WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF POULTRY FARMS

IN GENERAL SANTOS CITY

A Research Paper Presented to

The Faculty of Business College

Notre Dame of Dadiangas University

General Santos City

In Partial Fulfilment of the

Requirement of the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Business Administration

by

Coronado, Kim John

Ishmael, Mohammad Shane

Relunio, Xelina Blanché

Villares, Ainee Joy

October, 2016
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Title Page i
Acknowledgement ii
Table of Contents iii
List of Figures v
List of Boxes vi
List of Tables vii
Abstract viii

Chapter 1. The Problem and Its Setting

Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 2
Scope and Limitations 3
Significance of the Study 4
Definition of terms 5

Chapter 2. Conceptual Framework

Conceptual Framework 7
Review of Related Literature 9
Review of Related Studies 36

Chapter 3. Research Design and Methodology

Research Design 44
Research Locale 46
Respondents of the Study 46
Instrumentation 47
Data Gathering Procedure 49
Statistical Data and Analysis 49

Chapter 4. Presentation, Analysis,

and Interpretation of Data 51
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Chapter 5. Summary of Findings, Conclusions,

and Recommendations
Summary of Findings 86
Conclusions 87
Recommendations 88

Bibliography 90
 4

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Conceptual Framework 8

2 Research Design 43
 5

LIST OF BOXES

Box Page

1 Rating Scale of Waste Management Practices of Poultry

Farms in General Santos City 45

2 Interpretation for the Extent of Practice of Poultry Farms

in General Santos City 48
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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Distribution of Respondents According to the

Number of Years in Operation 49

2 Distribution of Respondents According to the

Number of Employees 52

3 Distribution of Respondents According to the

Amount of Capitalization 54

4 Distribution of Respondents According to the

Types of Products Offered 56

5 Distribution of Respondents According to the

Number of Poultry Heads Produced 58

6 Poultry Farms’ Solid Waste Management 61

7 Poultry Farms’ Liquid Waste Management 69

8 Problems Encountered by Poultry Farms 73

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ABSTRACT

This study determined the waste management practices of local

poultry farms in General Santos City by presenting their profiles, solid and

liquid waste management practices and the problems and challenges they

encountered in implementing such practices. The data from the

questionnaires were analyzed and interpreted using frequency, ranking,

and weighted mean. The findings of the study revealed that the poultry

farms in General Santos City were operating for five years and below,

mostly producing broiler with capitalizations of one to three million pesos.

In terms of solid waste management, the local poultry farms bury poultry

litter and carcass with the highest weighted mean of 2.92. While in terms

of liquid waste, the poultry farms let their liquid waste flow to drainage

canal with the highest weighted mean of 2.68. Furthermore, the results

showed that the poultry farms identified insect infestation as their most

prevalent problem. It was recommended that poultry farms must create

compost pits to be able to reuse their poultry waste by turning them into

compost fertilizer and thereby lessen the occurrence of pests and

communicable diseases.
 8

Chapter I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

This chapter introduced the subject under research. It provided a thorough

discussion of the problem being investigated as well as its significance. It further

discussed the scope and delimitation of the study.

Introduction

General Santos City, the tuna capital of the republic has now become one

of the most competitive capitals in the nation perhaps one of the best fish and

agricultural producers thereto. The production of goods, agronomic machineries,

and poultry raising activities that the City of General Santos yielded over the

years have become sustainable and have developed by thorough market

planning, feasibility structures, and capital investments of international and local

industry players. With the abundance of resources, General Santos City has

been continuously making poultry commerce a primary source of income and

employment mechanism within its constituents.

Although this translates to greater income and employment opportunities,

it has also been implicated in environmental degradation and pollution.

Intensification of animal production is concomitant to key environmental issues

such as higher production of waste products such as manure and effluent.

(Paraso, et al., 2010)

In connection with this, many water sources in SOCSKSARGEN had

failed in some physical, chemical, and microbiological analysis. Silway River

which drains into Sarangani Bay registered a 300,000 MPN (most probable
 9

number) per 100 millilitres (ml) coli form count which was higher than

“permissible limit” of 5,000 MPN per ml. The Coli form count indicated presence

of faecal contaminant. Firms engaged in activities including poultry and livestock

contributed significantly in water contamination. (Dave L. Llorito; Philippine Star)

This research was undertaken in probing the current status of General

Santos City’s poultry farms’ waste management practices. This had been an

initiative in helping the community for their own welfare, safety, revenue gains,

and output consummation on their products and services as poultry producers in

General Santos City, a deep understanding on how the government and

concerned business owners push towards the positive harvests as expected from

its poultry production and all related waste management practices.

Statement of the Problem

This research had investigated the different waste management practices

observed by the poultry famers in General Santos City. It had also determined

the different problems and concerns that the poultry farmers had regarding their

waste management practices. The study had then provided recommendations to

answer those concerns. Specifically, this research had answered the following

questions:

1. What is the profile of poultry farms in General Santos City in terms of:

a. Number of years in operation;

b. Number of employees;

c. Amount of capitalization;

d. Types of products offered; and

 10

e. Number of poultry heads produced?

2. What are the waste management practices of poultry farmers in

General Santos City in terms of:

a. Liquid Waste and

b. Solid Waste?

3. What are the problems and challenges that the poultry farmers in

General Santos City have encountered regarding their waste

management practices?

4. What recommendations can be made for the improvement of the waste

management practices of the poultry farmers in General Santos City?

Significance of the study

The importance of the study aimed to be beneficial to the following

sectors:

Poultry Farmers. This study helped the poultry farmers to identify the

different problems and challenges that the poultry farmers had encountered in

their waste management practices and provided appropriate solutions for such.

Poultry Buyers. This study provided information to buyers regarding the

waste disposal used by the poultry farmers. This study also raised awareness

and gave the buyers the chance to apply some of the practices the farmers

employed should they ever decide to engage in poultry farming.

Bureau of Animal Industry. This study gave the Bureau of Animal

Industry an overview of the waste management and disposal arising from poultry
 11

farms which served as basis for the development of better programs and

standards aimed to regulate the management of poultry wastes.

Stakeholders. This study gave awareness to the different stakeholders in

the community regarding the waste management practices of poultry farmers in

General Santos City. This enabled them to have a better view of their

investments and apply appropriate measures to safeguard their interests.

Health and Sanitation Office of General Santos City. This study served

as a basis for the Health and Sanitation Office of the city to formulate guidelines

or standards to regulate the waste management practices of poultry farms.

Future Researchers. This study served as their guide or basis as a

related study in their future research paper. Also, it helped them in the

formulation of their research title and other information they need in their study.

Scope and Delimitation

The paper dealt primarily on the waste management practices of poultry

farmers in Generals Santos City in terms of the liquid waste and solid waste.

The locale of the study was limited to the operating poultry farms in the

vicinity of General Santos City. The respondents of the study were the 35

registered poultry farms under the Business and Licensing Office of the City

Government as of June 29, 2016. Of that number, 9 poultry farms were located

in Barangay Conel, 1 was in Barangay Lagao, 14 were in Barangay Katangawan,

1 was in Barangay San Isidro, 2 were in Barangay Olympog, 3 were in Barangay

Sinawal, 4 were in Barangay Ligaya and 1 was in Barangay Mabuhay. Out of 35

poultry farms in General Santos City, only 19 were open and willing to take part
 12

in the survey. Seven of the farms in the list were no longer operating, two of the

farms were one and the same and the rest did not permit the researchers to

conduct the survey cite reasons such as, the owner is unavailable to authorize

and the person in attendance is not qualified to answer the questionnaire.

The research outcome of this study was purely based on the instrument

used by the researchers, explicitly the survey questionnaire. Aside from the

survey questionnaire, secondary sources used were library, internet references,

books and other magazines.

The research study was started on November 2015 until the month of

October 2016.

Definition of Terms

The following terms were defined operationally for better understanding of

the readers.

Composting. The controlled aerobic biological decomposition of organic matter,

such as food scraps and plant matter, into humus, a soil-like material.

Effluent. This refers to the liquid waste produced by poultry farms, specifically,

the water that the farm owners use to clean off the droppings of the birds.

Liquid Waste. This also refers to poultry (broiler litter) or any water that has

been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence in poultry

farms.

Manure. This refers to the solid waste produced by poultry farms, specifically the

fecal matter excreted by the birds.

 13

Poultry Farmers. This refers to the small and medium enterprises engaged in

the poultry industry registered under the City Veterinary Office of General

Santos City.

Solid Waste. This refers to poultry solid chicken manure or poultry (broiler) litter

or any garbage, refuse, sludge from a poultry farm under their operations

to reduce their own in house waste.

Waste Management Practices. This refers to the measures or ways by which

poultry farms in General Santos City use to address their waste disposal

activities.
 14

Chapter II

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

AND STUDIES

This chapter contained the presentation of the conceptual framework and

review of the related literature and studies of Waste Management Practices of

Poultry Farms in General Santos City.

Conceptual Framework

The study determined each of the respondents’ profile in terms of: the

number of years in operations; the number of employees; amount of

capitalization; the types of products offered by the business; and the number of

poultry heads produced.

The responses of the owners, primarily in the waste management

practices in terms of liquid waste and solid waste were regarded. In lieu of the

owners, the employee with certain qualifications assumes their place. Upon

evaluating the different variables, the researchers drew the findings of the study

as bases for the conclusion and recommendations in the improvement of waste

management practices of local poultry farms in General Santos City.

A framework, as shown in figure 1, was developed for waste management

practices of local poultry farms in General Santos City wherein identified

variables are presented.

 15

Profile of the Poultry Farms:

- Number of Years in Operation

- Number of Employees
-Amount of Capitalization
-Types of Products Offered
-Number of Poultry Heads Produced

Waste Management Problems and

Practices: Challenges
Encountered by
- Liquid Waste
Poultry Farmers
- Solid Waste

Recommendations to improve the

practices of waste management of
poultry farms in General Santos
City

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of Waste Management Practices

Review of Related Literature

 16

The review of related literature is comprised of available documents, both

published and unpublished, containing information, ideas and data written from a

particular point of view. This focuses on the profile and waste management

practices of the poultry farms in General Santos City.

Profile of Poultry Farms in General Santos City

This part presents the various related literature in terms of the number of

years in operation, number of employees, amount of capitalization, types of

products and number of heads produced.

Number of Years in Operation

It is believed that, domestication of poultry has been started in

Asian countries. There is evidence that, the fowl was first, domesticated in

South Asia probably well over 8000 years ago. The earliest record of

poultry dates back to about 3200 BC in India. Chicken has been reared in

Egypt since 1400 BC. The red jungle fowl, an Asian breed considered by

many as the ancestors of modern poultry breeds. Recently, some

evidence was found indicating that, the first domestication of the fowl took

place much earlier, and not in South Asia but in China (Velasco, 2014).

Commercial poultry production in South Asia is barely 40 years old

although poultry raising dates back to pre-historic times. Hybrid layer

strains were introduced into the sub-continent in 1955 and followed by

broiler strains in 1961.

Modern commercial poultry rearing was demonstrated in

government farms and by state agricultural universities which popularized

 17

modern poultry production in villages throughout India and elsewhere. As

a result, there has been a significant growth in poultry production

throughout the region. For example, in India the broiler population

increased from 4 to 700 million birds between 1971 and 2000,

respectively. The development of a system of partnerships between

private investors, known as “integrators”, who provide credit and inputs to

farmers who provide housing and labor has been a deciding factor in this

growth of the Indian poultry industry.

Commercialization of poultry production in South Asian countries

started with the introduction of superior stock birds during the 1950s and

1960s and poultry meat and eggs have now become very common in the

diet of the people of the region. People have become increasingly aware

of their advantages as food items and the demand for poultry products has

increased, raising the scope of commercial poultry production activities.

(R. Prabakaran, 2003).

In an article by Jerry Alder and Andrew Lawler in 2012 called, “How

the chicken conquered the world”, it was stated that the bird’s

resemblance to modern chickens is manifest in the male’s red wattles and

comb, the spur he uses to fight and his cock-a-doodle-doo mating call.

The dun-colored females breed eggs and cluck just like barnyard

chickens. In its habitat, this stretches from north-eastern India to the

Philippines, G. gallus browses on the forest floor for insects, seeds and

fruit, and flies up to nest in the trees at night. But G. gallus is not the sole
 18

progenitor of the modern chicken. Scientists have identified three closely

related species that might have bred with the red jungle fowl. Precisely

how much genetic material these other birds contributed to the DNA of

domesticated chickens remains a matter of conjecture. Recent research

suggests that modern chickens inherited at least one trait, their yellow

skin, from the gray jungle fowl of southern India.

Chicken bones have been discovered in the tombs of ancient

European Pharaohs. The Greeks also portrayed chickens in their pottery

around 500 BC. A bit later on, the Romans considered chickens to be

oracles. 7th century BC Corinthian pottery features pictures of

domesticated chickens. A 2007 study by The University of Auckland’s

Department of Anthropology suggests that prehistoric Polynesians were

the first to bring domesticated chickens to the Americas. Other studies

claim that chickens arrived in the Americas with European explorers. Easy

to care for and inexpensive to purchase, the chicken offered man quick

and nutritious food. Chickens were vital to early American colonists

striving to survive in a harsh and unforgiving new world. Pioneers brought

chickens in West, relying on their eggs and meat in a vast land.  Chickens

were an important part of life. Regardless, these useful birds became

popular wherever they were taken, raised for eggs and for meat and

sustaining generations of humanity (White, 2013).

The sport of cockfighting had tremendous influence not only in the

domestication of the chicken but also on the distribution of fowl throughout

 19

the world. After centuries of selection and breeding for numerous

extremes, chickens now exist in many colors, sizes and shapes. There are

more than 350 combinations of physical features known today. In 1873,

the American Poultry Association was organized for the purposes of

adopting standards of excellence and establishing a way of classifying the

various breeds.

Although the purebred poultry industry served as the foundation for

the development of the commercial industry, the two industries soon

developed very different types of domestic fowl. While the purebred

exhibition industry continued to select and breed fowl for standard

conformations and plumage colors, the commercial industry developed

specialized hybrids for meat and egg production. Today, the two industries

are very different: The purebred fowl of today are basically the same as

they were 100 years ago and are mainly raised as a hobby; whereas, the

commercial poultry industry has developed into a science, which produces

highly nutritious meat and eggs with extreme efficiency

(http://extension.psu.edu/animals/poultry/topics/general-educational-

material/the-chicken/history-of-the-chicken).

Number of Employees

According to the Small and Medium Enterprise Development

(SMED) Council Resolution No. 01 Series of 2003 dated 16 January 2003,

Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) may also be categorized

based on the number of employees – firms’ enterprises having 1-9

 20

employees fall under micro enterprise, 10-99 employees as small

enterprise, 100-199 employees as medium enterprise and those having

more than 200 employees are considered as large enterprise.

Based on the Agricultural Worker Factsheets published by the

National Center for Farmworker Health, Inc., poultry workers labour at

both a high intensity and speed. A team of 7-10 chicken catchers will

catch 30,000-60,000 chickens in one shift, and poultry processing workers

may process up to 140 birds per minute. Personal protective equipment

(PPE) is often not provided by employers, despite frequent worker

exposure to chemicals, blood, feces, mold, endotoxins, and sharp cutting

tools.

