CHAPTER 5 AIRFOILS, WINGS AND OTHER AERODYNAMIC SHAPES

AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

Mean camber line, which is the locus of points halfway between the upper and lower surfaces, as measured perpendicular to the mean camber line itself.

The most forward and rearward points of the mean camber line are the leading and trailing edges, respectively.

The straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges is the chord line of the airfoil, and the precise distance from the leading to the trailing edge measured along the
chord line is simply designated the chord of the airfoil, given by the symbol c.

The camber is the maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line, measured perpendicular to the chord line.

The camber, the shape of the mean camber line, and to a lesser extent the thickness distribution of the airfoil essentially control the lift and moment characteristics of the
airfoil.
The free-stream velocity V∞ is the velocity of the air far upstream of the airfoil. The direction of V∞ is defined as the relative wind. The angle between the relative wind and
the chord line is the angle of attack α of the airfoil.

The aerodynamic force R can be resolved into two forces, parallel and perpendicular to the relative wind. The drag D is always defined as the component of the aerodynamic
force parallel to the relative wind. The lift L is always defined as the component of the aerodynamic force perpendicular to the relative wind. In addition to lift and drag,
the surface pressure and shear stress distributions create a moment M that tends to rotate the wing. N is the normal force and A is the axial force.
Consider just the pressure on the top surface of the airfoil. This pressure gives rise to a net force F1 in the general downward direction. Moreover, F1 acts through a given
point on the chord line, point 1, which can be found by integrating the pressure times distance over the surface (analogous to finding the centroid or center of pressure from
integral calculus). Now consider just the pressure on the bottom surface of the airfoil. This pressure gives rise to a net force F2 in the general upward direction, acting through
point 2. The total aerodynamic force on the airfoil is the summation of F1 and F2, and lift is obtained when F2 > F1. However, F1 and F2 will create a moment that will tend
to rotate the airfoil.

The lift, drag, and moments on a wing will change as the angle of attack α changes. Although MLE and Mc/4 are both functions of α, there exists a certain point on the airfoil
about which moments essentially do not vary with α. This point is defined as the aerodynamic center, and the moment about the aerodynamic center is designated Mac. For
low-speed subsonic airfoils, the aerodynamic center is generally very close to the quarter chord point.
LIFT, DRAG, AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS

The actual magnitudes of L, D, and M depend not only on α, but also on velocity and altitude.
AIRFOIL DATA

A large bulk of experimental airfoil data was compiled over the years by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), which was absorbed in the creation of
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958. The practical aerodynamicist has to rely on direct experimental measurements of cl, cd , and cm for
specific bodies of interest.
As the angle of attack is increased, the adverse pressure gradient on the top surface of the airfoil will become stronger; and at some value of α—the stalling angle of attack—
the flow becomes separated from the top surface.

INFINITE VS. FINITE WINGS

The distance between the two wing tips is defined as the wingspan b. The area of the wing in this planform view is designated, as before, by S. This leads to an important
definition that pervades all aerodynamic wing considerations—the aspect ratio AR:

For this reason the aerodynamic coefficients for a finite wing are designated by capital letters CL, CD , and CM ; this is in contrast to those for an infinite wing, which we have
been designating as cl , cd , and cm.

PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

We define a new dimensionless quantity called the pressure coefficient Cp:

Let us designate the low-speed (incompressible) value of Cp by Cp0. at M∞  0, Cp = Cp0 .As M∞ increases to M∞  0.3, essentially Cp is constant. However, as M∞ is
increased beyond 0.3, Cp increases dramatically. (That is, the absolute magnitude increases: If Cp0 is negative, Cp will become an increasingly negative number as M∞
increases, whereas if Cp0 is positive, Cp will become an increasingly positive number as M∞ increases.)

OBTAINING LIFT COEFFICIENT FROM Cp

This is the force in the normal direction due to the pressure distribution acting on the upper surface of the wing, per unit span.
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

By definition, the free-stream Mach number at which sonic flow is first obtained somewhere on the airfoil surface is called the critical Mach number of the airfoil. The specific
value of Cp that corresponds to sonic flow is defined as the critical pressure coefficient Cp,cr.
On these curves, only points a, b, and c are critical pressure coefficients, by definition. However, these critical points by themselves form a locus represented by the dotted
curve in the figure.

WAVE DRAG AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS

SUMMARY OF AIRFOIL DRAG
FINITE WINGS

If the wing has lift, then obviously the average pressure over the bottom surface is greater than that over the top surface. Consequently, there is some tendency for the air to
“leak,” or flow, around the wing tips from the high- to the low-pressure sides. This flow establishes a circulatory motion that trails downstream of the wing. The trailing
circular motion is called a vortex.
CALCULATION OF INDUCED DRAG
CHANGE IN THE LIFT SLOPE
SWEPT WINGS
FLAPS – A MECHANISM FOR HIGH LIFT

An airplane normally encounters its lowest flight velocities at takeoff or landing—two periods that are most critical for aircraft safety. The slowest speed at which an airplane
can fly in straight and level flight is defined as the stalling speed Vstall. The calculation of Vstall, as well as aerodynamic methods of making V stall as small as possible, is of
vital importance.
The stalling velocity is readily obtained in terms of the maximum lift coefficient. From the definition of CL,
AERODYNAMICS OF CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
HOW LIFT IS PRODUCED – SOME ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATION
NACA AIRFOILS

The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile by

1. First digit describing maximum camber as percentage of the chord.
2. Second digit describing the distance of maximum camber from the airfoil leading edge in tenths of the chord.
3. Last two digits describing maximum thickness of the airfoil as percent of the chord.

For example, the NACA 2412 airfoil has a maximum camber of 2% located 40% (0.4 chords) from the leading edge with a maximum thickness of 12% of the chord.

The NACA 0015 airfoil is symmetrical, the 00 indicating that it has no camber. The 15 indicates that the airfoil has a 15% thickness to chord length ratio: it is 15% as thick as
it is long.