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The Nalco
Water
Handbook
00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 1 04/10/17 3:59 pm

About Nalco Water, an Ecolab Company
Nalco Water, an Ecolab company is the global leader in
water, hygiene, and energy technologies and services
that protect people and vital resources. Ecolab delivers
comprehensive solutions and on-site service to ensure
safe food, maintain clean environments, optimize
water and energy use, and improve operational effi-
ciencies for customers in the food, healthcare, energy,
hospitality, and industrial markets in more than 170
countries around the world.

The Nalco
Water
Handbook
Nalco Water, an Ecolab Company
Daniel J. Flynn Editor
Fourth Edition
New York Chicago San Francisco

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Contents
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
Section 1 Introduction
1 The Business Case for Managing Water. . . . . . . . 1.3
Global Trends Affecting Water Supply. . . . . . . . . . 1.4
The Impact of Climate Change on
Glacial Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
Impact of Population Trends on Surface
and Groundwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
Sustainability as a Business Driver. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
Sustainability Reporting and Regulations. . . 1.7
Making the Business Case for Managing Water. . . 1.9
Calculate the Full Value of Water . . . . . . . . 1.10
Perform a Total Plant Assessment of
Water Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
Value and Prioritize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
Water Risk Monetizer Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
Business Expansion Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
Existing Facility Water Improvement
Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
2 Water Sources and Stressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
Water Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
Surface Water—Rivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
Surface Water—Lakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8
Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.16
Connate Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17
Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17
Recycled Wastewater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.19
Stress on Water Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21
Groundwater Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21
Surface Water Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.24
3 Water Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
Natural Factors Affecting Water Quality. . . . . . . . 3.1
Seasonal Changes That Affect Water Quality . . . 3.4
Impact of Dams on River Water Quality . . . 3.4

vi Contents
Water Quality When River Meets Ocean. . . 3.6

Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7
Impact of Water and Process Treatment. . . . . . . . . 3.11
Boiler Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12
Cooling Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13
Wastewater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15
Focus on Total System Performance . . . . . . 3.15
Section 2 Basic Water Chemistry

4 Water Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
Atoms, Molecules, Ions, and Compounds. . . . . . . 4.3
Atoms and Molecules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
Bonding in Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
The Water Molecule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7
Solubility of Matter in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8
Hydrogen Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9
Other Properties of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10
Basics of Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
Impurities in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13
Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14
Electromotive Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
Colloidal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
Solubility of Gases in Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.18
Organic Compounds and Solubility in
Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
Solubility Product Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
Equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.22
Solid Reactants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.24
Complexing Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.26
Application of Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.29
Hardness and Analysis of Water. . . . . . . . . 4.29
Alkalinity and pH Relationships. . . . . . . . . 4.31
Practical Aspects of Mineral Solubility. . . . 4.41
CaCO3 Stability Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.44
Oxidation/Reduction Reactions . . . . . . . . . 4.46
5 Impurities in Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

Characteristics of Water Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
Classes of Impurities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
Dissolved Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
Suspended Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.19
Organic Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.20
Biological Organisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.24

Contents vii
Macrofouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.27
Dissolved Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.30
Water Reuse and Recycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.31
Section 3.1 Applications—Impurity Removal

6 Raw Water Clarification and Filtration. . . . . . . . . 6.3
Coagulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5
Contaminants Removed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6
Zeta Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9
Flocculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11
Coagulation and Flocculation Chemicals. . . . . . . . 6.14
Tailoring Polyelectrolytes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.16
Activated Silica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.18
Coagulation and Flocculation Applications. . . . . . 6.18
Color Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.23
Plant Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.25
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.29
Filtration Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.30
Granular Media Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.32
Granular Media Filter Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.35
Filter Backwashing Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.37
Filter Appurtenances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.39
Service Operating Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . 6.40
Water Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.41
Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.43
Direct Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.44
7 Ion Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
Ion Exchange Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
Ion Affinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
Resin Bead Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
Particle Size and Size Distribution . . . . . . . 7.5
Resin Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7
Resin Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11
Backwash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11
Regenerant Addition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13
Slow Rinse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
Fast Rinse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
Counter-Current Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
Resin Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16
Strong Acid Cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16
Weak Acid Cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.22
Strong Base Anion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.26
Weak Base Anion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.30

viii Contents
Resin Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.34

Expected Length of Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.34
Annual Resin Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.39
Annual Regeneration Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.46
Monitoring Service Performance. . . . . . . . . 7.47
Chemical Cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.51
Resin Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.52
Ion Exchange Equipment Configurations . . . . . . . 7.53
Softening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.53
Dealkalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.53
Primary Demineralizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.61
Mixed-Bed Demineralizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.65
Packed Bed Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.67
Water Use Optimization Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.69
System Optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.69
Water Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.70
8 Membrane Separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
Pressure-Driven Membrane Separation
Technologies: Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration,
Nanofiltration, Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2
Basic Membrane Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
Membrane Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7
Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration. . . . . . . . 8.14
Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration . . . . . 8.25
Electrochemically-Driven Membrane Separation
Process: Electrodeionization/Continuous
Electrodeionization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.55
Theory of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.56
Membrane Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.58
Pretreatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.60
Cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.61
Monitoring and Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . 8.61
Section 3.2 Applications—Steam Generation