Total employment of all agriculture, forestry and fishing

establishments reached 137,248 in 2010. Of the total workforce, 98.7

percent were paid employees and the remaining 1.3 percent was working

owners and unpaid workers. According to the results, total employment for

poultry industry is 5 982 number of worker poultry. The average number of

workers per establishment for the sector was recorded at 89.

Poultry farms used both family labor, including husband and wife,

children, nieces, and nephews, and hired labor. Husbands and wives both

work on pastured poultry production. On the farms raising 4,000 to 10,000

chickens, families provide most of the labor. During the pastured poultry

season, they work about 2.6 hours per day on chickens, not including

processing. Farms raising over 10,000 to 25,000 chickens depend more

 21

on hired labor. These farmers work slightly fewer minutes per bird than the

farmers raising 10,000 or fewer chickens. They also work almost seven

hours a day on pastured chickens through their slightly longer growing

season (Stevenson and Schuster, 2003).

In A Review of the Agricultural Sector in SOCCSKSARGEN by the

Philippine Statistics Authority in 2002, SOCCSKSARGEN recorded 330.6

thousand agricultural operators aged 15 years and over, with 300.5

thousand males (90.9 percent) and 26.3 thousand females (8 percent).

This translates to a ratio of one female for every 11 male agricultural

operators. Majority of the operators (62.6 percent) in the region belonged

to the 25 to 49-year age group.

A total of 432.5 thousand household members were engaged in

agricultural activities. Of this number, about 332.6 thousand (76.9 percent)

were employed in own holding, 73.8 thousand (17.1 percent) both in their

own holding and in the holding of others, and 26.1 thousand (6 percent) in

other holdings.

About 231.5 thousand or 44.6 percent of the household members

10 to 24 years old were engaged in an agricultural activity. Three in four of

them were working in own holding.

While male operators dominated the agricultural operations in the

year, female non-operator household members engaged in an agricultural

activity (260.2 thousand) outnumbered their male counterparts by 95

thousand.
 22

Amount of Capitalization

Capitalization, in accounting, is when the costs to acquire an asset

are expensed over the life of that asset rather than in the period it was

incurred. In finance, capitalization is the sum of a corporation's stock, long-

term debt and retained earnings. Capitalization also refers to the number

of outstanding shares multiplied by share price

(http://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/capitalization.asp).

Invested capital is also commonly referred to as capitalization. This

is when a corporation's stock, their owed long term outstanding debt and

retained profit are all added together. This gets the invested capital

amount or the capitalization amount.

Market capitalization is when a company's outstanding shares are

multiplied by its share price. This gives an indication of the company's net

worth and is one of the factors that go in to valuing its stock. This shows

its overall 'capitalization' in the market place. Depending on this,

companies are referred to as small cap, mid cap, large cap or even mega

cap ($200 billion or greater). Against popular belief, just because a

company has a large stock price doesn't mean the company itself is large

(http://www.financialdictionary.net/define/Capitalization/).

Republic Act No. 9501, The Magna Carta for Micro, Small and

Medium Enterprises (MSMEs), signed by President Gloria Macapagal

Arroyo on 23 May 2008 defines micro enterprises as entities with total

assets of not more than Php 3,000,000, small enterprises as The new law,
 23

R.A. 9501 amends the 17-year old R.A. 6977 or the Magna Carta for

Small Medium Enterprises.

Department of Trade and Industries defines small and medium

enterprises as provided under the Magna Carta of SMEs (R.A. 6977 as

amended by R.A. 8289) as any business activity or enterprise engaged in

industry, agribusiness and/or services single proprietorship, cooperative,

partnership, or corporation whose total assets inclusive of those arising

from loans but exclusive of the land of which the particular business

entity’s office, plant and equipment are situated, must have value falling

under the following categories; micro enterprise if less than Php

3,000,001, small enterprise if amounts to Php 3,000,001 up to Php 15,

000,000, medium enterprise if amounts to Php 15,000,001 up to Php 100,

000,000 and large enterprise if amounts to more than Php 100,000,000.

Types of Products

Layer

Layer poultry farming means raising egg laying poultry birds for the

purpose of commercial egg production. Layer chickens are such a special

species of hens, which need to be raised from when they are one-day old.

They start laying eggs commercially from 18-19 weeks of age. They

remain laying eggs continuously till their 72-78 weeks of age. They can

produce about one kg of eggs by consuming about 2.25 kg of food during

their egg laying period. For the purpose of producing hybrid eggs layer,

various characteristics of cock and hen are considered before breeding.

 24

There are various types of highly egg productive layer breeds available

throughout the world (http://www.growelagrovet.com/layer-poultry-

farming/).

The egg production cycle lasts for about one year. The pullets and

laying hens are raised mainly in environmentally controlled poultry houses

in cage systems. To make the maintenance process easier, automated

feeding, watering, and egg collection systems were developed. Feed and

water are moved on rotating belts which pass by the cages. Another

rotating belt collects the eggs and sends them to the sorting chamber to

be tested for fertility, graded, and sorted according to size, making them

ready for delivery to the market (Dr. M. Farran, 2009).

Laying hens in egg producing farms are usually of small body frame

and body weight compared to broilers. They can be classified into two

groups: dual purpose chickens or egg producing chickens. Egg producing

chicken breeds have been bred and raised for maximum egg production

(up to 300 eggs per year) rather than high meat yield (Beutler, 2007). Dual

purpose chickens are smaller in size than commercial meat breeds. They

are used for meat as well as egg production, and can produce around 200

to 250 eggs per year.

There have been several developments to increase the marketing

value of eggs. These developments include omega-3 eggs; folate and

lutein enriched eggs, as well as free run and organic eggs. These
 25

specialty eggs increase the value of eggs, and have caused a noticeable

change in the market (Dr. M. Farran, 2009).

Broiler

Broiler chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus), or broilers, are a

gallinaceous domesticated fowl, bred and raised specifically for meat

production (Kruchten, 2002). They are a hybrid of the egg-laying chicken,

both being a subspecies of the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus). Typical

broilers have white feathers and yellowish skin. Most commercial broilers

reach slaughter-weight at between five and seven weeks of age, although

slower growing breeds reach slaughter-weight at approximately 14 weeks

of age. Because the meat broilers are this young at slaughter, their

behavior and physiology are that of an immature bird. Due to artificial

selection for rapid early growth and the husbandry used to sustain this,

broilers are susceptible to several welfare concerns, particularly skeletal

malformation and dysfunction, skin and eye lesions, and congestive heart

conditions. The breeding stocks (broiler-breeders) grow to maturity and

beyond but also have welfare issues related to frustration of a high feeding

motivation and beak trimming. Broilers are usually grown as mixed-sex

flocks in large sheds under intensive conditions, but some breeds can be

grown as free-range flocks. Chickens are one of the most common and

widespread domestic animals

(http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/07/global-livestock-

counts).
 26

Chickens reared for meat are called broilers or broiler chickens.

They originate from the jungle fowl of the Indian Subcontinent. The broiler

industry has grown due to consumer demand for affordable poultry meat.

Breeding for particular traits and improved nutrition have been used to

increase the weight of the breast-muscle. Commercial broiler chickens are

bred to be very fast growing in order to gain weight quickly. In their natural

environment; hens spend much of their time foraging for food. This means

that they are highly motivated to perform species specific behaviors that

are typical for chickens (natural behaviors), such as foraging, pecking,

scratching and feather maintenance behaviors like preening and dust-

bathing. Trees are used for perching at night to avoid predators. The life of

chickens destined for meat production consists of two distinct phases.

They are born in a hatchery and moved to a growing farm at 1 day-old.

They remain here until they are heavy enough to be slaughtered

(https://www.ciwf.org.uk/media/5235306/The-life-of-Broiler-chickens.pdf).

In 2010, the chicken population in the Philippines was estimated

159 million, slightly higher (0.2 percent) than last year’s level.  Layer and

native chicken inventory grew by 13 and 2 percent, respectively.  Almost

50 percent of the total chicken population was accounted for native or

village chicken raised in backyard farms while the remaining 32.8%

(broilers) and 18% (layers) were taken up by commercial broilers

(http://www.pcaarrd.dost.gov.ph/home/momentum/poultry).

Cull
 27

Chick culling is the process of killing newly hatched poultry for

which the industry has no use. Due to modern selective breeding, laying

hen strains differ from meat production strains. As male birds of the laying

strain do not lay eggs, they are generally killed soon after they hatch and

shortly after being sexed. Methods of culling include cervical dislocation,

asphyxiation by carbon dioxide and maceration using a high speed grinder

(https://web.archive.org/web/20090222091817/http://www.vegsoc.org/info

/laying.html#male).

Unlike female chicks, males from egg-laying hens do not produce

eggs and are instead culled and used as feed for reptiles and other

animals. This culling process is not something consumers can avoid

either. Killing male chicks happens regardless of whether the egg is

produced in a free range system or from a caged battery hen (Saul, 2015).

Prior to the development of modern broiler meat breeds, most male

chickens (cockerels) were slaughtered for meat, whereas females (pullets)

would be kept for egg production. However, once the industry bred

separate meat and egg-producing hybrids, there was no reason to keep

males of the egg-producing hybrid. As a consequence, the males of egg-

laying chickens are killed as soon as possible after hatching and sexing to

reduce losses incurred by the breeder.

It has been reported that in India for example, more than 180

million male chicks per year are culled. The egg industry in India is
 28

growing at the rate of 8-12% yearly, and is the third largest egg producer

(Saraswathy, 2014).

Chicks are also culled in the production of foie grass. After

hatching, the ducklings are sexed. Males put on more weight than

females, so the females are killed, sometimes in an industrial macerator.

Up to 40 million female ducks per year may be killed in this way. The

remains of female ducklings are later used in cat food, fertilisers and in the

pharmaceutical industry (Hughes, 2014).

Number of Poultry Heads

Chicken products consumption per household per month was 33

eggs and 15 eggs for DADPs farmers and other farmers, respectively.

Price of chickens varied depending on the season of the year and

festivities (Kafuku, 2012). Abuel-Ang, 2005 said that Broiler production in

the Philippines in 2003 was 635,000,000 constituting only about 6% and

50% of the Chinese and Thai production, respectively. According to

University of Asia and the Pacific, 1999, production inefficiency, along with

the reliance on high-cost, imported inputs, has resulted in the higher

production cost of live birds. Therefore, there is a need to modernize by

adopting the latest technology in poultry-raising; environmental control;

and automation in feeding, drinking, and other management practices.

Waste Management Practices

 29

This portion of the study presents the related literature regarding the

waste management practices of poultry farms in General Santos City in terms of

solid and liquid waste.

Solid Waste Management Practices

In agriculture, poultry litter is a mixture of poultry excreta, spilled

feed, feathers and material used as bedding in poultry operations. This

term is also used to refer to unused bedding materials. Common bedding

materials include wood shavings, sawdust, peanut hulls, shredded sugar

cane, straw, and other dry, absorbent, low-cost organic materials. There

are specific practices that must be followed to properly maintain the litter

and maximize the health and productivity of the flocks raised on it.

(https://poultry.ces.ncsu.edu, 2012)

In addition, the production of poultry results in: hatchery wastes,

manure (bird excrement), litter (bedding materials such as sawdust, wood

shavings, straw and peanut or rice hulls), and on-farm mortalities. The

processing of poultry results in additional waste materials, including offal

(feathers, entrails and organs of slaughtered birds), processing

wastewater and bio solids. Most of these by-products can provide organic

and inorganic nutrients that are of value if managed and recycled properly,

regardless of flock size. (Williams, 2012)

Poultry wastes are handled differently depending on their

consistency which may be liquid, slurry, semisolid or solid. The total solids

concentration of manure depends on the climate, weather, amount of

 30

water consumed by the birds, types of birds produced and their feed.

Poultry wastes are handled differently depending on their consistency

which may be liquid, slurry, semisolid or solid. The total solids

concentration of manure depends on the climate, weather, amount of

water consumed by the birds, types of birds produced and their feed

(http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/05/04702/pwm.pdf).

Additionally, solid waste can be divided in to two groups: (1) low-

risk material originating from healthy birds and, (2) high-risk material that

has the potential to transfer disease to humans and animals. Examples of

high-risk material include birds that died from causes other than

slaughtering, birds or bird parts condemned as unfit for human

consumption, and birds suspected of carrying a disease that can be

transferred to animals (International Finance Corporation, 2007).

Poultry raised for commercial purposes produce large amounts of

manure which is a collectible resource unlike the manure of free range or

pastured animals. It contains valuable plant nutrients and other chemicals

that, if properly managed, can be returned to the land or processed for

other uses (http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/05/04702/pwm.pdf).

Common procedures for managing dry broiler litter or dry manure

from layer operations center on protecting this material after it is moved

from the house until its valuable fertilizer nutrients can be put to other

uses. Litter that is not properly stockpiled or stored suffers a reduction of

nitrogen from releases to air and water Storages are classified into three
 31

main types: (1) temporary, or “stockpiling”; (2) open storage; and (3)

permanently roofed storages. Each type provides flexibility for the grower,

either for utilizing litter for fertilizer or for holding litter until such time as it

can be sold or donated to someone else

(http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/05/04702/pwm.pdf).

Proper management of litter in the house will reduce the need to

move litter between flocks and will aid in developing a cleanout schedule

that allows direct application of manure to cropland without intermediate

storage. Greater efficiency is obtained if manure can be directly applied at

the proper time, because handling costs are less and nitrogen will be more

efficiently utilized. The primary key to good in-house management of litter

is to keep the litter dry. Wet litter creates conditions where more nitrogen

is released from the litter in the form of ammonia. Proper heating and

ventilation of the poultry house and selection and operation of bird

watering systems to minimize spillage on the litter will provide high-quality

litter. Reducing water spillage will: (1) save water, (2) improve bird quality,

(3) improve production environment, (4) reduce ammonia released from

litter, (5) reduce volume of wet manure cake, and (5) extend time between

litter cleanouts (Collins Jr and Ogejo, 2009).

Direct movement of litter from house to field will minimize handling

costs and – if synchronized with a cropping plan – will usually allow more

efficient utilization of manure nutrients. Many growers, however, either

don’t have enough land to spread all litter properly or aren’t able to
 32

coordinate poultry house cleanout with times that litter can be directly

spread. In such cases, the grower might contract with neighbors or other

potential users who can use the litter when houses are cleaned

(http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/05/04702/pwm.pdf).

Poultry wastes are mainly managed by burying them on the ground.

This is to avoid insect infestation and unpleasant odors. Additionally,

because mortality is an unavoidable occurrence in poultry production, the

disposal of dead animals is also a common environmental issue. The

proper depth of the burial site is important especially if the animal died of

infectious and/or zoonotic causes. Carcasses should be buried at least six

feet deep into the ground to limit the possibility of stray animals unearthing

the carcass subsequently exposing it to the environment where flies and

maggots can feed on it and spread diseases to both human and animal

populace (Paraso, et. al, 2010).

Moreover, most commercial chicken farms put value to manure by

selling them as fertilizer for plantation and field crops, or as livestock feed

since properly processed poultry litters are acceptable feed ingredients for

cattle. However, sale of chicken manure in small-scale enterprises is

almost impossible due to the fewer number of birds (Paraso, et. al, 2010).

