doutes.
Peut-être faudrait-il ne pas dessiner un seul trait, et vaudrait-il mieux
attaquer une figure par le milieu en s’attachant d’abord aux saillies
les plus éclairées, pour passer ensuite aux portions les plus
sombres. N’est-ce pas ainsi que procède le soleil, ce divin peintre de
l’univers. Oh! nature, nature! qui jamais t’a surprise dans tes fuites!
Tenez, le trop de science, de même que l’ignorance, arrive à une
négation. Je doute de mon œuvre!
Le vieillard fit une pause, puis il reprit:—Voilà dix ans, jeune
homme, que je travaille; mais que sont dix petites années quand il
s’agit de lutter avec la nature? Nous ignorons le temps qu’employa
le seigneur Pygmalion pour faire la seule statue qui ait marché!
Le vieillard tomba dans une rêverie profonde, et resta les yeux
fixes en jouant machinalement avec son couteau.
—Le voilà en conversation avec son esprit, dit Porbus à voix
basse.
A ce mot, Nicolas Poussin se sentit sous la puissance d’une
inexplicable curiosité d’artiste. Ce vieillard aux yeux blancs, attentif
et stupide, devenu pour lui plus qu’un homme, lui apparut comme un
génie fantasque qui vivait dans une sphère inconnue. Il réveillait
mille idées confuses dans l’âme. Le phénomène moral de cette
espèce de fascination ne peut pas plus se définir qu’on ne peut
traduire l’émotion excitée par un chant qui rappelle la patrie au cœur
de l’exilé. Le mépris que ce vieil homme affectait d’exprimer pour les
plus belles tentatives de l’art, sa richesse, ses manières, les
déférences de Porbus pour lui, cette œuvre tenue si longtemps
secrète, œuvre de patience, œuvre de génie sans doute, s’il fallait
en croire la tête de Vierge que le jeune Poussin avait si franchement
admirée, et qui belle encore, même près de l’Adam de Mabuse,
attestait le faire impérial d’un des princes de l’art; tout en ce vieillard
allait au delà des bornes de la nature humaine. Ce que la riche
imagination de Nicolas Poussin put saisir de clair et de perceptible
en voyant cet être surnaturel, était une complète image de la nature
artiste, de cette nature folle à laquelle tant de pouvoirs sont confiés,
et qui trop souvent en abuse, emmenant la froide raison, les
bourgeois et même quelques amateurs, à travers mille routes
pierreuses, où, pour eux, il n’y a rien; tandis que folâtre en ces
fantaisies, cette fille au ailes blanches y découvre des épopées, des
châteaux, des œuvres d’art. Nature moqueuse et bonne, féconde et
pauvre! Ainsi, pour l’enthousiaste Poussin, ce vieillard était devenu,
par une transfiguration subite, l’Art lui-même, l’art avec ses secrets,
ses fougues et ses rêveries.
—Oui, mon cher Porbus, reprit Frenhofer, il m’a manqué jusqu’à
présent de rencontrer une femme irréprochable, un corps dont les
contours soient d’une beauté parfaite, et dont la carnation... Mais où
est-elle vivante, dit-il en s’interrompant, cette introuvable Vénus des
anciens, si souvent cherchée, et de qui nous rencontrons à peine
quelques beautés éparses? Oh! pour voir un moment, une seule
fois, la nature divine, complète, l’idéal enfin, je donnerais toute ma
fortune, mais j’irais le chercher dans tes limbes, beauté céleste!
Comme Orphée, je descendrais dans l’enfer de l’art pour en ramener
la vie.
—Nous pouvons partir d’ici, dit Porbus à Poussin, il ne nous
entend plus, ne nous voit plus!
—Allons à son atelier, répondit le jeune homme émerveillé.
—Oh! le vieux reître a su en défendre l’entrée. Ses trésors sont
trop bien gardés pour que nous puissions y arriver. Je n’ai pas
attendu votre avis et votre fantaisie pour tenter l’assaut du mystère.
—Il y a donc un mystère?