9 Boiler Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3
Steam Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3
Condensate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5
Steam or Condensate Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6
Makeup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6
Concentration by Evaporation. . . . . . . . . . . 9.6
Blowdown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7
Feedwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8

Contents ix
Mathematical Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9

Blowdown and Makeup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9
Cycles of Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.11
Mass Balance Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.12
Optimizing the Water Balance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.13
Thermodynamic Properties of Steam. . . . . . . . . . . 9.14
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.15
Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.16
Boiler Classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.17
Boiler Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.18
Boiler Ratings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.37
Boiler Circulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.39
10 Oxygen Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
Corrosion Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
Mechanical Deaeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3
Ionization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3
Relative Partial Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6
Agitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6
Gas Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7
Pressure Deaerators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7
Primary Preheating Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8
Basic Principles of Mechanical Deaeration Using
Pressure Deaerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9
Spray Deaerator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9
Tray Deaerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11
Atomizing Deaerator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.13
Operating Considerations for Pressure
Deaerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
Deaerating Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15
Proper Venting of Pressure
Deaerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15
Mixing Condensate and Makeup . . . . . . . . 10.16
Pressure Deaerator Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . 10.17
Vacuum Deaerators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.18
Deaerating Condensers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.19
Feedwater Tanks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.20
Gas Transfer Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.23
Activated Carbon Catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.25
Ion Exchange Resin Catalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.27
Chemical Oxygen Scavengers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.27
Sodium Sulfite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.29
Hydrazine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.31
Carbohydrazide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.32

x Contents
Erythorbate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.33
Diethylhydroxylamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.34
Methylethylketoxime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.35
Hydroquinone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.37
Monitoring and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.37
Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.39
Monitoring and Control Tools. . . . . . . . . . . 10.40
At-Temperature ORP Monitoring. . . . . . . . 10.42
11 Boiler Feedwater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1
Hardness Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3
Silica Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4
Iron Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6
The Problem with Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7
Iron Deposition Mechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7
Sources of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9
Polymers and Iron Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12
Iron Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.13
Effects of Boiler Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.16
Internal Chemical Treatment Programs. . . . . . . . . 11.20
Phosphate Residual Programs—Low
Pressure Industrial Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 11.21
Phosphate-Polymer Programs. . . . . . . . . . . 11.25
Phosphate Programs—High Pressure
Industrial Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.28
Chelates and Chelate-Polymer
Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.33
All-Polymer Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.37
12 Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1
Turbine Mechanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1
Turbine Problem Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6
13 Condensate Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1

Causes of Condensate System Corrosion. . . . . . . . 13.2
Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2
Estimating the Amount of Carbon Dioxide
in Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5
Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5
Carbon Dioxide Plus Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7
Ammonia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8
Sulfur Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulfide . . . . 13.9
Process Contamination and Organic
Acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10
Methods of Condensate Corrosion
Inhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10

Contents xi
Neutralizing Amines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11

Filming Amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.19
Oxygen Scavengers/Metal Passivators . . . 13.20
Minimizing the Effect of Contaminated
Condensate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.20
System Design and Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.22
Evaluating Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.23
Why Treat Condensate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.24
Section 3.3 Applications—Cooling Water Systems

14 Cooling System Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3
Mechanical-Operational-Chemical Survey
Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3
Survey Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3
Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5
Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6
Calculations and Measurements. . . . . . . . . 14.13
Effects of Corrosion and Deposits. . . . . . . . 14.20
Types of Cooling Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.22
Once-through Cooling Water Systems. . . . 14.23
Closed Recirculating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 14.28
Open Recirculating Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.30
15 Cooling Water Deposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1
Consequences of Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3
The Scale Formation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7
Solubility Is an Equilibrium Process. . . . . . 15.7
Nucleation and Scale Formation. . . . . . . . . 15.8
Factors Affecting Scale Formation. . . . . . . . 15.13
Predicting Scale Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.17
Fouling Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.20
Suspended Particle Interactions. . . . . . . . . . 15.21
Suspended Solids Deposition Processes. . . 15.23
Cooling Systems Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.23
Calcium Carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.23
Calcium Sulfate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.25
Silica and Silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.25
Calcium Phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.29
Zinc Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.30
Calcium Polyphosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.31
Calcium Phosphonates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.33
Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.34
Silt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.35
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.36

xii Contents
16 Cooling System Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1

Corrosion of Materials in Cooling Systems. . . . . . 16.2
Carbon Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2
Copper Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3
Stainless Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3
Galvanized Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4
Nonmetallic Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5
The Corrosion Process in Cooling Systems . . . . . . 16.6
The Local Cell Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6
Anodic Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8
Cathodic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8
Secondary Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.9
Galvanic or Electrochemical Series. . . . . . . 16.10
The Role of Oxygen in Corrosion . . . . . . . . 16.12
Polarization and Corrosion Rates . . . . . . . . 16.13
Passivity and Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.14
Factors Influencing Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.15
Water Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.15
Dissolved Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.17
Halogens and Other Oxidizers . . . . . . . . . . 16.18
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.18
Flow Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.19
System or Spatial Configuration Factors. . . 16.20
Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.20
Types of Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.20
Uniform Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.21
Pitting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.21
Localized Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.22
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion. . . 16.27
Stress Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.30
17 Cooling Water Biology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1
Sources of Biological Problems in Cooling Water
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1
Consequences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2
Microorganisms Found in Cooling Systems . . . . . 17.4
Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4
Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.11
Protozoa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.12
Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.12
Factors Affecting Microbial Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . 17.13
Suitable Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.14
Biofilms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.15
Formation and Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.15
Biofilm Advantages to the Microbes . . . . . 17.17
Problems Associated with Biofilms. . . . . . . 17.17