On the other hand, incineration of poultry litter has been receiving a

lot of attention in recent times. Litter (unlike manure) is an excellent fuel

because of the presence of bedding material. Its heat content is higher

 33

than firewood and therefore lends itself to good combustion (Waste

Concern, 2005).

Incineration is an option to reduce waste where anywhere within 80

to 90% of the solid waste is potentially reduced. However, incineration is

an inaccessible technology for most low-income countries because of the

high financial investment it requires. The negative environmental

consequences of incineration mostly revolve around airborne emissions

where many compounds harmful to humans, such as metals (lead and

mercury), organics (dioxins), acid gases (sulfur dioxide and hydrogen

chloride), nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide and dust, are volatilized

(Zerbock, 2003). Because of the limitations imposed by incineration

technology, some poultry farms resort to open-air trash burning. This

practice is dangerous to public health and contribute to environmental

deterioration as it releases into the air particulate matter from biomass

(Simoneit and Elias 2001), as well as hazardous compounds such as

dioxins, alkanes, phthalates and minor amounts of polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons from open-burning of plastics and refuse (Nguyen et al.

2003; Simoneit et al. 2005).

A compost pit is basically a hole where the animal litter or manure

and carcass are left to rot to achieve a nutrient-rich soil to be used for

farming. Composting is the aerobic degradation of biodegradable organic

waste. It is a relatively fast biodegradation process, taking typically 4–6

weeks to reach a stabilized material. The composted material is odorless

 34

and fine textured with low moisture content and can be used as an organic

fertilizer. Composted poultry litter is easy to handle and pathogen free.

(Kelleher et al, 2008) It has long been recognized that poultry manure and

litter is a good source of plant nutrient mainly nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)

and potassium (K). In addition, poultry waste also contains calcium,

magnesium, sulphur and some micronutrients. This knowledge has

resulted in fairly widespread use of poultry waste as a fertilizer produced

from composting (Waste Concern, 2005).

Applying the poultry litter unto the land is the easiest and cheapest

option for disposal of poultry solid waste. This has long been practiced in

the areas where land availability has not been an issue. But in recent

times, when concentrations of poultry farms started to develop, this option

started to become limited. The primary reason behind this is the emerging

evidence that there are dangers to over-application of poultry manure to

croplands. (Waste Concern, 2005) The Rural NI Portal (2005) mentions

the following problems associated with over-application of poultry manure

to cropland: surface and ground water pollution, aesthetic problems with

odors and insects and over-accumulation of manure and trace elements

leading to reduced crop yields.

Farmers compost the purchased waste in their own land by

dumping on heaped piles. This practice is an extension of the illegal

dumping practice described above, but is the more environmentally

sustainable one. The Dumping option is clearly a function of adequate

 35

land availability and awareness of the issues involved. However, most of

this crude composting practice is haphazard and does not produce a good

fertilizer, and more importantly, does not kill all the pathogens. Compared

to open dumping, this practice produces much less nuisance like smell,

flies, dust and rodents (Waste Concern, 2005).

One of the most common uses of poultry litter is as a fish feed.

However, this activity is pursued through an informal channel with no well-

established market mechanism. As far as it could be gathered, fish

farmers on individual basis make contacts with nearby poultry farms and

purchase the litter. The application procedure involves allowing the litter to

slowly leach out from jute bags placed on the sides of the ponds. In the

earlier days of this practice, some inexperienced fish farmers dumped litter

straight into the pond. This sudden addition of large quantity of litter

caused large increases in the BOD of the water and killed off most of the

fishes. Over time farmers have learnt that a very slow addition method

must be employed. In this application, the litter stimulates the growth of

algae, which is a good fish feed. Fishes usually do not consume the litter

(Waste Concern, 2005).

The use of poultry waste as a feed amendment for ruminants is an

age-old practice. However, in recent times, the dangers of such practice

have become more apparent. This practice is certain to be banned

worldwide, and therefore, can be neglected from consideration. The

practice of re-feeding poultry litter is unacceptable because it allows for

 36

the spread of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, or BSE, the gruesome

and fatal neurodegenerative disorder more commonly known as mad cow

disease. While poultry litter is mainly a combination of feces, feathers, and

uneaten chicken feed, it could also contain antibiotics, heavy metals,

disease-causing bacteria, and even beef protein, including ground-up

meat and bone meal. Meat and bone meal containing infected bovine

protein is the chief culprit behind the spread of mad cow disease. Because

of this, in the year 2003, animal re-feeding of poultry has been banned

(Jacobson, 2013).

In Bangladesh, selling poultry litter to cooking fuel companies is an

extremely specialized use, and has been reported only from Keraniganj at

the outskirts of Dhaka city. The shortage of cooking fuels has in many

places forced people to look for alternatives. The high heat content of

poultry litter (because of the presence of bedding material – rice husk in

Bangladesh) makes it an ideal fuel for many purposes. Some innovative

people in the Keraniganj area have somehow discovered this property of

poultry litter, and have spontaneously developed an appropriate use for it.

It is likely that in other areas of the country where cooking fuel is scarce,

this practice is also prevalent. Use of cow dung as a cooking fuel is an

ancient practice all over the Indian Subcontinent. Therefore, use of poultry

litter should come as no surprise. The only point here is that poultry litter

because of the high protein diet given to chicken, is not as harmless as

cow dung (Waste Concern, 2005).

 37

Liquid Waste Management Practices

A fixed-hearth process, by which both liquid and solid wastes can

be handled, is also used. The waste is treated in two stages. It is first

partially burned with insufficient air and then burned again with excess air

at higher temperatures to destroy the gases released during the first

stage. Another widely used process involves incineration in a rotary kiln.

This is used for solids, liquids, their mixtures (slurries), and wastes in

containers. Some hazardous wastes are disposed of directly as fuel in

industrial boilers or cement kilns. Liquid toxic wastes must be stored

temporarily before disposal. Steel drums are used for short-term storage.

Materials less subject to corrosion, such as glass or ceramic, are often

required for long-term storage. Ocean dumping and the use of landfills are

no longer permitted for the disposal of hazardous waste in the United

States (Christensen, 2010).

Wastewater consists of the liquid and water-carried wastes from

residences, commercial buildings, industrial plants, and institutions,

together with any groundwater, surface water, and storm water that may

be present. The terms "waste-water" and "sewage” are sometimes used

inter-changeably.

Collection systems for domestic and industrial wastewaters involve

part of all of the following elements: plumbing systems, connections from

plumbing systems into the collection system, sewers, manholes, and

pumping stations. Because the materials in domestic and industrial waste-

 38

waters may be corrosive, the sewers are usually made out of vitrified clay

tile, cement-asbestos mixtures, centrifugally cast concrete, or rigid plastic

materials.

Wastewater treatment plant effluents are extremely useful for

industry, particularly as cooling water. The required quality of the

wastewater depends on the industry and the use. Industrial plants often

install their own treatment facilities to improve and regulate the quality and

quantity of the wastewater they use (Okun, 2004).

Drainage is factored into the build of the floor, with a slope to

remove wastewater and promote good drainage. Drains and gulley are

situated in processing areas and passages, where easy access for regular

cleaning reduces the level and subsequent risk of contamination. Waste

water and small eggshell particles are washed away effectively (Pas

Reform, 2012).

Gutters and downspouts - the vertical sections that send runoff

down to the ground and the ends of the downspouts run to a suitable

drainage system or absorbent, properly graded soil (Vandervort, 2012).

According to Wang (2007), land application is the method most

widely used by the food processing industry to dispose of agricultural

wastes. Application of such wastes to crop land is often the most

affordable waste management alternative as properly applied waste can

provide plant nutrients and act as a soil conditioner. Sustainable land

 39

application systems should aim to maximize nutrient use while minimizing

environmental impact.

Releasing liquid waste unto bodies of water, storing liquid waste in

a waste basin, using furnace to heat the waste to produce steam to run a

turbine generator, using an in-line composter to stabilize the waste,

vacuum extraction system, using settling tanks for poultry liquid waste,

and utilizing treatment lagoons and ponds are not practiced in the poultry

farms.

Sedimentation tank, also called settling tank or clarifier, component

of a modern system of water supply or wastewater treatment. A

sedimentation tank allows suspended particles to settle out of water or

wastewater as it flows slowly through the tank, thereby providing some

degree of purification. A layer of accumulated solids, called sludge, forms

at the bottom of the tank and is periodically removed (Encyclopedia

Britannica, 2016).

Most agricultural treatment lagoons are anaerobic lagoons.

Anaerobic lagoons are earthen structures, which look at first glance like

farm ponds. These lagoons are designed to provide biological treatment

and long term storage of animal waste. Anaerobic lagoons are larger than

manure storage basins, which do not provide significant biological

treatment or long storage periods, but smaller than aerobic lagoons

(Animal Manure Management, 2015).

 40

It is a sewerage system which uses differential air pressure and

gravity to rapidly transport sewage in a network of essentially empty pipes

from Collection Pits to a central collection tank and then to a point of

discharge (Flock, 2016).

The suction pressure necessary for removing wastewater and

cleaning sewer networks is provided by vacuum pumps. The contaminants

in the wastewater are sucked in and can be flushed out periodically by

means of pumps. With the use of central vacuum systems, the disposal of

wastewater can be effected at the same place. The wastewater can be

collected, drained and disposed of in complete housing areas at the same

time. With the use of vacuum up to 97% of the wastewater can be

transported uphill (Gardner Denver Inc. 2015).

The heat generated by the following wastes can be used directly to

warm homes and buildings or to generate electricity using a steam turbine,

or both, through combined heat and power systems: direct combustion

(incineration) of dry biomass waste such as wood; waste, straw and

poultry litter; he biomass part of municipal waste; some commercial and

industrial wastes; some construction and demolition wastes. Where waste

is combusted in a combined heat and power unit, it is possible to produce

both heat and power at greater efficiencies (Guidance, 2013).

Problems and Challenges

Poultry farms often constitute some environmental risks to both human

and animal lives through water/soil and air pollution. These waste products are
 41

produced in form of hatchery wastes, birds’ excrement, litters and on-farm

mortalities, among others. To mitigate the health risk that poultry wastes caused

to the environment and the health of the residents of the households in the

localities, there is the need for the management of poultry farms to recognize and

respect 1 km resident-poultry unit distance, maintain proper and timely hygiene

and observe high level of discipline in the way and manners they dispose the

wastes (Akanni, 2002).

The implications of the management pattern on yield and revenue and

further determine the socio-economic differentials of farmers on management

pattern. Poultry waste is poorly collected, packaged and transported. Proper

knowledge on treatment is lacking due to lack of skill, space, time together with

paucity of capital. Availability and cost of synthetic fertilizer among other factors

determine poultry waste utilization. Exotic vegetable requires more poultry waste

than indigenous ones and soil characteristics play strong role in influencing

poultry waste input and yield of vegetable crops (Adedayo, 2012).

Over the past decades, the poultry sector’s growth and trends towards

intensification and concentration have given rise to a number of environmental

concerns. A direct consequence of these structural changes (industrialization,

geographical concentration and intensification) in poultry production is that far

more waste than can be managed by land disposal is produced, resulting in

environmental problems (Gerber et. al, 2009).

Managing poultry by-products as potential pollutants centers on water and

air quality concerns, and in some cases on soil quality: specific concerns that are
 42

well documented include degradation of nearby surface and/or groundwater,

resulting from increased loading of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus

and potassium in some locations (Williams, 2012).

For instance, most poultry manure and litter are applied to land near

poultry production farms. With few exceptions, this is the preferred practice in

developing countries and elsewhere. Such land management of poultry by-

products brings the risk of surface and groundwater contamination from potential

pollutants contained in the manure and litter (Williams, 2012). Buried birds

undergo a decomposition process. During this process, nutrients, pathogens and

other components of the carcass are released into the environment. As these

substances enter the surrounding soil, they may be broken down, transformed,

lost to the air, or otherwise immobilized so that they pose no environmental

threat. However, there is a possibility that some constituents may eventually

contaminate soil, groundwater and surface water (Freedman and Fleming, 2003).

Poultry facilities are a source of odor and attract flies, rodents and other

pests that create local nuisances and carry disease. Odor emissions from poultry

farms adversely affect the life of people living in the vicinity. Odor associated with

poultry operations comes from fresh and decomposing waste products such as

manure, carcasses, feathers and bedding/litter (Kolominskas et al., 2002). On-

farm odor is mainly emitted from poultry buildings, and manure and storage

facilities (Williams, 2012). Likewise, flies are an additional concern for residents

living near poultry facilities. In addition to the nuisance they cause, flies and

mosquitoes can transmit diseases, such as cholera, dysentery, typhoid, malaria,

 43

filarial and dengue fever. Although less often reported than flies and mosquitoes,

rats and similar pests are also a local nuisance associated with poultry

production. As with flies and mosquitoes, they can be a vector for disease

transmission. Their presence is mainly related to animal-feed management and

especially to storage and losses from feeding systems (Williams, 2012).

Additionally, local disturbances (e.g. odor, flies and rodents) and

landscape degradation are typical local negative amenities in the surroundings of

poultry farms. Pollution of soil and water with nutrients, pathogens and heavy

metals is generally caused by poor manure-management and occurs where

manure is stored (Gerber, et. al, 2009).

Improper disposal of poultry carcasses can contribute to water-quality

problems especially in areas prone to flooding or where there is a shallow water

table. Methods for the disposal of poultry carcasses include burial, incineration,

composting and rendering. In the case of recent highly pathogenic avian

influenza (HPAI) outbreaks, the disposal of large numbers of infected birds has

presented new and complex problems associated with environmental

contamination. Large volumes of carcasses can generate excessive amounts of

leachate and other pollutants, increasing the potential for environmental

contamination (Williams, 2012).

Air quality can be affected by aerial emissions of pollutants from poultry

production facilities. Ammonia emitted into the atmosphere is arguably the most

environmentally significant aerial pollutant associated with poultry production

(Smith, 2006). The transport and fate of ammonia once it is emitted into the
 44

atmosphere are not well understood, but its presence in high concentrations can

trigger environmental effects that have impacts on local ecosystems and human

health. Ammonia from poultry operations is derived from nitrogen, which is an

essential component of dietary protein, amino acids and other biomolecules

necessary for life. However, dietary nitrogen not converted into meat, eggs or

other tissue is excreted in the form of organic nitrogen, which is rapidly converted

into ammonia under most, but not all, poultry production practices (Williams,

2012).

Particulate matter (or dust) is an aerial pollutant of more concern than

hydrogen sulphide and VOCs. It occurs in typical poultry operations where

appreciable numbers of birds are confined. Dust emissions can contain dried

fecal matter and may include bacteria, endotoxins, molds, mites and insect parts

(Clark, Rylander and Larsson, 2008).

Review of Related Studies

The review of related studies focuses on the waste management practices

of livestock farms in General Santos City.

Generally, it reviews previous researches in connection to the study of the

researchers in local and international that can help in strengthening the ideas

and knowledge of the researchers in the subject matter.

According to the study conducted by Paraso, et. al (2010), entitled “A Survey of

Waste Management Practices of Selected Swine and Poultry Farms in Laguna,

Philippines”, which aimed to learn the different practices of the respondents in

handling their liquid and solid waste.

 45

It was found that inappropriate practices were employed such as open

dumping, discharge of wastes into the waterways and open-air burning of wastes

were practiced. The study called for stricter enforcement and effective

dissemination of local government regulations and existing environmental laws

by concerned government agencies to ensure that a sustainable livestock and

poultry production in the province of Laguna is achieved.