—Oui, répondit Porbus. Le vieux Frenhofer est le seul élève que
Mabuse ait voulu faire. Devenu son ami, son sauveur, son père,
Frenhofer a sacrifié la plus grande partie de ses trésors à satisfaire
les passions de Mabuse; en échange, Mabuse lui a légué le secret
du relief, le pouvoir de donner aux figures cette vie extraordinaire,
cette fleur de nature, notre désespoir éternel, mais dont il possédait
si bien le faire, qu’un jour, ayant vendu et bu le damas à fleurs avec
lequel il devait s’habiller à l’entrée de Charles-Quint, il accompagna
son maître avec un vêtement de papier peint en damas. L’éclat
particulier de l’étoffe portée par Mabuse surprit l’empereur, qui,
voulant en faire compliment au protecteur du vieil ivrogne, découvrit
la supercherie. Frenhofer est un homme passionné pour notre art,
qui voit plus haut et plus loin que les autres peintres. Il a
profondément médité sur les couleurs, sur la vérité absolue de la
ligne; mais, à force de recherches, il est arrivé à douter de l’objet
même de ses recherches. Dans ses moments de désespoir, il
prétend que le dessin n’existe pas et qu’on ne peut rendre avec des
traits que des figures géométriques; ce qui est au delà du vrai,
puisque avec le trait et le noir, qui n’est pas une couleur, on peut
faire une figure; ce qui prouve que notre art est, comme la nature,
composé d’une infinité d’éléments: le dessin donne un squelette, la
couleur est la vie, mais la vie sans le squelette est une chose plus
incomplète que le squelette sans la vie. Enfin, il y a quelque chose
de plus vrai que tout ceci, c’est que la pratique et l’observation sont
tout chez un peintre, et que si le raisonnement et la poésie se
querellent avec les brosses, on arrive au doute comme le
bonhomme, qui est aussi fou que peintre. Peintre sublime, il a eu le
malheur de naître riche, ce qui lui a permis de divaguer, ne l’imitez
pas! Travaillez! les peintres ne doivent méditer que les brosses à la
main.
—Nous y pénétrerons, s’écria le Poussin n’écoutant plus Porbus
et ne doutant plus de rien.
Porbus sourit à l’enthousiasme du jeune inconnu, et le quitta en
l’invitant à venir le voir.
Nicolas Poussin revint à pas lents vers la rue de la Harpe, et
dépassa sans s’en apercevoir la modeste hôtellerie où il était logé.
Montant avec une inquiète promptitude son misérable escalier, il
parvint à une chambre haute, située sous une toiture en colombage,
naïve et légère couverture des maisons du vieux Paris. Près de
l’unique et sombre fenêtre de cette chambre, il vit une jeune fille qui,
au bruit de la porte, se dressa soudain par un mouvement d’amour;
elle avait reconnu le peintre à la manière dont il avait attaqué le
loquet.
—Qu’as-tu? lui dit-elle.
—J’ai, j’ai, s’écria-t-il en étouffant de plaisir, que je me suis senti
peintre! J’avais douté de moi jusqu’à présent, mais ce matin j’ai cru
en moi-même! Je puis être un grand homme! Va, Gillette, nous
serons riches, heureux! Il y a de l’or dans ces pinceaux.
Mais il se tut soudain. Sa figure grave et vigoureuse perdit son
expression de joie quand il compara l’immensité de ses espérances
à la médiocrité de ses ressources. Les murs étaient couverts de
simples papiers chargés d’esquisses au crayon. Il ne possédait pas
quatre toiles propres. Les couleurs avaient alors un haut prix, et le
pauvre gentilhomme voyait sa palette à peu près nue. Au sein de
cette misère, il possédait et ressentait d’incroyables richesses de
cœur, et la surabondance d’un génie dévorant. Amené à Paris par
un gentilhomme de ses amis, ou peut-être par son propre talent, il y
avait rencontré soudain une maîtresse, une de ces âmes nobles et
généreuses qui viennent souffrir près d’un grand homme, en
épousent les misères et s’efforcent de comprendre leurs caprices;
forte pour la misère et l’amour, comme d’autres sont intrépides à
porter le luxe, à faire parader leur insensibilité. Le sourire errant sur
les lèvres de Gillette dorait ce grenier et rivalisait avec l’éclat du ciel.