Contents xiii
Determining the Bacterial Population of

Cooling Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.19
18 Cooling Water Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1
Deposition Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1
Heated Tube Deposit Monitors . . . . . . . . . . 18.1
Pressure Drop Microbial Fouling Monitors. . . 18.2
Real-Time Deposit Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . 18.2
Corrosion Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4
Corrosion Coupons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4
Electrochemical Corrosion
Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.10
Corrosion Product Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . 18.11
Biological Growth Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12
Lab Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12
Field Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.13
Online Biological Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . 18.17
19 Cooling Water Treatment and Control . . . . . . . . . 19.1
Deposit Control Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1
Deposit Inhibitor Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . 19.2
Examples of Deposit Inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . 19.5
Corrosion Control Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.9
Corrosion Inhibitor Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . 19.9
Examples of Corrosion Inhibitors. . . . . . . . 19.13
Biological Control Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.16
Oxidizing Biocides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.17
Nonoxidizing Biocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.22
Biodispersants and Biodetergents. . . . . . . . 19.24
Macrofouling Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.25
Cooling Water Treatment Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.26
Stabilized Phosphate Programs. . . . . . . . . . 19.26
All-Organic Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.27
Alkaline Zinc Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.27
Alkaline Phosphate Programs. . . . . . . . . . . 19.28
Molybdate Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.28
Non-Phosphorous Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . 19.28
Nonchemical Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.29
Section 3.4 Applications—Water Safety for Building

Water Systems
20 Legionella and Legionellosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3
The Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4
Legionnaires’ Disease Symptoms . . . . . . . . 20.5
Susceptibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.5
Pontiac Fever Variant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6

xiv Contents
First Identified Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6

Other Outbreaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.7
The Bacteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.9
Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.10
Conditions for Growth and Proliferation. . . 20.10
Sources of Risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.14
Risk of Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.15
21 Water Management Programs for Engineered
Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1
Managing the Risk: Regulatory Position and
Global Guidance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3
General Management Considerations . . . . . . . . . . 21.5
Assessment of Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.6
Growth Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.7
Aerosol Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.11
Human Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.12
Manage the Risk: Water Management
Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.12
Water Management Program for
Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.12
Control Scheme for Hot and Cold
Potable Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.16
Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.22
Other Risk Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.23
Consequence of Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.24
Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.24
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.24
Section 3.5 Applications—Post-Treatment

22 Primary Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3
Clarification by Sedimentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3
Forms of Solids in Effluent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4
Sedimentation Phenomena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.5
Mass Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.9
Clarifier Hydraulic Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.11
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.13
Clarifier Operating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.13
Sludge Bed Depth Measurement. . . . . . . . . 22.15
Influent Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.15
Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.16
Types of Sedimentation Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.16
Circular Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.17
Rectangular Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.18
Parallel Plate and Tube Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . 22.21

Contents xv
Drag Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.26

Oil/Water Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.26
Flotation Clarification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.30
The Dissolved Air Flotation System. . . . . . 22.31
Types of DAF Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.32
Operating Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.34
Pressurization Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.37
Flotation Cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.39
Float Removal Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.40
Plant Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.41
Induced Air Flotation (IAF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.41
23 Secondary Effluent Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.1
General Principles of Secondary Treatment. . . . . . 23.1
Basic Methods of Secondary Treatment. . . 23.2
Principles of Biological Waste Treatment. . . . . . . . 23.5
Important Microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.5
Bacterial Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.8
Biological Treatment Control Parameters. . . 23.11
Activated Sludge Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.17
Activated Sludge Process Equipment. . . . . 23.18
Activated Sludge Process Control
Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.25
Nutrient Removal in Activated Sludge. . . . 23.32
Aerated Lagoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.34
Significant Operational Control
Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.34
Stabilization Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.36
Pond Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.36
Rotating Biological Contactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.36
Trickling Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.38
Principles of Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.39
Sludge Reduction Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.40
Anaerobic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.42
Anaerobic Sludge Digestion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.42
Anaerobic Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.42
Membrane Bioreactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.45
MBR Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.45
MBR Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.48
Microbial Foulants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.48
24 Tertiary Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.1
Disinfection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2
Chlorination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2
Chlorination Processes in Effluent
Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3

xvi Contents
Dechlorination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3
Disinfection By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4
Solids Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4
Ammonia Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4
Ammonia Stripping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5
Selective Ion Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5
Breakpoint Chlorination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6
Phosphate Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6
Aluminum Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6
Iron Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.7
Calcium Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8
Organics Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8
25 Heavy Metal Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.1
Regulatory Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.1
Sources of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.2
Chemistry of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.3
Ionic Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.5
Chelation Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.6
Metal Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9
Operational Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9
Equipment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.10
Chemical Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.15
Associated Pretreatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.22
26 Sludge Manipulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.1
Sludge Thickening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.3
Gravity Thickening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.3
Flotation Thickening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.5
Rotary Drum Thickener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.6
Gravity Table Thickeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.7
Centrifugal Thickening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.8
Sludge Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.10
Nature of Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.10
Belt Filter Press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.11
Centrifugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.11
Vacuum Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.12
Screw Presses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.13
Plate-and-Frame Filter Presses. . . . . . . . . . . 26.15
Drying Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.18
27 Emulsion Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1
Theory of Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.2
Oily Waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.4
Waste Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.5
Emulsion Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.5