In the study conducted by Moreki and Keaikitse (2013), entitled “Poultry

waste management practices in selected poultry operations around Gaborone,

Botswana”, it was found that the farmers possessed adequate knowledge about

dealing with the wastes in their poultry farms.

The study investigated the different waste management practices in

poultry operations around the City of Gaborone. Data were collected using a

structured questionnaire that was administered to 25 randomly selected

commercial poultry farmers in Kgatleng, Kweneng and South-East Districts. Data

were also collected through direct observation and by reviewing secondary

sources of data. Data were then analyzed using the Statistical Package for the

Social Sciences (SPSS), Version 19. Results showed that 80% of the

respondents disposed of manure and/litter by giving it away to other farmers,

16% used it as a fertilizer on their own fields, whereas 4% of the respondents

disposed of manure/litter in the landfills/dumping sites. The three methods of

mortality disposal were landfills (52%), incineration (20%) and burning (20%).

The challenges in disposing of poultry waste were lack of transport, lack of

 46

farmer’s knowledge of poultry waste management and insufficient space to

enable construction of waste disposal pits on farms.

Research by Nauti II and Zapatero (2010) supports that chicken manure is

not a good source of methane gas. The experiment went under a 35-day

observation. The collector is an improvised LPG tank with welded apparatus.

There are no data gathered since the pressure of the accumulated methane gas

did not reach 5 pei, thus, the set proportions did not produce considerable

amount of methane gas.

Research by Gyeltshen (2012) employed a group meeting in Denchhukha

and involved four key informants in each geog to understand the livelihoods and

access to services and resources for the village households. Thirty-eight

households in Denchhukha and 39 households in Yoeseltse were interviewed

using a semi-structured questionnaire on poultry rearing and production. The

VIPOSIM simulation model was used to test different improvement options and

were compared to the base situation. Simulation was done for 12 time-steps;

each time step equals to three months, which is one reproduction cycle.

In Denchhukha, poultry rearing was for dual-purpose of meat and egg

production. In Yoeseltse, it was mainly for eggs in Buddhist communities and for

dual-purpose in Hindu communities. Chickens served households with proteins

such as meat and eggs, generated small cash income and helped to obtain

household items like grains and tea through barter. Eggs and chicken meat are

used to entertain guests or are given as gifts. Poultry has cultural significance;

they are used for religious sacrifices and festivities. The average flock sizes were
 47

13, 17 and 5 in Denchhukha, Yoeseltse dual-purpose production and Yoeseltse

egg production systems respectively. The number of birds and eggs sold were

significantly higher in Yoeseltse as compared to Denchhukha. Predation was

considered the most important constraint in rearing the existing flocks in both the

geogs, while inadequate feed was considered the most important constraint by

majority of the respondents both in Denchhukha and Yoeseltse. Simulations with

different improvement options showed that daytime housing and supplemental

feeding had positive effect on the flock size but resulted in negative net returns.

Crossbreeding resulted in net returns lower than in base situation. Preferential

chick housing seemed to be economically the most effective intervention in

Denchhukha and Yoeseltse dual-purpose production. In the egg production

system, incubating more eggs indicated bigger flock size and better net returns.

Improving production will require that farmers become market-oriented. Access

to markets, farmers training and effective extension services are essential for

improving income generation for rural people (Gyeltshen, 2012).

Two groups of farmers were interviewed in this study: 45 farmers in the

DADPs project and 45 local chicken farmers not in the DADPs project. Added to

this, 20 chicken sellers at district markets were interviewed. For DADPs farmers’

improvement in chicken management resulted in reduced bird mortality,

increased eggs laid per clutch, reduced age at first lay, increased adult weight of

cockerels and hens. Egg prices and prices for chickens were higher for DADPs

famers than for other farmers.  Cash income of DADPs farmers also was higher:

per month DADPs farmers got Tsh 290,225 compared to Tsh 141,480 for other
 48

farmers. Chicken products consumption per household per month was 33 eggs

and 15 eggs for DADPs farmers and other farmers, respectively. Price of

chickens varied depending on the season of the year and festivities.

Village chicken producers, consumers, middlemen (the chicken sellers)

and local restaurants/hotels are the main actors involved in chicken marketing.

The main marketing channels are from farmer to farmer, from farmer to retailer

(chicken seller) and to consumer. On average the profit earned per chicken by

chicken sellers was Tsh 2500 – 3000. Farmers are not benefiting from chicken

improvement due to low prices offered by chicken sellers. Therefore, in order for

the impact of chicken improvement to be realized by farmers the project should

come up with integrated interventions which support both chicken production and

marketing (Kafuku, 2012).

Although in the past, environmental engineering has been primarily

concerned with waste disposal, the focus of the field is now shifting toward

viewing wastes as potential resources. Because reclamation usually consumes

less energy than producing new materials, increasing reclamation not only

reduces pollution but saves energy. Technological innovations contributing to this

shift are summarized here, and are variously classified as emerging technologies

or research topics, as either new departures or incremental improvements, and

as opportunistic innovations, or examples of a unifying strategy. Both liquid and

solid waste examples are given, such as a recent discovery of effects in

disinfecting micro filtered reclaimed wastewater with ultraviolet light. In addition to

its value in reducing pollution and conserving energy, this reorientation of

 49

environmental engineering could contribute to a more general shift toward

greater cooperation among organizations dealing with the environment (Iranpour,

et al.,1999).
 50

Chapter III

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This chapter presented the research design, research locale, respondents

of the study, sampling technique, instrumentation, data gathering procedure and

statistical data treatment/analysis.

Research Design

The study was a descriptive research. It was the most appropriate method

to be used in the study. It had described the waste management practices of

poultry farms in General Santos City. The factors needed in the study are

observed in figure 2.

As seen in figure 2, the variables essential to the completion of the study

are shown in the leftmost part of diagram; namely: profile of local poultry farms

which included the years in operation, number of employees, amount of

capitalization, types of products offered and number of poultry heads produced.

The waste management practices of poultry farms that are currently implemented

are shown below the profile of poultry farms which include liquid and solid waste.

Below this are the problems and challenges that the poultry farms have

encountered. To give life to the study, the researchers have set General Santos

City as their research locale, in which the respondents of the study were the

owners of local poultry farms. Questionnaires were used to gather data for the

study.
 51

Figure 2. Research Design

 52

After collecting the data, statistical data treatment such as frequency,

percentage and weighted mean was used to figure and analyse the result of the

study. These factors lead to the improvement of the waste management

practices of poultry farms in General Santos City.

Research Locale

This study was conducted in General Santos City, located in the southern

part of the Philippines. This was chosen as the appropriate locale of the study

because the city is one of the most prosperous among the cities and

municipalities in SOCCSKSARGEN area.

General Santos City has a total agricultural land use of 14,486 Hectares,

46.7% is utilized for agricultural production with 205.67 Hectares devoted to

Aquaculture. General Santos City is the regional center for commerce and

industry of the SOCCSKSARGEN region. The city is also a top producer and

exporter of quality livestock.

From the City Veteran’s Office’s record, 9,764,345 poultry are slaughtered

in 2010, 11,517,642 in 2011 and 10,659,413 in 2013. Poultry has the highest

number of slaughtered units compared to other livestock in General Santos City

such as swine, cattle, carabao, goat and horse.

Respondents of the Study

The respondents were the owners of different poultry farms in General

Santos City. There were a total of 35 respondents as of June 29, 2016 composed

of commercial poultry farms recorded in the Business and Licensing Office of the

City Government. Of that number, 9 poultry farms were located in Barangay

 53

Conel, 14 were in Barangay Katangawan, 1 was in Barangay San Isidro, 1 was in

Barangay Lagao, 2 were in Barangay Olympog, 3 were in Barangay Sinawal, 4

were in Barangay Ligaya and 1 was in Barangay Mabuhay. They were the type

of poultry farms sought to be implementing waste management practices which

were provided in the results for this study. Thus, the researchers had qualified

them as the key persons to collect information and most credible to answer the

survey questionnaire.

Out of 35 poultry farms in General Santos City, only 19 were open and

willing to take part in the survey. Seven of the farms in the list were no longer

operating, two of the farms were one and the same which were the Bodani Dave

Farm and Farmville Poultry Farm, and the rest did not permit the researchers to

conduct the survey cite reasons such as, the owner is unavailable to authorize

and the person in attendance is not qualified to answer the questionnaire.

Instrumentation

The researchers used survey questionnaires in gathering data for the

study. The data collection instrument was based on published books and online

resources- identifying the waste management practices of poultry farms. This

was validated with the advisers and evaluators et. al.

The questionnaire was divided into three (3) parts. The first part contained

the profile of the poultry farms which covers the number of years in operation,

number of employees, amount of capitalization and types of products and

services they offer. The second part included the waste management practices in

terms of liquid waste and solid waste. The third part included the problems and
 54

challenges encountered by the poultry farms in their waste management

practices.

Box 1.
Rating Scale of Waste Management Practices of Poultry Farms in General
Santos City

Rating Verbal
Interpretation
Scale Description
Waste management practices are observed
4 Highly Practiced
all the times.
Waste management practices are observed
Practiced
3 most of the time
Waste management practices are observed
2 Slightly Practiced
rarely
Waste management practices are never
1 Not Practiced
observed

Box 2.
Interpretation for the Extent of Practice of Poultry Farms in General Santos City

Rating Verbal Percentage

Interpretation
Scale Description (%)
Highly Waste management practices
3.26-4.00 67-100
Practiced are observed all the time
Waste management practices
2.51-3.25 Practiced 34-66
are observed most of the time
Slightly Waste management practices
1.76-2.50 1-33
Practiced are observed sometimes
Not Waste management practices
1.00-1.75 0
Practiced are observed rarely
 55

Data Gathering Procedure

To conduct the study, the researchers had obtained the number of

respondents which was taken from the record of the Business and Licensing

Office of the City Government. This was done before the researchers could

gather necessary data needed for the study.

The researchers provided a copy of questionnaire based on the related

literature and related studies to the advisor and validators to be corroborated. As

soon as the questionnaires were approved, these were distributed to the

respondents for the purpose of gathering data needed for the study.

The researchers had interviewed the identified owners of poultry farms in

General Santos City through visiting their farms. The researchers made the

necessary communications and inform them about the study being conducted.

Researchers had ensured that the questionnaires were answered with their

presence so that they could at the same time personally ask questions which had

further supplemented their study. The collection of data was done in two weeks.

After the compilation of completed questionnaires, data analysis and

interpretation had followed.

Statistical Treatment/Analysis

As presented in the research design, the study used frequency,

percentage and weighted mean to help the researchers in analysing the answers

of the respondents. These methods helped the researchers to identify the result

of the data and to be able to discern suggestions and recommendations.

 56

The researchers used frequency and percentage in calculating the first

part of the questionnaire which includes the profile of the poultry farms in General

Santos City.

Weighted mean is an average in which each quantity to be averaged is

assigned a weight which determined the relative importance of each quantity on

the average (Investopedia, 2014). Weighted mean was used in interpreting the

second part of the questionnaire which includes the waste management

practices. The result was summed up and total was divided by the sum of

weights. Weighted average was utilized in the descriptive statistical analysis.

Ranking was used in both products and services offered by the poultry

farms in General Santos City. Ranking data involves putting values in numerical

order and then assigning new values to denote where the ordered set they fall

(Statistics and Research Methodology, 2014).

In cases of ties, the method presented in A Handbook of Statistics by

Parushuri R. Krishnaiah published in 1982 was used which states that:

“Sometimes, more than one item has the same value in the series than a

common rank is given to such items. This common rank is the average of the

ranks they would have got if there had been a slight difference in their values.”

The purpose of the data analysis and interpretation phase is to transform

the data collected into credible evidence about the development of the

intervention and its performance.

57
 58

Chapter IV
PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

This chapter presented the interpretation and analysis of the gathered

data. Out of thirty-five (35) poultry farms in General Santos City, only 19 were

open and willing to take part in the survey. The results were presented by means

of tables followed by interpretation and analysis as well as the supporting

studies.

Profile of Poultry Farms in General Santos City

The profile of poultry farms in General Santos City are presented in terms

of years in operation, number of employees, amount of capitalization, types of

products offered and number of poultry heads produced.

Table 1
Number of Years in Operation
n=19

Variables Frequency (f) Percentage

5 years and below 9 47

6 to 10 years 3 16
11 to 15 years 5 26
16 to 20 years 1 5
21 years and above 1 5
TOTAL 19 100

Table 1 above showed that 47% of poultry farms in General Santos City

have been operating for 5 years and below, 16% were operating for 11 to 15

years, while only 5% have been operating for 16 years to 20 years and 5% were

operating for 21 years and above.

 59

According to local poultry owners/managers, poultry farms have two

categories: conventional and non-conventional. The term “conventional” refers to

poultry farms which lease the land from other farm owners while the term “non-

conventional” refers to farms that own both the land and the poultry business.

The above mentioned statistics has something to do with their capitalization and

number of poultry heads produced regularly. The respondents of this study were

mostly conventional poultry farms.

The poultry inventory in the Philippines is classified into “commercial” and

“backyard”. A poultry farm is classified as “commercial” if it has more than 100

birds (BAS, 1987). Based on this definition, backyard production of chickens

accounted for more than 50% of the chicken inventory of the Philippines in 2005.

(BAS, 2006)

According to the local poultry farms, on conventional farming system they

have the preference and options in continuing the lease or not, knowing that the

farm itself has small initial capital. This is to test their 3 to 5-year projection of

profitability and productivity. Some of those conventional farms are diversified

into other by-products; fertilizer is one of them.

Most of poultry farms had newly started due to the increasing demand of

chicken in the local market. Non-conventional poultry farms are those who

started a long time ago and due to their consistency of funds and market share,

they lasted for more than 10 years. Among the respondents, non-conventional

poultry farms are Cavestany Poultry and Goat Farms, Herana Poultry, and those

managed by San Miguel and other high end poultry giants.

 60

According to the Philippines Bureau of Statistics (BAS), the poultry

subsector grew by 3.72 per cent in 2010 and accounted for 14.93 per cent of

total agricultural production. Chicken and chicken egg production has steadily

grown over the past few years. In contrast, duck and duck egg production has

steadily declined. Native chickens accounted for 47 per cent of the chicken

inventory, broilers 34 per cent, and layers 19 per cent in 2010. Chicken

production grew by 4.01 per cent in 2010. The larger volume of broilers was due

to expansion in stocking capacity and sufficient supply of day old chicks. Chicken

egg production grew by 5.12 per cent; a higher inventory of laying flocks

combined with increases in the egg-laying efficiency ratio of hens in several

provinces. The downward trend in duck and duck eggs production continued with

this year’s declines of 8.24 per cent and 7.44 per cent, respectively. Duck egg

production was constrained by lingering hot weather that resulted in low laying

efficiency ratios (USDA AMS, 2011).

The Philippine broiler industry is controlled by four major integrators,

namely: Swift Foods, San Miguel Foods, Tyson Agro-Ventures and Universal

Robina Corporation. Together, they account for 65% of the total broiler supply in

the country (Abuel-Ang, 2005). However, smaller companies became so cash-

rich that they then ventured into the stock market with their own IPOs.  Along the

way, the chicken business got swallowed by the IPOs and before long, the

newcomers surged past the industry goliaths to become number one at some

point, supplying wet markets and supermarkets with dressed chickens.