Le soleil ne brillait pas toujours, tandis qu’elle était toujours là,
recueillie dans sa passion, attachée à son bonheur, à sa souffrance,
consolant le génie qui débordait dans l’amour avant de s’emparer de
l’art.
—Écoute, Gillette, viens.
L’obéissante et joyeuse fille sauta sur les genoux du peintre. Elle
était toute grâce, toute beauté, jolie comme un printemps, parée de
toutes les richesses féminines et les éclairant par le feu d’une belle
âme.
—O Dieu! s’écria-t-il, je n’oserai jamais lui dire...
—Un secret? reprit-elle, je veux le savoir.
Le Poussin resta rêveur.
—Parle donc.
—Gillette! pauvre cœur aimé!
—Oh! tu veux quelque chose de moi?
—Oui.
—Si tu désires que je pose encore devant toi comme l’autre jour,
reprit-elle d’un petit air boudeur, je n’y consentirai plus jamais, car,
dans ces moments-là, tes yeux ne me disent plus rien. Tu ne penses
plus à moi, et cependant tu me regardes.
—Aimerais-tu mieux me voir copiant une autre femme?
—Peut-être, dit-elle, si elle était bien laide.
—Eh! bien, reprit Poussin d’un ton sérieux, si pour ma gloire à
venir, si pour me faire grand peintre, il fallait aller poser chez un
autre?
—Tu veux m’éprouver, dit-elle. Tu sais bien que je n’irais pas.
Le Poussin pencha sa tête sur sa poitrine comme un homme qui
succombe à une joie ou à une douleur trop forte pour son âme.
—Écoute, dit-elle en tirant Poussin par la manche de son
pourpoint usé, je t’ai dit, Nick, que je donnerais ma vie pour toi: mais
je ne t’ai jamais promis, moi vivante, de renoncer à mon amour.
—Y renoncer? s’écria Poussin.
—Si je me montrais ainsi à un autre, tu ne m’aimerais plus. Et,
moi-même, je me trouverais indigne de toi. Obéir à tes caprices,
n’est-ce pas chose naturelle et simple? Malgré moi, je suis
heureuse, et même fière de faire ta chère volonté. Mais pour un
autre! fi donc.
—Pardonne, ma Gillette, dit le peintre en se jetant à ses genoux.
J’aime mieux être aimé que glorieux. Pour moi, tu es plus belle que
la fortune et les honneurs. Va, jette mes pinceaux, brûle ces
esquisses. Je me suis trompé. Ma vocation, c’est de t’aimer. Je ne
suis pas peintre, je suis amoureux. Périssent et l’art et tous ses
secrets!
Elle l’admirait, heureuse, charmée! Elle régnait, elle sentait
instinctivement que les arts étaient oubliés pour elle, et jetés à ses
pieds comme un grain d’encens.
—Ce n’est pourtant qu’un vieillard, reprit Poussin. Il ne pourra
voir que la femme en toi. Tu est si parfaite!
—Il faut bien aimer, s’écria-t-elle prête à sacrifier ses scrupules
d’amour pour récompenser son amant de tous les sacrifices qu’il lui
faisait. Mais, reprit-elle, ce serait me perdre. Ah! me perdre pour toi.
Oui, cela est bien beau! mais tu m’oublieras. Oh! quelle mauvaise
pensée as-tu donc eue là!
—Je l’ai eue et je t’aime, dit-il avec une sorte de contrition, mais
je suis donc un infâme.
—Consultons le père Hardouin? dit-elle.
—Oh, non! que ce soit un secret entre nous deux.
—Eh! bien, j’irai; mais ne sois pas là, dit-elle. Reste à la porte,
armé de ta dague; si je crie, entre et tue le peintre.
Ne voyant plus que son art, le Poussin pressa Gillette dans ses
bras.
—Il ne m’aime plus! pensa Gillette quand elle se trouva seule.
Elle se repentait déjà de sa résolution. Mais elle fut bientôt en
proie à une épouvante plus cruelle que son repentir, elle s’efforça de
chasser une pensée affreuse qui s’élevait dans son cœur. Elle
croyait aimer déjà moins le peintre en le soupçonnant moins
estimable qu’auparavant.
II.
CATHERINE LESCAULT.