Contents xvii
Separation Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.7

Oil-in-Water Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.7
Water-in-Oil Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.18
28 Wet Gas Scrubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.1
Particle Collection Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.1
Particulate Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.2
Principles of Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.4
Categorizing Wet Scrubbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.6
Gas Absorption Scrubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.6
Wet Particle Scrubbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.9
Wet Electrostatic Precipitators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.15
Waterside Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.15
Waste Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.17
Auxiliary Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.17
Selected Gas Scrubbing Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.18
SOx Removal from Flue Gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.18
Section 4 Energy in Water Systems

29 Energy Use in Effluent Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.3
Energy Utilization in Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . 29.4
Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.8
Variable Control Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.9
Aeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.9
Aeration Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.11
Aeration Control and Monitoring. . . . . . . . 29.14
Preliminary and Primary Effluent Treatment . . . . 29.16
Secondary Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.17
Suspended Growth Processes . . . . . . . . . . . 29.18
Fixed Film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.19
Tertiary Effluent Treatment Processes. . . . . . . . . . . 29.20
30 Energy in Cooling Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.1
Financial Impact of Inefficient Heat Rejection. . . . 30.1
Cooling Tower Thermal Performance or
Thermal Capability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.3
Cooling Tower Performance Problems. . . . . . . . . . 30.7
Air-Side Thermal Performance Issues. . . . . 30.8
Water-Side Thermal Performance
Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.13
Cooling Tower Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . 30.15
Reliability Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.17
Cooling Tower Performance Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . 30.19
Cooling Tower Acceptance Testing. . . . . . . 30.20
Cooling Tower Performance Audit. . . . . . . 30.20

xviii Contents
31 Energy in Steam Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1

Energy Basics for Steam Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1
Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2
Steam Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3
Boiler Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3
Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.6
Input–Output or Direct Method . . . . . . . . . 31.9
Heat Loss or Indirect Method . . . . . . . . . . . 31.10
Comparison of Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.12
Heat Transfer Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.13
Multiple Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.16
Alternate Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.16
Reduce Steam Demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.16
Reduce Boiler Blowdown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.19
Recover Blowdown Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.20
Flash Tank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.21
Optimize Condensate Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.23
Reduce System Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.23
Optimize Turbine Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.24
Section 5 Industries
32 The Paper Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3
Industry Profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.6
Virgin Fiber Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.8
Wood Yard Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.8
Groundwood Pulping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.11
Thermomechanical Pulping. . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.12
Chemical Pulping—Kraft Process. . . . . . . . 32.13
Chemical Pulping—Non Kraft. . . . . . . . . . . 32.25
Recycled Pulp Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.26
Deinking and Secondary Fiber Use. . . . . . . 32.26
Pulp Bleaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.29
Stock Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.33
Paper Machine Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.35
Paper Machine Headbox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.35
Paper Machine Wet End. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.36
Paper Machine Press Section. . . . . . . . . . . . 32.38
Paper Machine Dryer Section. . . . . . . . . . . . 32.39
33 The Power Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.1
Energy Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.2
The Power Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.3
Water: The Working Fluid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.7

Contents xix
Factors Affecting Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . 33.11

Water Chemistry in Fossil-Fuel Plants—
Liquid Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.14
Steam Phase Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.26
Water Chemistry in Nuclear Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.28
Blowdown Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.32
Condenser Cooling Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.35
Ash Handling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.43
Flue Gas Desulfurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.45
Wastewater and Discharge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.46
34 The Oil Field Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.1
Theory of Oil Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.1
A Few Basics about Petroleum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.2
Accumulations of Petroleum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.3
Oil Sands and Heavy Oil Reserves. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.5
Petroleum Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.5
Oil Dehydration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.6
Improved Recovery Techniques. . . . . . . . . . 34.8
Hydraulic Fracturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.16
Oil Shale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.16
Bitumen Recovery from Surface
Mining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.17
Upgrading Bitumen and Heavy Oil to
Produce Synthetic Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.18
The Nature of Oilfield Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.18
Total Dissolved Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.18
Suspended Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.19
Dissolved Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.20
Problem-Causing Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.20
Residual Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.21
Mineral Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.21
Mineral Scales in Water Injection
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.22
Mineral Scales in Steam Injection/
Thermal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.24
Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.27
Water Injection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.27
Steam Injection/Thermal Systems. . . . . . . . 34.29
Bacteria Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.30
Raw Water, Utility, and Cooling Water
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31
Automation and Control of System
Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31

xx Contents
Recycle and Reuse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31

Produced Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31
Transportation and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.33
35 The Refining Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.1

Refining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.1
Process Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.3
Utility Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.17
Cooling Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.19
Waste Treatment Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.19
36 The Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.1

Process Cooling Is a Major Water User. . . . . . . . . . 36.3
Process Flow Sheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.10
Ammonia and Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.13
Environmental Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.15
37 The Aluminum Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.1

Mining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.1
Bauxite Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.2
Many Uses for Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.3
Aluminum Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.5
Frequent Feeding Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.6
Exhaust Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.6
Metal Fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.8
38 The Steel Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.1