(PhilStarGamboa, 2016)
 61

Table 2
Number of Employees
n=19

Variables Frequency (f) Percentage

Less than 5 employees 5 26

5 to 10 employees 7 37
11 to 15 employees 1 5
16 to 20 employees 1 5
21 employees and
5 26
above
TOTAL 19 100

Table 2 above showed the distribution of respondents according to the

number of employees. The results showed that majority of the respondents hired

5 to 10 employees with the highest frequency and percentage of 37%. In

contrast, only 5% of the poultry farms employed 11 to 15 employees and 5% of

the poultry farms had 16 to 20 employees.

The number of employees in the poultry farms is typically based upon the

number of heads that it produces and its amount of capitalization. Based on the

profiling, most of the poultry farms produced about 20 001 - 50 000 heads per

cycle which are considered to be commercialized farms. These poultry farms use

more advanced equipments such as feeders and drinkers, lessening their need

for more manpower in their daily operations. Employees do rounds to oversee

the feeding few times a day, check the status of the breeder house such as room

temperature, lightings and the likes, remove dead chickens if there are any and

make sure that the operation is running smoothly. Employees need to perform
 62

more laborious works only when the brooder houses are needed to be cleaned

and prepared for another cycle.Taking into consideration that most of the poultry

farms are microenterprises, having a capital of less than P3 000 000, they do not

require numerous workers in their daily operations. By adding excessive

manpower, microenterprises will face costly situation by incurring additional

expenses which are unreasonable for their nature and size.

According to a study conducted by Stevenson and Schuster in the year

2003, poultry farms relied primarily on family labor, including husband and wife,

children, nieces, and nephews, and hired labor. Labor requirements are one

significant limitation of large scale-pastured poultry operations. During the

pastured poultry season, they work about 2.6 hours per day on chickens, not

including processing. Farms raising over 10,000 to 25,000 chickens depend

more on hired labor. These farmers work slightly fewer minutes per bird than the

farmers raising 10,000 or fewer chickens. They also work almost seven hours a

day on pastured chickens through their slightly longer growing season.

Table 3
Amount of Capitalization
n=19

Variables Frequency (f) Percentage

Less than P1 000 000
P1 000 000 to P3 000 000
P3 000 001 to P5 000 000
P7 000 001 and above
TOTAL
2 11
9 50
1 6
6 33
18 100

Table 3 above page showed that 50% of the poultry farms

 63

hadcapitalizations of P1 000 000 to P3 000 000, 11% had less than a million

capital and 6% of the poultry farms had P3 000 001 to P5 000 000.

According to local poultry owners/managers, poultry farming is very vital in

procuring its sustainable operations on the long run. Since poultry farming is

essential in the city’s geographical area, they are willing to invest large capital.

They also said that poultry farming can also be dangerous in market demands

since the risk of biosecurity is always present. Most of them are conventional

poultry farms. These farms have less maintenance and production value.

Relatively, they can only raise an average of 20,000 heads, hire 5 to 10

employees and have a maximum of P3 000 000 capital, which can also be found

on other tables. Later, this analysis will lead to the discovery of related waste

management and problems and challenges faced by both poultry farming classes

in relation with their profile.

Start-up costs for a pastured poultry system are relatively low with feed

and livestock purchases accounting for 57% and 21%, respectively

(Fukumoto&Replogle, 1999). Portable field pens, such as those created and

popularized by Joel Salatin, are considered the least expensive housing

structures for this system. Making a 10-foot-by-12-foot pen capable of holding up

to eighty mature broilers is estimated to cost, at most, $400. Moreover, using

salvage materials can reduce this cost. Basic brooders, with a capacity for

approximately 250 chicks, can be built for roughly $100. Feeders and drinkers

can be bought or homemade to further reduce expenses (Berton, Mudd, &

Spencer, 2012).
 64

On the other hand, start-up costs for a commercial production system is

quite expensive. The cost associated with facilities and equipment is one of the

largest factors in the overall expenses of the broiler operation. Berton et al.

(2012) stated that houses capable of holding at least 25,000 birds cost as much

as $140,000. Moreover, the cost of a broiler house will vary with size and

specifications. Constructing a fully equipped house is estimated to cost

approximately $13.00 per square foot, excluding the cost of land. Other major

expenses associated with commercial production systems include fuel, labor,

repairs, utilities, loans, interest, taxes and feed; all of which vary depending on

size of the house (Doye, Freking, Payne & Ferrell, 2006).

Table 4
Types of Products Offered
n=19

Variables Frequency (f) Percentage

Layer 3 16
Broiler 16 84
TOTAL 19 100

Table 4 above showed that the majority of the respondents produced

broiler at 84% while 16% of the poultry farms produced layers. According to the

interview conducted, most of the respondents are engaged in contract farming

whereby agricultural production is being carried out on the basis of an agreement

between the buyer and farm producers. Most of them are in contract with some

of the leading food corporations in the Philippines.

The use of contracts has become attractive to many farmers because the

arrangement can offer both an assured market and access to production support.
 65

Contract farming is also of interest to buyers, who seek supplies of products for

sale further along the value chain or for processing. Processors constitute the

main users of contracts, as the guaranteed supply enables them to maximize

utilization of their processing capacity (Eaton and Shepherd, 2001).

Based on a report submitted to the Food and Agricultural Organization of

the United Nations by International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in

2003, broiler production in the Philippines has become largely commercial, with

contract production as the dominant arrangement. Minimum contract sizes have

been set at about 10,000 birds. Hence, farms that raise less than 10,000 birds

were considered smallholders, while larger farms were categorized as large-

scale or commercial.

Broilers today has emerged as the fastest growing segment for poultry

industry with the increased acceptance of chicken meat in city, town and villages,

the demand for broiler is growing in a fast pace. Broiler population as of January

1, 2016 from the record of the Philippine Statistics Authority, was around 66

million birds. Region III (Central Luzon) had the highest broiler inventory with a

total share of 29.13 percent in the country’s total broiler inventory.

Large integrators control some 80 percent of the broiler market in the

Philippines. The remainder is in the hands of independent commercial broiler

producers, who typically maintain inventories of 20,000 to 100,000 birds, and a

few smallholders, who typically raise 1,000 to 2,000 birds at a time.

The large integrators are banded together into a producer's organization,

the Philippine Association of Broiler Integrators (PABI), consisting of six large

 66

firms. The integrators engage in breeding and contract growing, processing, and

distribution of branded output. They are also a major player in the live broiler

market, in which the daily reference price is set by the group in the form of a

"gentlemen's agreement" (Costales et.al. 2003).

Table 5
Number of Poultry Heads Produced
n=19

Variables Frequency (f) Percentage

Less than 20 000
20 001 to 50 000
50 001 to 80 000
80 001 to 110 000
110 001 and above
TOTAL
4 21
8 42
2 11
3 16
2 11
19 100

Table 5 above showed that 42% of the poultry farms in General Santos

City produced 20 001 to 50 000 heads while 11% produced 50 001 to 80 000

heads and 11% produced 110 001 heads and above.

Poultry owners/managers said that the number of poultry heads that can

be produced may vary on the housing capacity of the farm. Although death

among these animals that are caused of changing temperature, stress and

poultry diseases is inevitable, it does not affect its population much. Some poultry

owner/managers have upgraded their farm to air-conditioned chicken coop.

There are two-types of chicken coop according to the interview conducted

with the survey, the Open-housing and the Air-conditioned coop. Open-housing

is the typical type of chicken coop while the air-conditioned coop is a closed
 67

facility that enables the poultry farmer to control the temperature and prevents

the contaminants to penetrate.

The number of poultry heads may also vary in the amount of capitalization

of the poultry farm. In table 3, the number of respondents declared the range of

P7,000,000 and above as the amount of capitalization coincide with the number

of poultry heads that ranges from 80,000 heads and above.

Chicken products consumption per household per month was 33 eggs and

15 eggs for DADPs farmers and other farmers, respectively. Price of chickens

varied depending on the season of the year and festivities (Kafuku, 2012). Abuel-

Ang, 2005 said that Broiler production in the Philippines in 2003 was

635,000,000 constituting only about 6% and 50% of the Chinese and Thai

production, respectively. According to University of Asia and the Pacific, 1999,

production inefficiency, along with the reliance on high-cost, imported inputs, has

resulted in the higher production cost of live birds. Therefore, there is a need to

modernize by adopting the latest technology in poultry-raising; environmental

control; and automation in feeding, drinking, and other management practices.

Waste Management of Poultry Farms

This part of the study showed the data concerning the waste management

practices of poultry farms in General Santos City in terms of their solid and liquid

wastes.

Solid Waste Management

This part of the study showed the data concerning the solid waste

management practices of poultry farms in General Santos City.

 68

Table 6
Solid Waste Management
n=19

Determinants Weighted Mean Interpretation

Burying poultry litter and carcass 2.92 Practiced
Collection of poultry litter and
carcass by the LGU 1.32 Not Practiced
Burning poultry litter and carcass
2.47 Slightly Practiced
Openly dumping poultry litter and
carcass (i.e. indiscriminate disposal 1.42
Not Practiced
of waste)
Storing poultry litter and carcass in a
compost pit 2.05 Slightly Practiced
Selling poultry litter and manure to
1.58
fish feed companies Not Practiced

Selling poultry litter and manure to

Practiced
compost manufacturers 2.68

Selling chicken litter and manure to

1.53 Not Practiced
cooking fuel companies

Selling chicken manure as fertilizer

2.32 Slightly Practiced
to farmers

Land application to enhance crop

1.79 Slightly Practiced
production

Animal re-feeding (i.e. to be used as

feeds after pathogens are 1.39
Not Practiced
neutralized)

Using poultry litter for bio-energy

1.16 Not Practiced
production

Table 6 above illustrated the solid waste management practices of poultry

farms in General Santos City. The respondents’ ratings on the questionnaire of 4

and 3 were interpreted as for those waste management methods that they do

follow and the ratings of 2 and 1 were for those methods that they do not
 69

practice.From this, the percentage of those farms observing or not observing a

particular method was determined.

According to the results, the local poultry farmers had two solid waste

management practices that they observe most of the time namely: burying the

poultry litter and carcass and selling poultry litter and manure to compost

manufacturers.

Majority of the local poultry farms bury poultry litter and carcass with the

highest weighted mean of 2.92 which meant that it is practiced. The results

further showed that out of the 19 poultry farms interviewed, 10 poultry farms or

56% bury poultry litter and carcass while 8 poultry farms or 44%, do not practice

this solid waste disposal method and 1 of the poultry farms refused to answer.

According to the manager of the RVM farm, it is fairly common for poultry

animals to catch illnesses due to changing weather patterns; in the instance that

poultry animals do get sick, they are often treated with some chemicals and

medicines to cure them.

Moreover, the results of the study showed that local poultry farms

sometimes observe the following practices: burning poultry litter and carcass,

storing poultry litter and carcass in a compost pit, selling chicken manure as

fertilizer to farmers and land application to enhance crop production.

Results showed that local poultry farms practice burning poultry litter and

carcass. Moreover, out of the 19 poultry farms, 10 poultry farms or 53% said that

they burn their poultry litter and carcass while 9 poultry farms or 47% said that

they do not practice this waste disposal method. According to local poultry farms,
 70

the poultry carcass is either burnt or buried. The manager/caretaker of Jun

Salazar Poultry Farm said that the carcass is burnt when burying it poses some

difficulties to the farmers, for instance, when burial space is not available which is

a problem identified by the local poultry farms in Table 8.

In addition, according to the caretaker of James Ang Farm, they mainly

use the chicken litter as fertilizer but it is sometimes dried up to serve as fuel as

substitute for wood. According to a study conducted by Waste Concern (2005), a

“Not for Profit” research and development arm of Waste Concern Group, which

focuses on pilot projects on all types of waste and cleaner energy projects,

incineration of poultry litter has been receiving a lot of attention in recent times.

Litter (unlike manure) is an excellent fuel because of the presence of bedding

material. Its heat content is higher than firewood and therefore lends itself to

good combustion.

Results further showed that local poultry farms sell chicken manure as

fertilizer to farmers. Furthermore, out of the 19 respondents, 9 poultry farms or

47% said that they do sell chicken manure as fertilizer to farmers while 10 of the

poultry farms or 53% said that they do not practice this solid waste disposal

method. Majority of the poultry farms in General Santos City are located in rural

areas such as Olympog and Katangawan where the primary source of livelihood

is crop farming.

As previously discussed, the managers of RVM Farm, J.A. Romero

Farms, and Cavestany Farm said that most of the local poultry farms have

regular customers for their chicken litter who are usually neighbouring farmers or
 71

compost fertilizer manufacturers. In addition, this statement is being corroborated

by the managers of Bodani Farm, Farmville Poultry Farm and Herana Poultry

Grower. According to Moreki and Keaikitse (2013), poultry farmers dispose of

manure and/or litter by selling it to other farmers to use in their arable fields, or

use it to fertilize their own fields.

Results showed that local poultry farms store poultry litter and carcass in a

compost pit. Additionally, out of the 19 respondents, only 6 poultry farms or 32%

of them said that they store poultry litter and carcass in a compost pit while 13 of

the poultry farms or 68% of them said that they do not observe this particular

waste management practice.

According to the manager/owner of Cavestany Farm, poultry farms that

also engage in farming have compost pits that they use to make their own

compost fertilizer which they use to encourage the growth of their crops. The

carcass and litter are sometimes thrown into the compost pit to rot, which will

later on be turned into nutrient-rich compost fertilizer to be used in farming.

A compost pit is basically a hole where the animal litter or manure and

carcass are left to rot to achieve a nutrient-rich soil to be used for farming.

Composting is the aerobic degradation of biodegradable organic waste. It is a

relatively fast biodegradation process, taking typically 4–6 weeks to reach a

stabilised material. The composted material is odourless and fine textured with

low moisture content and can be used as an organic fertiliser. Composted poultry

litter is easy to handle and pathogen free. (Kelleher et al, 2008) It has long been

recognized that poultry manure and litter is a good source of plant nutrient mainly
 72

nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). In addition, poultry waste also

contains calcium, magnesium, sulphur and some micronutrients. This knowledge

has resulted in fairly widespread use of poultry waste as a fertilizer produced

from composting (Waste Concern, 2005).

Results further indicated that for the smaller-scale local poultry farmers

who also practice backyard gardening and for those local poultry farms with

bigger operations who also engage in farming, land application of poultry litter is

practiced. Moreover, of the 19 poultry farms interviewed, only 5 poultry farms or

26% said that they practice land application of poultry litter while 14 or 74% of

them do not observe this solid waste management practice. While applying the

poultry litter unto the land is the easiest, cheapest and long-standing option for

disposal of poultry solid waste in areas where land availability has not been an

issue, in recent times, when concentrations of poultry farms started to develop,

this option started to become limited. The primary reason behind this is the

emerging evidence that there are dangers to over-application of poultry manure

to croplands (Waste Concern, 2005).

The Rural NI Portal (2005) mentions the following problems associated

with over-application of poultry manure to cropland: surface and groundwater

pollution, aesthetic problems with odours and insects and over-accumulation of

manure and trace elements leading to reduced crop yields.

