CHAPTER 6 ELEMENTS OF AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE

INTRODUCTION TO THE DRAG POLAR

What is the maximum speed of the airplane? How fast can it climb to a given altitude? How far can it fly on a given tank of fuel? How long can it stay in the air? Answers to
these and similar questions constitute the study of airplane performance. We emphasized that the aerodynamic forces and moments exerted on a body moving through a fluid
stem from two sources, both acting over the body surface: 1. The pressure distribution. 2. The shear stress distribution.

The airplane is considered a rigid body on which four natural forces are exerted: lift, drag, propulsive thrust, and weight.

We will assume that the aerodynamicists have done their work and given us the pertinent aerodynamic data for a given airplane. These data are usually packaged in the form
of a drag polar for the complete airplane, given as:
EQUATIONS OF MOTION

The mean chord line is at a geometric angle of attack α with respect to the flight path direction. Four physical forces are acting on the airplane:
1. Lift L, which is perpendicular to the flight path direction.
2. Drag D, which is parallel to the flight path direction.
3. Weight W, which acts vertically toward the center of the earth (and hence is inclined at angle θ with respect to the lift direction).
4. Thrust T, which in general is inclined at the angle α T with respect to the flight path direction.

Equations are the equations of motion for an airplane in translational flight. describe the general two-dimensional translational motion of an airplane in accelerated flight.
However, in the first part of this chapter we are interested in a specialized application of these equations: the case where the acceleration is zero. The performance of an
airplane for such unaccelerated flight conditions is called static performance.
THRUST REQUIERED FOR LEVEL, UNACCELERATED FLIGHT

The thrust required to obtain a certain steady velocity is easily calculated from:

Thrust-required TR for a given airplane at a given altitude varies with velocity V∞. The thrust-required curve is a plot of this variation and has the general shape
illustrated in the figure below. To calculate a point on this curve, proceed as follows:
The total drag of the airplane is the sum of the zero-lift drag and the drag due to lift. The corresponding drag coefficients are CD,0 and CD,i = CL e2 /πeAR, respectively. At
the condition for minimum TR, there exists an interesting relation between CD,0 and CDi, as follows:
THRUST AVAILABLE AND MAXIMUM VELOCITY

Thrust-required TR, is dictated by the aerodynamics and weight of the airplane itself; it is an airframe-associated phenomenon. In contrast, the thrust-available TA is strictly
associated with the engine of the airplane (turboprop, turboshaft, turbofan, rocket, etc.).

The intersection of the TR curve (dependent on the airframe) and the maximum TA curve (dependent on the engine) defines the maximum velocity Vmax of the airplane at
the given altitude (See example 6.1). Calculating the maximum velocity is an important part of the airplane design process.

POWER REQUIRED FOR LEVEL, UNACCELERATED FLIGHT

Power is a precisely defined mechanical term; it is energy per unit time.

ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON POWER REQUIRED AND AVAILABLITY
RATE OF CLIMB

As always, lift and drag are perpendicular and parallel to V∞, and the weight is perpendicular to the horizontal. Thrust T is assumed to be aligned with the flight path. Where
T is working to overcome the drag, but for climbing flight it is also supporting a component of weight.

GLIDING FLIGHT
ABSOLUTE AND SERVICE CEILINGS

At some altitude high enough, the PA curve becomes tangent to the PR curve. The velocity at this point is the only value at which steady, level flight is possible; moreover,
there is zero excess power, and hence zero maximum rate of climb, at this point. The altitude at which maximum R/C = 0 is defined as the absolute ceiling of the airplane. A
more useful quantity is the service ceiling, defined as the altitude where maximum R/C = 100 ft/min. The service ceiling represents the practical upper limit of steady, level
flight. The absolute and service ceilings can be determined as follows:

1. Calculate values of maximum R/C for a number of different altitudes.

2. Plot maximum rate of climb versus altitude, as shown below.
3. Extrapolate the curve to 100 ft/min and 0 ft/min to find the service and absolute ceilings, respectively.

TIME TO CLIMB

A fighter airplane must be able to climb from sea level to the altitude of advancing enemy aircraft in as short a time as possible. A commercial aircraft must be able to rapidly
climb to high altitudes to minimize the discomfort and risks of inclement weather and to minimize air traffic problems. The time for an airplane to climb to a given altitude
can become an important design consideration. The rate of climb was defined as the vertical velocity of the airplane. Velocity is simply the time rate of change of distance, the
distance here being the altitude h. Hence:
RANGE AND ENDURANCE: PROPS VS. JETS

RELATIONS BETWEEN ZERO-LIFT DRAG AND INDUCED DRAG

TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE

What is the running length along the ground required by an airplane, starting from zero velocity, to gain flight speed and lift from the ground? This length is defined as the
ground roll, or liftoff distance, SLO.

When an airplane is flying close to the ground, the strength of the wing-tip vortices is somewhat diminished because of interaction with the ground. Because these tip vortices
induce downwash at the wing which, in turn, generates induced drag the downwash and hence induced drag are reduced when the airplane is flying close to the ground. This
phenomenon is called ground effect and is the cause of the tendency for an airplane to flare, or “float,” above the ground near the instant of landing.
LANDING PERFORMANCE
The equation of motion for the landing ground roll is obtained from:

TURNING FLIGHT AND THE V-n DIAGRAM

Let us now consider some cases involving radial acceleration, which leads to curved flight paths; that is, let us consider the turning flight of an airplane. In particular, we
examine three specialized cases: a level turn, a pull-up, and a pull-down.
ACCELERATED RATE OF CLIMB: ENERGY METHOD
Modern high-performance airplanes
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUPERSONIC AIRPLANES