Blast Furnace Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.2
Exhaust Gas Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.3
Steel Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.6
Basic Oxygen Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.6
Electric Arc Furnace Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.8
Open-Hearth Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.8
Direct Reduction Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.8
Continuous Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.12
Hot Mill Rolling Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.14
Cold Rolling Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Recirculating System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Once-Through System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Heat Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.18
Acid Pickling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.18
Slag Plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.20
Utilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.21

Contents xxi
39 The Institutional and Commercial Sectors . . . . . 39.1

Heating Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.2
Steam Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.3
Hot Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.7
Cogeneration Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.8
Heating System Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.8
Air Conditioning Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.10
Vapor-Compression Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.11
Steam-Absorption Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.13
Unique Chiller Design and Operating
Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.17
Cooling System Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.21
Cooling System Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.21
Thermal Energy Storage Systems . . . . . . . . 39.23
Data Centers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.26
40 The Food and Beverage Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.1

Regulatory Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.3
Fruit and Vegetable Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.3
General Process Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.4
Thermal Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.5
Water Treatment Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.12
Meat and Poultry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.14
Water Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.14
The Beverage Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.17
The Sugar Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.21
The Grain, Oil Processing, and Biofuels Industry. . . 40.23
Corn Wet Milling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.25
Wheat Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.27
Oil Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.28
Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.30
The Dairy Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.36
Fluid Milk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.36
Cheese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.38
Specialty Dairy—Concentrated Milk,
Dry Milk, Yogurt, and Ice Cream . . . . . . 40.38
Dairy Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.42
Dairy Sweetwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.42
Dairy COW Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.43
Foam Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.44
41 The Microelectronics Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1

Ultrapure Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1
Process Cooling Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5

xxii Contents
Cooling Towers and Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.6

Wet Scrubber Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.7
42 The Building Materials Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.1
Fiber Cement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.1
Fiberglass Mat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.4
43 The Automotive Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.1
Foundry Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.1
Machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.5
Parts Cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.6
Utilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.7
Paint Spray Booths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.8
Detackifying Paint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.11
Stamping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.12
Plating Wastes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.13
Assembly Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.14
44 The Municipal Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.1
Disinfection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.2
Chlorination By-Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.3
Fluoridation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.5
U.S. Regulatory History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.5
Cryptosporidium and Giardia . . . . . . . . . . . 44.7
Raw Water Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.9
Corrosion and Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.9
Typical Treatment Schemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.14
Case History—Lake Bluff, IL. . . . . . . . . . . . 44.17
Membrane Filtration in Drinking Water
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.19
Sludge Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.22
Municipal Sewage Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.24
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.25
Wastewater Treatment Methods . . . . . . . . . 44.27
Water Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.29
Membrane Bioreactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.31
Solid Waste Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.32
Dewatering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.34
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.1

Foreword
B
usiness and industry are increasingly identifying water scarcity
as a business constraint and risk. By the year 2030, the World
Economic Forum estimates that the global demand for fresh-
water will exceed supply by about 40%. The ever-increasing demand
for freshwater is causing us to consider the potential outcomes, where
water stressors start to inhibit our ability to meet the critical needs of
our customers around the world. Yet the risk is not equitable across
the globe. Each watershed is different. There are acute shortages in
some places and not in others. We also find that universally water is
underpriced, and the prices are inverse to the risk.
Our conversation is changing. We are reframing our discussion
and vocabulary around water to reflect the challenges, the risk to
business, and the true cost of the resource. We are finding ourselves
at an inflection point. We have obtained the knowledge and sophisti-
cation to make the case for water strategies in our facilities that make
good business sense, and enable growth in an environmentally
sustainable and socially equitable manner. Implementing water
strategies within plants needs to make good economic sense and be
accomplished in a manner that allows the business a fundamental
license to grow.
Our fourth edition of The Nalco Water Handbook opens up the
discussion on water scarcity, stressors, and the business case for
managing water. The content throughout the book will assist you in
maintaining clean heat transfer surfaces as well as addressing water
management needs through the lens of reduction, reuse between
applications, and recycle. As you read through the book, look for the
items that can become actionable in your facility and not just protect
your assets, but that can help your water management strategies
as well.
Christophe Beck
President, Nalco Water
Executive Vice President, Ecolab
xxiii

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Preface
A
s Nalco Water approaches its 90th year in business, it seems
fitting to release the fourth edition of The Nalco Water Handbook
at the same time. Our first book, Water: The Universal Solvent,
was published in 1977 in observance of the company’s 50th anniver-
sary. Frank N. Kemmer, editor-in-chief and John McCallion, associate
editor of that book, went on to produce the first two editions of The
Nalco Water Handbook and firmly placed Nalco Water well down the
road of knowledge sharing. We at Nalco Water continue to believe
this is as important today, as it was when the first book was published.
Water as a resource is becoming increasingly scarce throughout
much of the world. In this edition of the book, we have restructured
the initial introductory chapters through the lens of water scarcity,
stressors, and business risk. In addition, we have added supplemen-
tary content around water conservation in various processes where
applicable. We have also strengthened the discussions around various
industry processes, impurity removal with membrane technology
and water safety for building water systems. Finally, we have added
additional chapters in the industry section to broaden the scope of the
discussion.
We have made liberal use of tables, illustrations, photographs,
and line drawings to help place the discussion in context. Hundreds
of graphics have been refreshed to assist in clarifying the message
they convey. The changes we have made to the content and the
presentation should make this book valuable across a wide range of
users such as plant operators, engineering departments, process man-
agement, maintenance groups, and plant mangers to name a few.
Daniel J. Flynn
Editor
xxv