Furthermore, the results of the study illustrated that the following practices

are not being observed by the local poultry farms, as follows: collection of poultry

litter and carcass by the LGU, openly dumping poultry litter and carcass, selling
 73

poultry litter and manure to fish feed companies, selling chicken litter and manure

to cooking fuel companies, animal re-feeding and using poultry litter for bio-

energy production.

Results indicated that the poultry litter and carcass are not being collected

by the Local Government Units. Moreover, out of the 19 poultry farms

interviewed, only 2 or 11% of the local poultry farms said that the LGU collects

their poultry litter and carcass while 17 or 89% of the poultry farms said

otherwise. As previously discussed, the poultry farms derive certain benefits from

the solid wastes, specifically, litter is being sold off to farmers and compost

manufacturers, turned into fertilizers for their own crops or dried up and used as

firewood or fuel. Therefore collection by the local government is not necessary. In

terms of the poultry carcass, it is simply buried or turned into compost material,

provided that sufficient burial space is available.

According to the manager of J.A. Romero Farm, the Local Government

Unit conducts several inspections to ascertain that poultry farms follow certain

government regulations on a yearly-basis but they do not actually collect the solid

wastes for disposal. According to the study conducted by Moreki and Keaikitse

(2013), due to the far locations of the poultry farms, the local government units

cannot perform solid waste collection. Transport of solid waste is a main concern

which leaves the poultry farmers to find of alternative ways to dispose of their

solid waste such as burying, burning or selling.

Results illustrated that the local poultry farms do not practice open-

dumping of their solid poultry wastes. Furthermore, out of the 19 poultry farms
 74

interviewed, only 2 or 11% admitted to openly dumping their solid poultry wastes

while the other 17 or 89% said that they do not practice this particular solid waste

disposal method. Open-dumping of solid poultry wastes is not practiced by the

local poultry farms because it is a violation of environment safety codes that

could revoke the license of the business. Instead they resort to other means, as

previously discussed: burying them, selling them or turning them into fertilizer.

However, in some instances where certain problems arise, such as the

unavailability of burial space or burning off of the wastes would prove to be

hazardous to the health of the local poultry farm workers or that the fire could

spread, the local poultry farms resort to openly dumping the wastes. In the study

conducted by Paraso, et.al (2010), very few of the poultry farmers admitted to the

ecologically unacceptable practice of open or indiscriminate dumping of poultry

wastes.

Results further showed that the local poultry farms also do not practice

selling of the poultry litter and manure to fish feed companies. Additionally, out of

the 19 poultry farms, only 4 or 21% said that they do sell the poultry litter and

manure to fish feed companies while the remaining 15 or 79% said that they do

not observe this particular solid waste disposal method.

As previously discussed, the poultry farms said that their main customers

in terms of the poultry litter are the neighbouring farmers and compost

manufacturers. However, sometimes, when there are fish feed companies

seeking to buy poultry litter, the local poultry farms sell it to them. This rarely

happens however, because while it may be true that General Santos City’s main
 75

industry is its fishing industry, most fishing companies are located in areas near

the ocean. In Table 8, it is presented that one of the problems encountered by

the local poultry farms in the management of their solid waste is the long

distance and unavailability of transportation to disposal sites. Another reason for

this is that the poultry farms already have regular customers for the poultry litter

and manure, namely farmers and compost manufacturers.

According to Waste Concern (2005), one of the most common uses of

poultry litter is as fish feed. This activity is pursued through an informal channel

with no well-established market mechanism. As far as it could be gathered, fish

farmers on individual basis make contacts with nearby poultry farms and

purchase the litter. The application procedure involves allowing the litter to slowly

leach out from jute bags placed on the sides of the ponds. In the earlier days of

this practice, some inexperienced fish farmers dumped litter straight into the

pond. This sudden addition of large quantity of litter caused large increases in the

BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) of the water and killed off most of the

fishes. Over time farmers have learnt that a very slow addition method must be

employed. In this application, the litter stimulates the growth of algae, which is a

good fish feed. Fishes usually do not consume the litter.

Results illustrated that the local poultry farms also do not sell the poultry

litter and manure to cooking fuel companies. Moreover, only 3 or 16% out of the

19 poultry farms interviewed said that they sell the poultry litter to cooking fuel

companies while the other 16 or 84% said that they do not observe this particular

solid waste disposal method. As previously discussed, according to the local

 76

poultry farms, they sometimes use the poultry litter as fuel after it has been dried

in the sun as substitute for firewood. However, they do not sell the poultry litter

and manure to cooking fuel companies because there doesn’t seem to be a lot of

those in General Santos City. Also, as previously discussed, the poultry farms

have regular customers for their chicken litter and manure. According to Waste

Concern (2005), selling off of the poultry litter to cooking fuel companies is of an

extremely specialized nature and has only been reported in some areas. In those

areas, the people use the poultry litter as fuel after it has been dried-up, the

ashes of which are then collected and applied to the crops.

Results further showed that the local poultry farmers do not practice

animal re-feeding of the poultry litter. Additionally, only 1 poultry farm or 6%

admitted to re-feeding the poultry litter while the other 17 poultry farms or 94%

said that they do not practice this particular solid waste disposal method and 1

poultry farm did not give an answer. As presented in Table 4, the products

offered by the local poultry farms are layer, broiler and cull. Animal re-feeding of

poultry litter is practiced with cows. The local poultry farms’ operations do not

extend to raising other animals such as cows.

The use of poultry waste as a feed amendment for ruminants is an age-old

practice. However, in recent times, the dangers of such practice have become

more apparent. (Waste Concern, 2005) According to Jacobson (2013), the

practice of re-feeding poultry litter is unacceptable because it allows for the

spread of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, or BSE, the gruesome and fatal

neurodegenerative disorder more commonly known as mad cow disease. While

 77

poultry litter is mainly a combination of feces, feathers, and uneaten chicken

feed, it could also contain antibiotics, heavy metals, disease-causing bacteria,

and even beef protein, including ground-up meat and bone meal. Meat and bone

meal containing infected bovine protein is the chief culprit behind the spread of

mad cow disease. Because of this, in the year 2003, animal re-feeding of poultry

has been banned.

Results indicated that the poultry farms in General Santos City do not

practice the use of poultry litter for biogas production. Biogas production is a

relatively new method of poultry litter and manure disposal. Additionally, out of

the 19 poultry farms interviewed, only 1 poultry farm or 5% said that they use

poultry litter for biogas production while the other 18 poultry farms or 95% said

that they do not observe this particular solid waste disposal method. As

presented in Table 8, the local poultry farmers have admitted that they lack the

knowledge or information about poultry solid waste disposal. Seeing that biogas

production requires specialized knowledge, the local poultry farms do not

practice it. Additionally, while biogas production is a good source for cleaner

energy, it requires specialized equipment. According to Fullhage (2008), the

generation of methane gas from poultry litter gives solutions to two problems:

energy shortage and negative environmental impact. However, biogas

generation requires big investments in money and management and is therefore

not an option that farmers would readily take.

The highest rated solid waste management practice is burying poultry litter

and carcass because it is easy and simple to do. The local poultry farms’ concern
 78

in this practice is the burial space or area. It does not require any special training

or knowledge whatsoever. Whereas the lowest rated practice is using the poultry

litter for biogas production, this is so because it requires specialized knowledge

and equipment which the poultry farms in General Santos City do not readily

have.

Overall, the respondents sometimes observe waste management

practices. This shows that only a few of the waste management practices are

being done particularly the burying of the poultry litter and carcass.

Liquid Waste Management

This part of the study illustrated the data concerning the liquid waste

management practices of poultry farms in General Santos City.

The respondents’ ratings on the questionnaire of 4 and 3 were interpreted

as for those waste management methods that they do follow and the ratings of 2

and 1 were for those methods that they do not practice.From this, the percentage

of those farms observing or not observing a particular method was determined.

Table 7 on the next page illustrated the practiced in the poultry farms. 7

out of 19 or 37% poultry farms manage their waste by letting the liquid waste flow

to drainage canal with the highest weighted mean of 2.68 and that is moderately

practiced. This is to prevent contamination. Meanwhile the remaining 12 out of 19

or 63% practiced different liquid waste management methods.

According to Cavestany Farm, drainage canal channels the liquid wastes

extracted from cleaning the coop to the field that nourishes the crops. Drainage

canals may be important components of upland development. Drainage is

 79

factored into the build of the floor, with a slope to remove wastewater and

promote good drainage. Drains and gulleys are situated in processing areas and

passages, where easy access for regular cleaning reduces the level and

subsequent risk of contamination. Waste water and small eggshell particles are

washed away effectively (Pas Reform, 2012).

Table 7
Liquid Waste Management
n=19

Determinants Weighted Interpretation

Mean
Letting liquid waste flow to drainage
2.68 Practiced
canal
Releasing liquid waste unto bodies of
1.58 Not Practiced
water (e.g. rivers, lakes, creeks)
Storing liquid waste in a waste basin 1.63 Not Practiced
Using furnace to heat the waste to
produce steam to run a turbine 1.00 Not Practiced
generator
Using an in-line composter to stabilize
1.16 Not Practiced
the waste
Vacuum extraction system 1.32 Not Practiced
Using settling tanks for poultry liquid
1.37 Not Practiced
waste
Utilizing treatment lagoons and ponds 1.42 Not Practiced
Applying liquid waste on to the land 1.89 Slightly Practiced
Open Gutter Drain Method 2.32 Slightly Practiced

Results further showed that 5 or 26% out of 19poultry farms manages

their liquid waste though open gutter drain method and the remaining 14 or 74%

are not, and applying liquid waste to the land are 4 or 21% of 19, and 15 or 79%

are not; and are considered as slightly practiced in poultry farms. Gutter drain

method is like drainage canals but elevated from the land.Some poultry farms
 80

said that they simply let the liquid waste to flow in the land since it is only in

minimal amount and would just evaporate. Gutters and downspouts - the vertical

sections that send runoff down to the ground and the ends of the downspouts run

to a suitable drainage system or absorbent, properly graded soil (Vandervort,

2012). According to Wang 2007, Land application is the method most widely

used by the food processing industry to dispose of agricultural wastes.

Application of such wastes to crop land is often the most affordable waste

management alternative as properly applied waste can provide plant nutrients

and act as a soil conditioner. Sustainable land application systems should aim to

maximize nutrient use while minimizing environmental impact.

The out of 19 poultry farms, 1 or 5% said that they manage their liquid

waste by releasing liquid waste unto bodies of water,1 or 5% use vacuum

extraction system,and1or 5% utilize treatment lagoons and ponds, and95% said

they do not practiced the aforementioned determinants, and are notconsidered

as not practiced in the poultry farms.

Sedimentation tank, also called settling tank or clarifier, component of a

modern system of water supply or wastewater treatment. A sedimentation tank

allows suspended particles to settle out of water or wastewater as it flows slowly

through the tank, thereby providing some degree of purification. A layer of

accumulated solids, called sludge, forms at the bottom of the tank and is

periodically removed (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2016).

Most agricultural treatment lagoons are anaerobic lagoons. Anaerobic

lagoons are earthen structures, which look at first glance like farm ponds. These
 81

lagoons are designed to provide biological treatment and long term storage of

animal waste. Anaerobic lagoons are larger thanmanure storage basins, which

do not provide significant biological treatment or long storage periods, but smaller

than aerobic lagoons (Animal Manure Management, 2015).

It is a sewerage system which uses differential air pressure and gravity to

rapidly transport sewage in a network of essentially empty pipes from Collection

Pits to a central collection tank and then to a point of discharge (Flovac, 2016).

The suction pressure necessary for removing wastewater and cleaning

sewer networks is provided by vacuum pumps. The contaminants in the

wastewater are sucked in and can be flushed out periodically by means of

pumps. With the use of central vacuum systems the disposal of wastewater can

be effected at the same place. The wastewater can be collected, drained and

disposed of in complete housing areas at the same time. With the use of vacuum

up to 97% of the wastewater can be transported uphill (Gardner Denver Inc.

2015).

Storing liquid waste in a waste basin, using settling tanks for poultry liquid

waste, using furnace to heat the waste to produce steam to run a turbine

generator, and using an in-line composter to stabilize the waste were rated 1-3 in

the scale and are considered not practiced. These practices are not available in

the area because of the availability of the materials and lack of technological

advancement

The heat generated by the following wastes can be used directly to warm

homes and buildings or to generate electricity using a steam turbine, or both,

 82

through combined heat and power systems: direct combustion (incineration) of

dry biomass waste such as wood; waste, straw and poultry litter; he biomass part

of municipal waste; some commercial and industrial wastes; some construction

and demolition wastes. Where waste is combusted in a combined heat and

power unit, it is possible to produce both heat and power at greater efficiencies

(Guidance, 2013).

Overall, poultry farms managed their liquid waste by letting the liquid flow

to drainage canal since it is more convenient and practical. Releasing liquid

wastes in bodies of water, the use of vacuum extraction system and treatment

lagoons and ponds are less preferred since the equipment and procedures are

not yet available in the area or it is hazardous to the environment. Poultry farms

in General Santos City has lesser or does not have liquid waste for it is only

produced after the harvest from cleaning the chicken coop.

Problems and Challenges

This part of the study showed the data concerning the difficulties poultry

farms commonly encounter in their waste management practices.

Table 8 on the next page illustrated the various problems and challenges

that the local poultry farms faced in the disposal of their solid and liquid wastes.

The most prevalent problems in terms of their waste management

practices were identified and ranked in order as follows: insect infestation,

irrigation schedule, lack of facilities/no proper construction of drainage system

nearby, unavailability of transport vehicle to disposal sites, delay in collection of

 83

waste and animal carcass, inadequate government agencies support system,

water contamination and budget.

Table 8
Problems and Challenges
n=19

Frequency
Variables Ranking
(f)

Unavailability of transportation vehicle to 3 4th

disposal sites
Long distance from disposal sites 2 9th
Delay in collection of waste and animal
3 4th
carcass
Lack of facilities/no proper construction of
4 2nd
drainage system nearby
Lack of farmer's knowledge of poultry
1 12th
waste management
Insufficient waste disposal space 2 9th
Inadequate government agencies support
3 4th
system
Foul odour 2 9th
Insect infestation 5 1st
Water contamination 3 4th
Irrigation schedule 4 2nd
Others:
Irrigation 1 12th
Budget 3 4th

According to the local poultry farms, the most prevalent problem that they

have faced is insect infestation. This occurs because the waste is harvested on a

per-cycle basis usually from three to six months. It is not being cleaned right

away. It is left to accumulate to save time and effort. In effect, the smell attracts

the flies and other animals.

 84

According to the managers of RVM Farm, J.A. Romero Farm and

Cavestany Farm, the local poultry farm’s regular customers for its litter are

neighbouring farmers and compost manufacturers who pick up the wastes on a

regular basis, which is usually as soon as the cycle ends.

According to Axtell (2003), populations of pests such as house fly and

several related species, such as cockroaches, and rodents are largely

determined by the housing, waste, and flock management practices. Axtell

further states that an integrated pest management approach, tailored to the

different production systems, is required for satisfactory poultry pest control.

A study by Dogra (2010) revealed that poultry farms are associated with

high fly density and high infectious morbidity suggesting that monitoring and

regulations for poultry manure management practices and insecticide use

practices have to be strengthened.