Acknowledgments
W
hen we were evaluating the updating, and refreshing of
this text, it became very clear quite early on that we would
be asking a good number of people for contributions of
time, text, photographs, drawings, illustrations, fact checking, and
numerous reviews just to mention a few of the items. As the project
progressed, the numbers grew as we cast our net further into the
many disciplines and departments throughout Nalco Water. We
would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the participation
and efforts of the individuals involved with the fourth edition of
The Nalco Water Handbook.
The following individuals made significant contributions of
writing, reviewing, fact checking, and generally ensuring the content
of the book remains best in class for this fourth edition, as well as the
previous third edition. It is with great thanks that we acknowledge
their efforts. Alex Glass, Amit Gupta, Andrew Cooper, Andrew Hook,
Anton Banweg, Barbara Moriarty, Ben Riley, Blaine Krause, Bob
Pomeroy, Bonnie Harris, Brad Benz, Brian Jenkins, Carl Rossow,
Carolina Diaz-Rodriguez, Carolyn Will, Christine Staples, Chuck
Foster, Cindy Ojczyk, Daniel Flynn, Daniel Meier, Debbie Bloom,
Dennis Martin, Don Roll, Donald Johnson, Ed Swenson, Emilio
Tenuta, Eric Kangas, Eric Myers, Flora Lu, George Peabody, George
Totura, Greg Coy, Gregg Galbreath, Heidi Olszewski, Howard Barnes,
James Gage, Jane Kucera, Janet Kirkman, Jasbir Gill, Jason Burney,
Jason Van’t Hul, Jeffrey Oloier, Jim Dillon, Jim Haff, John Sparapany,
Jorvic Vital, Ken Fulks, Ken Voytell, Kevin Gehan, Kevin Kaiser, Kirby
Lee, Larry Hill, Leroy Swenson, Melissa Callejo, Michael Lesniak,
Michael Martin, Mike Backode, Mike Vittum, Mita Chattoraj, Nancy
Stan, Patrick Miller, Paul Desch, Paul Williams, Peter Hicks, Peter
TenEyck, Ram Nagarajan, Richard Jacobs, Rick Lyons, Rob Henderson,
Robert Wetegrove, Ronald Kochik, Ronald Tebbetts, Sam Lordo, Scott
McLaughlin, Seth Werlinsky, Sherri Binetti, Steff Vrijhoeven, Steve
Andrick, Steven Kramarczyk, Sue Molloy-Vesley, Tammy Lai, Tim
Keizer, Tom Lindley, Tracey Guddendorf, Walter Schaefer, and so
many others who touched this project in various ways.
Nalco Water and the Nalco Water logo are trademarks of Nalco
Water, an Ecolab Company. All other trademarks are the property of
their respective owners.
Daniel J. Flynn
Editor
xxvii


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The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Virginia
cavalier
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States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
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eBook.
Title: A Virginia cavalier
Author: Molly Elliot Seawell
Illustrator: F. C. Yohn
Release date: September 17, 2023 [eBook #71672]
Language: English
Original publication: New York and London: Harper and

Brothers, 1896
Credits: D A Alexander, David E. Brown, with special thanks to

Abbey Maynard, Courtesy Charles Deering McCormick
Library of Special Collections and University Archives,
Northwestern University Libraries for providing the
missing illustrations, and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file
was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A VIRGINIA

CAVALIER ***
[P. 147
“‘NEVER DRAW IT IN AN UNWORTHY CAUSE’”

A VIRGINIA CAVALIER
BY
MOLLY ELLIOT SEAWELL
ILLUSTRATED
NEW YORK AND LONDON

HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS
1903
Copyright, 1896, by Harper & Brothers.
All rights reserved.

“Nature made Washington great—but he made himself virtuous”
ILLUSTRATIONS
“‘NEVER DRAW IT IN AN UNWORTHY CAUSE’” Frontispie

ce
“‘THIS IS MY SON, MR. WASHINGTON’” Facing p. 18
GEORGE BIDS BETTY GOOD-BYE “ 54
SKETCHING THE DEFENCES ON THE
SCHELDT “ 72
“‘IS MARSE GEORGE WASHINGTON HERE,
SUH?’” “ 100
THE DAILY LESSON IN ARMS “ 122
THE FIGHT IN THE KITCHEN PASSAGE “ 136
“SHE WAS THE STATELIEST BEAUTY OF A
SHIP HE HAD EVER SEEN” “ 168
“‘MY SON, MY BEST-LOVED CHILD’” “ 192
“THEY STRUCK NOW INTO THE WILDERNESS” “ 218
“BY DAYLIGHT GEORGE WAS IN THE SADDLE” “ 236
“‘NEVER WILL YOU BE HALF SO BEAUTIFUL
AS OUR MOTHER’” “ 246
THE GOVERNOR’S LEVEE “ 260
“GEORGE HAD THE SAVAGE BY THE THROAT” “ 296
“WITH DRUMS BEATING AND COLORS
FLYING” “ 314
“GEORGE DID ALL THAT MORTAL MAN COULD
DO” “ 342
A VIRGINIA CAVALIER
CHAPTER I
“Nature made Washington great; but he made himself virtuous.”
The sun shines not upon a lovelier land than midland Virginia. Great
rivers roll seaward through rich woodlands and laughing corn-fields
and fair meadow lands. Afar off, the misty lines of blue hills shine
faintly against the deeper blue of the sky. The atmosphere is
singularly clear, and the air wholesome and refreshing.
Never was it more beautiful than on an afternoon in late October of
1746. The Indian summer was at hand—that golden time when
Nature utters a solemn “Hush!” to the season, and calls back the
summer-time for a little while. The scene was full of peace—the
broad and placid Rappahannock shimmering in the sun, its bosom
unvexed except by the sails of an occasional grain-laden vessel,
making its way quietly and slowly down the blue river. The quiet
homesteads lay basking in the fervid sun, while woods and streams
and fields were full of those soft, harmonious country sounds which
make a kind of musical silence.
A mile or two back from the river ran the King’s highway—a good
road for those days, and showing signs of much travel. It passed at
one point through a natural clearing, on the top of which grew a few
melancholy pines. The road came out of the dense woods on one
side of this open space, and disappeared in the woods on the other
side.
On this October afternoon, about three o’clock, a boy with a gun on
his shoulder and a dog at his heels, came noiselessly out of the
woods and walked up to the top of the knoll. The day was peculiarly
still; but only the quickest ear could have detected the faint sound
the boy made, as with a quick and graceful step he marched up the
hill—for George Washington was a natural woodsman from his
young boyhood, and he had early learned how to make his way
through forest and field without so much as alarming the partridge on
her nest. No art or craft of the woods, whether of white man or
Indian, was unknown to him; and he understood Nature, the mighty
mother, in all her civilized and uncivilized moods.
A full game-bag on his back showed what his employment had been,
but now he gave himself over to the rare but delicious idleness which
occasionally overtakes everybody who tramps long through the
woods. He sat down and took off his cap, revealing his handsome,
blond head. The dog, a beautiful long-eared setter, laid his nose
confidentially upon his master’s knee, and blinked solemnly, with his
large, tawny eyes, into his master’s blue ones. The boy’s eyes were
remarkable—a light but beautiful blue, and softening a face that,
even in boyhood, was full of resolution and even sternness. His
figure was as near perfection as the human form could be—tall,
athletic, clean of limb and deep of chest, singularly graceful, and
developed, as the wise old Greeks developed their bodies, by manly
exercises and healthful brain-work and the cleanest and most
wholesome living. Neither the face nor the figure could belong to a
milksop. The indications of strong passions, of fierce loves and hates
and resentments, were plain enough. But stronger even than these
was that noble expression which a purity of soul and a commanding
will always writes upon the human countenance. This boy was a
gentleman at heart and in soul—not because he had no temptation
to be otherwise, but because he chose to be a gentleman. He sat in
silence for half an hour, the dog resting against him, the two
communing together as only a boy and a dog can. The sun shone,
the wind scarcely ruffled a dying leaf. A crow circled around in the
blue air, uttering a caw that was lost in the immensity of the heavens.
The silence seemed to grow deeper every moment, when, with a
quick movement, George laid his ear to the ground. To an
unpractised ear there was not the slightest break in the quiet, but to
the boy’s trained hearing something was approaching along the
highway, which induced him to sit still awhile longer. It was some
time in coming, for the heavy coaches in those days hung upon wide
leather straps, and with broad-tired wheels made much commotion
as they rolled along, to say nothing of the steady beat of the horses’
hoofs upon the hard road. George’s eyes were as quick as his ears,
but he caught nothing of the approaching travellers until the
cavalcade flashed suddenly into the sun, and with its roar and rattle
seemed to spring out of the ground.
First came four sturdy negro outriders, in a gorgeous livery of green
and gold, and mounted upon stout bay horses, well adapted for hard
travel. Then came a magnificent travelling-coach, crest emblazoned,
which would not have discredited the king’s levee. It was drawn by
four superb roans, exactly matched in form, color, and action. They
took the road as if they had just warmed up to their work; but from
the dust on the whole cavalcade it was plain they had travelled far
that day. With heads well in the air the horses threw their legs
together with a style and at a gait that showed them to be of the best
blood in the horse kingdom. A black postilion in green and gold rode
the off horse of the leaders, while a black coachman handled the
reins. On the box, next the coachman, sat a white man, evidently a
servant out of livery. One glance told that he was an old soldier. He
had at his side one of the huge holsters of the day, in which he
carried a pair of long horse-pistols, and a stout wooden box, upon
which he rested his feet, showed that the party had means of
defence had it been attacked.
George was so stunned with admiration at the splendor of the
equipage that he scarcely glanced at the interior of the coach until