Based on Table 3, most of the local poultry farms have capitalizations of 1

000 000 to 3 000 000. Of these amounts, a part goes to the purchasing of the

poultry, salary of personnel and basic structures such as cages. With this, it can

be inferred that not all of the local poultry farms have complete facilities to handle

the disposal of their solid and liquid wastes efficiently. These problems force the

poultry farms to dispose of the liquid waste directly onto the ground. The liquid

waste in poultry is called effluent; it refers to the water that the farm owners use

to clean off the droppings of the birds.

According to the manager of Bodani Farm and NVM Farm, the liquid

waste of the poultry farms ismainly the water that they use after cleaning the
 85

cages of the poultry after the animals have been harvested. This liquid waste is

mainly composed of bird droppings and chemicals that are used for cleaning.

Most of the time, the liquid waste is disposed of directly onto the ground.

According to Moreki and Keaikitse (2013), the lack of properly constructed

drainage systems results to the waste water being disposed of on the bare

ground or in constructed pits located within farms which also produced

unpleasant odours.

Disposal sites are often located in remote areas to avoid spreading

contamination and other diseases to people. According to the managers of Jocils

Farm and Jun Salazar Farm, the transportation vehicle is not readily available

because even though some of the poultry farms do own a transportation vehicle,

it serves another purpose, for example for the delivery of the poultry and

therefore it cannot be used for the transport of the wastes. According to Moreki

and Keaikitse (2013), dumping sites and/or landfills are situated far from poultry

operations resulting in infrequent collection of poultry waste making it difficult for

farmers to maintain hygiene on farms, thus compromising bio security.

As discussed previously, the poultry farmers mainly sell the poultry litter to

farmers and compost manufacturers or use it as fertilizer. The poultry litter is

being collected on a per cycle basis, which is usually 3 to 6 months long. The

waste is allowed to accumulate until the end of the cycle to save on time and

effort. According to the local poultry farmers, it is rather inefficient to collect the

waste on a per-day basis. This practice is being confirmed by Sarker (2008), who

states that poultry farm owners stack their crop residue, cow dung, poultry litter
 86

and other bedding materials from cattle shed up to 6 months and then use it in

the field as organic manure or sell it to other farmers. Sometimes, when the

collection of the poultry litter gets delayed, it gives rise to unpleasant odor that

could attract flies and other insects. The smell and sight of poultry waste are

offensive and often become breeding ground for a variety of pests, rodents and

also generate polluted runoff into water ways and to the environment (Zeeuw,

2000)

The local poultry farms indicated that one of their problems in poultry

waste disposal is the inadequacy of government agencies support system.

According to the manager of J.A. Romero Farm, the local government

occasionally visits the poultry farms to inspect them at most twice a year. The

inspection is done to ascertain whether the local poultry farms are complying with

environmental requirements. The poultry farms in General Santos City are issued

an environment compliance certificate, the violation of which would mean the

closure of the business such as in the case of a farm in Albay which spread a lot

of flies which alarmed the locals because the flies could be carriers of dangerous

diseases. (Philippine News Agency, 2015) As identified previously, the most

prevalent problem of the local poultry farms is insect infestation which is due to

the fact that the waste is allowed to accumulate and is then harvested by the end

of the 3-6 month cycle.

Moreover, the local poultry farms see this as a problem because the

government extends support on other areas such as food safety but not much on

the solid and liquid waste disposal of the local poultry farms. According to the
 87

press release by President Benigno Aquino III on June 2015, the Philippines has

been performing very well in terms of food safety which caused the World Health

Organization to accord it the highest level of recognition as a country free from

the poultry and livestock diseases that attacked its neighbouring countries, the

most notable of which is Foot and Mouth Diseases and Avian Influenza.

However, not much was mentioned on the different ways by which the

management of poultry solid and liquid waste can be improved.

The local poultry farms also indicated that water contamination is also a

problem for them in disposing their solid and liquid waste. As presented in Table

7, the local poultry farms practice applying liquid waste onto the land. This

practice is harmful because the liquid waste could seep into the water source

under the ground which could in turn contaminate it. Additionally, as presented in

Table 6, the local poultry farms also practice land application of poultry solid

waste. According to Williams (2012), most poultry manure and litter are applied

to land near poultry production farms. Such land management of poultry by-

products brings the risk of surface and groundwater contamination from potential

pollutants contained in the manure and litter.

The local poultry farms indicated that budget is a problem for them in

disposing their solid and liquid waste. For instance, the local poultry farms vary in

the amount of capitalization and scale of operations. For the larger poultry farms,

they have facilities for disposing their solid and liquid wastes whereas for the

smaller ones, they lack those particular facilities. It is the smaller poultry farms

who admitted to having budgetary problems in terms of their solid and liquid
 88

waste disposal. Budgetary problems do not exist for the poultry farms with larger

operations. These budget constraints lead to the rise to all other problems such

as the unavailability of transportation vehicle to disposal sites, lack of facilities/no

proper construction of drainage system, and insufficient disposal space.

Furthermore, the following were identified by the local poultry farms as

their least prevalent problems: long distance from disposal sites, insufficient

waste disposal space, foul odor, lack of farmer’s knowledge of poultry waste

management and irrigation.

As previously discussed in Table 6 wherein the solid waste management

practices of the poultry farms were presented, according to the poultry farms,

they bury their poultry litter and carcass but when insufficient space is available,

they burn the poultry waste instead and because the landfills and other disposal

sites are constructed far from the areas where the local poultry farms are located,

they resort to selling the poultry litter or turning the poultry carcass into compost

instead. As the poultry litter is being collected in a per-cycle basis, it is stored

until picked up by the farmers and compost manufacturers. The smell and sight

of poultry waste are offensive and often become breeding ground for a variety of

pests, rodents and also generate polluted runoff into water ways and to the

environment. (Zeeuw, 2000)

Moreover, the local poultry farms identified irrigation and lack of farmer's

knowledge of poultry waste management as dominant problems that they are

facing. The local poultry farms identified irrigation as problem which refers to their

lack of facilities. In these particular problems, the budgetary constraints of the

 89

smaller farms play a major role. The larger farms can provide proper training and

guidance to its employees which is something that the smaller farms cannot

readily do. As discussed previously, these budgetary constraints also result to

the lack of the local poultry farms’ facilities. According to Moreki and

Keaikitse(2013), the lack of properly constructed drainage systems result to the

waste water being disposed of on the bare ground or in constructed pits located

within farms which also produced unpleasant odours. Out of the 19 respondents,

one of the poultry farms admitted to having lack of knowledge regarding poultry

waste management. This could be interpreted that the farmer knows only one or

two methods of poultry waste disposal. According to Adamu (2015), one of the

reasons behind the dramatic rise of poultry farming is the non-dependence on

educational background. Every citizen can practice the occupation, irrespective

of his or her educational status.

Overall, the respondents ranked insect infestation as their most prevalent

problem and the lack of farmers’ knowledge and irrigation as their least prevalent

problem. Insect infestation ranked first because almost all of the local poultry

farms experienced this problem particularly because in poultry raising, foul odour

is common and it usually attracts flies and other pests. While the lack of farmers’

knowledge and irrigation ranked last because these problems were encountered

by the poultry farms with smaller operations. In these problems, budgetary

constraints played a major role.

 90

Chapter V

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter summarized the findings of the study. Also, this presented

the conclusions drawn from the results and afterwards, recommendations to the

findings of the study were also presented.

Summary of Findings

On the Profile of the Respondents:

1. Forty seven percent of poultry farms (9 respondents) in General Santos

City have been operating for five years and below while only five percent

have been operating for sixteen to twenty years and another five have

been operating for twenty-one years and above.

2. Majority of the respondents hired five to ten employees with the highest

frequency (5 respondents) and percentage of thirty seven percent. Only

five percent of the poultry farms employ eleven to fifteen employees and

five percent of the poultry farms have sixteen to twenty employees.

3. Fifty percent of the poultry farms (9 respondents) had capitalizations of

P1 000 000 to P3 000 000, eleven percent had less than a million capital
and six percent of the poultry farms had P3 000 001 to P5 000 000.
4. Majority of the respondents (16) produced broiler at eighty four percent

while sixteen percent of the poultry farms produced layers. Most of the

respondents were engaged in contract farming whereby agricultural

production was being carried out on the basis of an agreement between

the buyer and farm producers.

 91

5. Forty two percent (8 respondents) of the poultry farms in General Santos

City produced 20 001 to 50 000 heads while eleven percent produced 50

001 to 80 000 heads and another eleven percent produced 110 001 heads

and above.

On Waste Management and Practices:

6. On solid waste management practices of poultry farms in General Santos

City, majority of the local poultry farms bury poultry litter and carcass with

the highest weighted mean of 2.92 which was agreed by 10 out of 19

available respondents.

7. On liquid waste management practices of poultry farms in General Santos

City, majority of the local poultry farms let liquid waste flow to drainage

canal with the highest weighted mean of 2.68 which was agreed by 7 out

of 19 available respondents.

On Problems and Challenges:

8. Poultry farms in General Santos City identified insect infestation as their

most prevalent problem with a frequency of 5 out of 19 respondents who

answered.

Conclusions

The researchers concluded that majority of the local poultry farms in

General Santos City were operating five years and below. These poultry farms

usually had five to ten employees and mostly produced broiler chicken and

majority of them were conventional poultry farms. Thus, they had the option to

continue leasing or not.

 92

Local poultry farms in General Santos City had a minimum of one million

pesos as amount of capitalization. Heads produced are usually 20,001-50,0000

which meant that local poultry growers were producing large amount of chicken

which were usually being supplied to food and beverage giants in the country.

Moreover, local poultry farms have identified insect infestation as the most

rampant problem because in poultry raising foul odor is common and it usually

attracts flies and other pests.

The recommendations given by the researchers were designed to improve

the waste management for both solid and liquid waste. Such items or methods

were: creating their own compost pits, continuing sales of poultry litter, more

frequent removal of waste, and the use of chemicals as treatment for waste to

avoid contamination.

Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the following were

recommended:

1. Poultry farms must create compost pits to be able to reuse their poultry

waste by turning them into compost fertilizer and thereby lessen the

occurrence of flies and communicable diseases.

2. Poultry farms must continue selling their poultry litter to buyers to generate

income and lessen the waste to be disposed within the farm area.

9. Poultry farms should remove their poultry litter more frequently instead of

allowing them to accumulate first. This could be done at least once a week

so that it would not attract insects or create strong foul odor.

 93

10. Poultry farms must use chemicals as treatment for waste to avoid

contamination and to make the liquid suitable to be reused for other

purposes such as water for crops.

11. From problems and challenges, poultry farms should allocate

transportation equipment into disposal sites, should have a schedule for

waste disposal collection, must raise concerns into government and

organizations concerned, and must build a sustainable water drainage

method to further avoid contaminations.

12. Poultry farms must also use settling tanks to dispose their waste. This will

allow the separation of solid and liquid waste.

13. Poultry farms should regularly use vacuum extraction system to clean the

chicken house. This method is more effective in waste eradication rather

than manual cleaning procedure.

14. In an interview, some of the poultry workers recommended that poultry

owners should also employ bio-security on their farms to avoid diseases,

losses, and hazards on humans working inside the vicinity.

15. Future studies may also be conducted to analyze the relationship between

waste management practices and their effects on the health of poultry

farm workers and animals.

 94

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 97

Appendix A

Survey Questionnaire

General Direction: Please provide the following basic business information

below. Questionnaires will be gathered soon as it is already available. Rest
assured that any information supplied will be treated with the greatest
confidentiality and anonymity.

Part I. Profile of Poultry Farms in General Santos City.These items relate to

the number of years in operation, number of employees, amount of capitalization,
types of products offered, and number of poultry heads produced by the local
poultry farms.

General Instructions: Please put a check mark () to indicate your response for
each item below.
Name of the Business (Optional): _____________________________________

1. Number of Years in Operation

 5 years and below  16 to 20 years

 6 to 10 years  21 years and above
 11 to 15 years

2. Number of Employees

 Less than 5 employees  21 employees and

 5 to 10 employees above
 11 to 15 employees
 16 to 20 employees

3. Amount of Capitalization

 Less than P1 000 000  P5 000 001 to P7 000

 P1 000 001 to P3 000 000
000  P7 000 001 and above

 P3 000 001 to P5 000

000

4. Types of products offered

 Layer  Cull
 Broiler  Others: _________
 98

_________

5. Number of Poultry Heads Produced

 Less than 20 000  80 001 to 110 000

 20 001 to 50 000  110 001 and above
 50 001 to 80 000

Part II. Waste Management of Poultry Farms in General Santos City.These

items relate to the solid and liquid waste management practices that are
employed by the local poultry farms.

General Instructions: Please put a check mark () to indicate your response for
each item below.
Rating Scale Verbal Description Interpretation
Waste management
Highly Practiced practices are observed
4
at all times
Waste management
3 Practiced
practices are observed
Waste management
2 Slightly Practiced practices are observed
rarely
Waste management
1 Not Practiced practices are never
observed

2.1Solid WasteManagementrefers tochicken manure, poultry litter orany

garbage, refuse, sludge from a poultry farm under their operations.

Determinants 4 3 2 1
1. Buryingpoultry litter and carcass
2. Collection of poultry litter and carcass by the LGU
3. Burning poultry litter and carcass
4. Openly dumping poultry litter and carcass (i.e. indiscriminate
disposal of waste)
5. Storing poultry litter and manure in a compost pit
6. Selling poultry litter and manure to fish feed companies
7. Selling poultry litter and manure to compost manufacturers
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8. Selling chicken litter and manure to cooking fuel companies

9. Sellingchicken manure as fertilizerto farmers
10. Land application to enhance crop production
11. Animal re-feeding (i.e. to be used as feeds after pathogens are
neutralized)
12. Using poultry litter for bio-energy production

2.2 Liquid Waste Management refers to poultry (broiler litter) or any water that

has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence in
poultry farms.

Determinants 4 3 2 1
1. Letting liquid waste flow to drainage canal
2. Releasing liquid waste unto bodies of water (e.g. rivers, lakes,
creeks)
3. Storing liquid waste in a waste basin
4. Using furnace to heat the waste to produce steam to run a
turbine generator
5. Using an in-line composter to stabilize the waste
6. Vacuum extraction system
7. Using settling tanks for poultry liquid waste
8. Utilizing treatment lagoons and ponds
9. Applying liquid waste on to the land
10. Open Gutter Drain Method

Part III. Problems and Challenges.These itemsrefer to the difficulties poultry

farms commonly encounter in their waste management practices.

General Instructions: Please put a check mark () to indicate your response for
each item below.

Unavailability of transportation  Delay in collection of waste and

vehicle to the disposal sites animal carcass

Long distance from disposal sites

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Lack of facilities / no proper Inadequate government and

construction of drainage system
nearby
 Lack of farmer’s knowledge of
poultry waste management
agencies support system
 Foul odor
 Insect infestation

 Insufficient waste disposal space Water contamination

Irrigation schedule

Others:
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Trade Name Location

Jun Salazar Poultry Farms Purok Nopol Brgy., Conel

J.A. Romero Farms Prk. San Vicente, Brgy. Olympog

James Ang Farm Prk. 6, Brgy. Katangawan

Bodani Farm
Purok 4, Brangay Ligaya
Farmville Poultry Farm

RVM Farm Prk. 9, Brgy. Katangawan

Jocils Farm Prk. 2, Brgy Ligaya

Gensan Perfect Choice, Inc. Prk. Ngilay Brgy. Tambler

Cavestany Farm Sitio Guadalupe, Brgy. Conel

Herana Poultry Grower Sitio Guadalupe, Brgy. Conel

Camille Farm Prk. 1 Extension, Brgy. Conel

Gear Foods, Inc. Prk. Malakas, Brgy. San Isidro

NVM Poultry Farm Purok Guadalupe, Brgy. Conel

Eco Farms Cabuay., Brgy. Sinawal

Badi Poultry Farm Prk. Malinawon, Brgy. Conel

Jerif Poultry Farm Prk. San Isidro, Brgy. Baluan

Trinity Farm National Highway, Brgy. Sinawal

MLA Agri Business Pao-Pao, Brgy. Sinawal

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Grome Poultry Farm Sitio Udagre, Brgy. Conel

Olayer's Poultry Farm Prk. 5, Brgy. Batomelong

Appendix C
List of Respondents
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Appendix E
Published Article

Kim John Coronado, Mohammad Shane Ishmael, Xelina Blanche Relunio, Ainee
Joy Villares
Business College, Notre Dame of Dadiangas University
Marist Avenue, General Santos City, Philippines

Abstract
This study determined the waste management practices of local poultry farms in
General Santos City by presenting their profiles, solid and liquid waste
management practices and the problems and challenges they encountered in
implementing such practices. The data from the questionnaires were analyzed
and interpreted using frequency, ranking, and weighted mean. The findings of the
study revealed that the poultry farms in General Santos City were operating for
five years and below, mostly producing broiler with capitalizations of one to three
million pesos. In terms of solid waste management, the local poultry farms bury
poultry litter and carcass with the highest weighted mean of 2.92. While in terms
of liquid waste, the poultry farms let their liquid waste flow to drainage canal with
the highest weighted mean of 2.68. Furthermore, the results showed that the
poultry farms identified insect infestation as their most prevalent problem. It was
recommended that poultry farms must create compost pits to be able to reuse
their poultry waste by turning them into compost fertilizer and thereby lessen the
occurrence of pests and communicable diseases.
Keywords: Waste Management, Poultry

I. Introduction

General Santos City, the tuna capital of the republic has now become one of the
most competitive capitals in the nation perhaps on the best fish and agricultural
producers thereto. The production of goods, agronomic machineries, and poultry
raising activities that the City of General Santos yields over the years have
become sustainable and developed by thorough market planning, feasibility
structures, and capital investments of international and local industry players.
With the abundance of resources, General Santos City is continuously making
poultry commerce a primary source of income and employment mechanism
within its constituents.
Although this translates to greater income and employment opportunities, it has
also been implicated in environmental degradation and pollution. Intensification
of animal production is concomitant to key environmental issues such as higher
production of waste products such as manure and effluent. (Paraso, et al., 2010)
In connection with this, many water sources in SOCSARGEN have failed in some
physical, chemical, and microbiological analysis. Silway River which drains into
Sarangani Bay registered a 300,000 MPN (most probable number) per 100
millilitres (ml) coli form count which is higher than “permissible limit” of 5,000
MPN per ml. Coli form count indicates presence of faecal contaminant. Firms
 104

engaged in activities including poultry and livestock contributed significantly in

water contamination. (Dave L. Llorito; Philippine Star)
This research was undertaken in probing the current status of General Santos
City poultry industry grower’s waste management practices. This is an initiative
helping the community for their own welfare, safety, revenue gains, and output
consummation on their products and services as poultry producers in General
Santos City. A deep understanding on how the government and concerned
business owners push towards the positive harvests as what we expect from
such city poultry production and all related waste management practices.

II. Methodology

The researchers employed the descriptive method. Descriptive research provides

conclusive quantifiable information that can be used for statistical inference on
poultry waste management practices through surveys. The information was
gathered and collected without manipulating anything. The focal point of this
study is on the extent of practice as to the solid and liquid waste management of
the poultry farms in General Santos City. Furthermore, the study determined the
problems and challenges encountered by the local poultry farms.
The researchers used survey questionnaires and interview guides in gathering
the data for the study. The data collection instrument was based on published
books and online sources. This was then validated by the advisers and
evaluators.
The questionnaire was divided into three (3) parts. The first part contained the
profile of the local poultry farms which covered the number of years in operation,
number of employees, amount of capitalization, types of products offered and the
number of poultry heads produced. The second part included the waste
management practices of the local poultry farms in terms of their solid and liquid
waste. The third part contained questions on the problems and challenges
encountered by the local poultry farms in terms of their solid and liquid waste
management practices. To analyze the results of the study, a statistical data
treatment was used by the researchers primarily utilizing frequency, weighted
mean and ranking.
III. Results and Discussion
Forty seven percent of poultry farms in General Santos City have been operating
for five years and below while only five percent have been operating for sixteen
to twenty years and another five have been operating for twenty-one years and
above. Most of the local poultry farms in General Santos City are commercially
supervised and monitored by chicken processing giants in the Philippines (San
Miguel, Magnolia, Bounty Fresh, etc.). Due to an increasing demand of chicken
meat internationally, local industry players invested chicken production to aid
these conglomerates in assuring a well-managed and diversified poultry farming.
Most of the respondents are non-conventional poultry farms who decided to
expand their operations usually through short-term sales projection. This is done
to utilize their for more progressive and productive operational activities.
Furthermore, majority of the respondents hired 5 to 10 employees with the
highest frequency and percentage of 37%. In contrast, only 5% of the poultry
 105

farms employ 11 to 15 employees and 5% of the poultry farms have 16 to 20

employees. According to a study conducted by Stevenson and Schuster in the
year 2003, poultry farms relied primarily on family labor, including husband and
wife, children, nieces, and nephews, and hired labor. Taking into consideration
that most of the poultry farms are microenterprise, having a capital of less than
Php 3 000 000, they do not require numerous workers in their daily operations.
By adding excessive manpower, microenterprises will face costly situation by
incurring additional expenses which are unreasonable for their nature and size.
Fifty percent of the poultry farms had capitalizations of P1 000 000 to P3 000
000, eleven percent had less than a million capital and six percent of the poultry
farms had P3 000 001 to P5 000 000. General Santos City is the tuna capital of
the Philippines, as such, its fishing industry serves as the main domestic pride of
the city thus for the local players investment in poultry is a risk. Due to this fact,
local poultry farmers shell out relatively small capital in order to test the
profitability of the market.
Moreover, majority of the respondents produced broiler at 84% while 16% of the
poultry farms produced layers. Most of the respondents are engaged in contract
farming whereby agricultural production is being carried out on the basis of an
agreement between the buyer and farm producers. Most of them are in contract
with some of the leading food corporations in the Philippines. The use of
contracts has become attractive to many farmers because the arrangement can
offer both an assured market and access to production support. Contract farming
is also of interest to buyers, who seek supplies of products for sale further along
the value chain or for processing. Processors constitute the main users of
contracts, as the guaranteed supply enables them to maximise utilization of their
processing capacity (Eaton and Shepherd, 2001).
Eight or 42% of the poultry farms in General Santos City produced 20 001 to 50
000 heads while 2 or 11% produced 50 001 to 80 000 heads and 2 or 11%
produce 110 001 heads and above. This is due to the fact that the number of
poultry heads that can be produced may vary on the housing capacity of the farm
as well as the amount of capitalization of the poultry farm. The larger the farms
is, the more poultry heads it can produce.
Furthermore, majority of the local poultry farms bury poultry litter and carcass
with the highest weighted mean of 2.92 which was agreed by 10 out of 19
available respondents. It is fairly common for poultry animals to catch illnesses
due to changing weather patterns; in the instance that poultry animals do get
sick, they are often treated with some chemicals and medicines to cure them.
However, when those treatments fail, and the poultry animal dies, the best
method to dispose of the fatality is to bury it underground at least six feet deep
into the ground to limit the possibility of stray animals unearthing the carcass
subsequently exposing it to the environment where flies and maggots can feed
on it and spread diseases (Paraso, et. al, 2010).
Majority of the local poultry farms let liquid waste flow to drainage canal with the
highest weighted mean of 2.68 which was agreed by 7 out of 19 available
respondents. Releasing liquid wastes in bodies of water, the use of vacuum
extraction system and treatment lagoons and ponds are less preferred since the
 106

equipment and procedures are not yet available in the area or it is hazardous to
the environment. Poultry farms in General Santos City has lesser or does not
have liquid waste for it is only produced after the harvest from cleaning the
chicken coop.
Moreover, the most prevalent problem identified by the local poultry in terms of
their solid and liquid waste management practices farms was insect infestation.
This occurs because the waste is harvested on a per-cycle basis usually from
three to six months. It is not being cleaned right away. It is left to accumulate to
save time and effort. In effect, the smell attracts the flies and other animals.
According to Axtell (2003), populations of pests such as house fly and several
related species, such as cockroaches, and rodents are largely determined by the
housing, waste, and flock management practices. A study by Dogra (2010)
revealed that poultry farms are associated with high fly density and high
infectious morbidity suggesting that monitoring and regulations for poultry
manure management practices and insecticide use practices have to be
strengthened.
It is important to understand these and find out answers through systematic
solutions. This research was intended to help the poultry farms in General
Santos City to determine the most efficient solid and liquid waste management
practice and to provide recommendations to help improve their business.
IV. Conclusions and Recommendations
The researchers concluded that majority of the local poultry farms in General
Santos City were operating five years and below. These poultry farms usually
had five to ten employees and mostly produced broiler chicken and majority of
them were conventional poultry farms. These local poultry farms had a minimum
of one million pesos as amount of capitalization, usually produced usually
20,001-50,000 heads. Majority of the local poultry farms bury poultry litter and
carcass and let the liquid waste flow to drainage canals. Meanwhile, the local
poultry farms have identified insect infestation as the most rampant problem
because in poultry raising foul odor is common and it usually attracts flies and
other pests.
The recommendations given by the researchers were designed to improve the
waste management for both solid and liquid waste. Such items or methods were:

1. Poultry farms must create compost pits to be able to reuse their poultry
waste by turning them into compost fertilizer and thereby lessen the
occurrence of flies and communicable diseases.
2. Poultry farms must continue selling their poultry litter to buyers to generate
income and lessen the waste to be disposed within the farm area.
3. Poultry farms should remove their poultry litter more frequently instead of
allowing them to accumulate first. This could be done at least once a week
so that it would not attract insects or create strong foul odor.
4. Poultry farms must use organic chemicals as treatment for waste to avoid
contamination and to make the liquid suitable to be reused for other
purposes such as water for crops.
5. From problems and challenges, poultry farms should allocate
transportation equipment into disposal sites, should have a schedule for
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waste disposal collection, must raise concerns into government and

organizations concerned, and must build a sustainable water drainage
method to further avoid contaminations.
6. Poultry farms must also use settling tanks to dispose their waste. This will
allow the separation of solid and liquid waste.
7. Poultry farms should regularly use vacuum extraction system to clean the
chicken house. This method is more effective in waste eradication rather
than manual cleaning procedure.
8. In an interview, some of the poultry workers recommended that poultry
owners should also employ bio-security on their farms to avoid diseases,
losses, and hazards on humans working inside the vicinity.
9. Future studies may also be conducted to analyze the relationship between
waste management practices and their effects on the health of poultry
farm workers and animals.

References
Axtell, R.C., 2003. Poultry Integrated Pest Management: Status and Future.
Integrated Management Reviews. Department of Entomology, North
Carolina State University, USA. Retrieved July, 2016

Dogra, V. And Aggar wal, A.K. 2010. Association of poultry farms with housefly
and morbidity: A comparative study from Raipur Rani, Hyarna. Indian
Commun. Med. 35(4):473-477

Paraso, M., Espaldon, M., Alcantara, A., & Sevilla, C. (2010, December). A
Survey of Waste Management Practices of Selected Swine and Poultry
Farms in Laguna, Philippines. Journal of Environmental Science and
Management. Retrieved February, 2016.
Moreki, J., & Keaikitse, T. (2013). Poultry waste management practices in
selected poultry operations around Gaborone, Botswana. International
Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. Retrieved January,
2016.
 108

Appendix F
Documentation
109
 110

Appendix G

Curriculum Vitae

Personal Information:

Name: Kim John Pitalgo Coronado

Date of Birth: March 9, 1991

Place of Birth: Polomolok, South Cotabato

Age: 25

Gender: Male

Permanent Address: Mars St., Sanchez Subdivision, Polomolok, South

Cotabato

Father’s Name: Reynaldo Coronado (Deceased)

Mother’s Name: Cresencia E. Coronado (Guardian)

Educational Background:

Tertiary Notre Dame of Dadiangas University

Marist Avenue, General Santos City
2013 – Present

Ateneo de Davao University

E. Jacinto St., Davao City
2007-2012

Secondary San Lorenzo Academy of Polomolok

Valencia Site, Polomolok, South Cotabato
2003-2007 (With Honors)

Primary Polomolok Central Elementary School

Barangay Poblacion, Polomolok, South Cotabato
1996-2002 (First Honors)
 111

Personal Information

Name: Mohammad Shane Ishmael

Date of Birth: April 04, 1995

Place of Birth: General Santos City

Age: 21

Gender: Male

Permanent Address: Barangay Banisil, Tambler, General Santos City

Father’s Name: Datu Yahiya B. Ishmael

Mother’s Name: Mildred C. Ishmael

Educational Background:

Tertiary: Notre Dame of Dadiangas University

Marist Avenue, General Santos City
2014-Present

Mindanao State University

Tambler, General Santos City
2011- 2013

Secondary: Mindanao State University-College of Education

Training Department
J.P. Laurel Avenue, General Santos City
2007-2011

Primary: Banisil Elementary School

Barangay Banisil, Tambler, General Santos City
2001-2006
Valedictorian
 112

Personal Information:

Name: Xelina Blanché Azucena Relunio

Date of Birth: November 16, 1994

Place of Birth: General Santos City, South Cotabato

Age: 21

Gender: Female

Permanent Address: 24 Laurel St., Cor. Quirino Ave., Brgy. East,

General Santos City

Father’s Name: Dante P. Relunio

Mother’s Name: Ivy A. Relunio

Educational Background:

Tertiary Notre Dame of Dadiangas University

Marist Avenue, General Santos City
2013 – Present

Mindanao State University

Tambler, General Santos City
2011- 2013

Secondary Mindanao State University - CETD

Pres. Jose P. Laurel Ave., General Santos City,
2007-2011 (Academic Achiever)

Primary Dadiangas West Central Elementary School

Magsaysay Ave., General Santos City
2000-2007 (With Honors)
 113

Personal Information:

Name: Ainee Joy S. Villares

Date of Birth: January 10, 1995

Age: 21

Gender: Female

Permanent Address: Bagacay, Alabel Sarangani Province

Father’s Name: Victorino C. Villares

Mother’s Name: Josephine G. Sabalde

Educational Background:

Tertiary: Notre Dame of Dadiangas University

Marist Avenue, General Santos City
2013-Present

Ateneo de Zamboanga University

La Purisima, Zamboanga City
2011-2013

Secondary: Alabel National Science High School

Regional Science High School for Region XII
Maribulan, Alabel Sarangani Province
2007-2011

Primary: Alabel Central SPED Center

Poblacion Alabel Sarangani Province
2007