the sunlight flashed upon something that fairly dazzled him. It was a
diamond-hilted dress-sword, worn by a gentleman of about fifty, who
sat alone upon the back seat. The gorgeous sword-hilt was the only
thing about him that shone or glinted, for his brown travelling-suit
was as studiously simple as his equipage was splendid. He wore
plain silver buckles at his knees and upon his handsome, high-
arched feet, and his hair, streaked with gray, was without powder,
and tied into a club with a black ribbon.
One glance at his face fixed George’s attention. It was pale and
somewhat angular, unlike the type of florid, high-colored Virginia
squires with which George was familiar. He had been handsome in
his youth, and was still handsome, with a stately, grave beauty; but
even a boy could see that this man had had but little joy in life.
From the moment that George’s eyes fell upon this gentleman he
looked upon nothing else. Neither the great coach nor the superb
horses had any power to attract his gaze, although never, in all his
short life, had he seen anything so splendid. His mother had a
coach, and so had most of the people round about, but all had a
common air of having once been handsome, and of having reached
the comfortable, shabby-genteel stage. And many persons drove
four horses to these great lumbering vehicles, but all four would not
be worth one of the gallant roans that trotted along the road so gayly.
It was out of sight in a few minutes, and in a few minutes more it was
out of hearing; but in that time George, who was quick-witted, had
shrewdly guessed the name and rank of the gentleman with the plain
clothes and the diamond-hilted sword. It was the great Earl of Fairfax
—the soldier, the wit, the rich nobleman—who for some mysterious
reason had chosen to come to this new land, and to build a lodge in
the wilderness. The boy had often heard his mother, Madam
Washington, speak of Earl Fairfax. Meeting with him was one of the
events of that great journey she had made in her girlhood to
England, where for a time she lived in the house of her brother
Joseph Ball, at Cookham, in Berkshire, who had left his Virginia
home and had taken up his residence in England. Here Mary Ball
had met Augustine Washington, then in England upon affairs
connected with his property. Augustine Washington was one of the
handsomest men of his day, and from him his eldest son George
inherited the noble air and figure that marked him. Mary Ball was a
Virginia beauty, and although admired by many Englishmen of
distinction, she rather chose to marry Augustine Washington, albeit
he had been married before, and had two motherless boys. In
England, therefore, were they married, sailing soon after for Virginia,
and within twelve years Mrs. Washington was a widow with five
children. She loved to talk to her children of those happy English
days, when she had first pledged herself to Augustine Washington. It
had also been the only time of excitement in her quiet life, and she
had met many of the wits and cavaliers and belles of the reign of
George the Second. She sometimes spoke of Lord Fairfax, but
always guardedly; and George had conceived the idea that his
mother perhaps knew Lord Fairfax better, and the reasons for his
abandonment of his own country, than she cared to tell.
He began to wonder, quite naturally, where the earl was bound; and
suddenly it came to him in a flash—“He is going to pay his respects
to my mother.” In another instant he was on his feet and speeding
like a deer through the woods towards home.
The house at Ferry Farm, which was home to him, was a good four
miles by the road, but by paths through the woods and fields, and a
foot-bridge across a creek, it was barely a mile. It took him but a
short time to make it, but before he could reach the house he saw
the coach and outriders dash into sight and draw up before the
porch. The old soldier jumped from the box and opened the door and
let down the steps, and the earl descended in state. On the porch
stood Uncle Jasper, the venerable black butler, in a suit of
homespun, with a long white apron that reached from his chin to his
knees. George saw him bowing and ushering the earl in. The
outriders loosened their horses’ girths, and, after breathing them, led
them to the watering-trough in the stable-lot back of the house. They
then watered the coach-horses, the coachman sitting in solitary
magnificence on his box, while the old soldier stretched his legs by
walking about the lot. George saw this as he came through the
stable way, his dog still at his heels. Uncle Jasper was waiting for
him on the back porch.
“De madam,” he began, in a mysterious whisper, “will want you ter
put on yo’ Sunday clo’es fo’ you come in ter see de Earl o’ Fairfax.
He’s in de settin’-room now.”
George understood very well, and immediately went to his room to
change his hunting-clothes, which were the worse for both dirt and
wear. It was a ceremonious age, and the formalities of dress and
manners were very strictly observed.
Meanwhile, in the sitting-room, on opposite sides of the fireplace, sat
Madam Washington and the earl. Truly, the beauty that had
distinguished Mary Ball remained with Madam Washington. Her
figure was slight and delicate (not from her had her eldest son
inherited his brawn and muscle), and in her severely simple black
gown she looked even slighter than usual. Her complexion was
dazzlingly fair, and little rings of chestnut hair escaped from her
widow’s cap; but her fine blue eyes were the counterpart of her
eldest son’s. The room was plainly furnished, even for the times, but
scrupulously neat. A rag-carpet covered the middle of the floor, while
around the edges the polished planks were bare. In one corner a
small harpsichord was open, with music on the rack. Dimity curtains
shaded the small-paned windows, and a great fire sparkled in the
large fireplace. Over the mantel hung the portrait of a handsome
young man in a satin coat with lace ruffles. This was a portrait of
Augustine Washington in his youth. Opposite it was a portrait of
Madam Washington as a girl—a lovely young face and figure. There
were one or two other portraits, and a few pieces of silver upon a
mahogany buffet opposite the harpsichord—relics of Wakefield, the
Westmoreland plantation where George was born, and of which the
house had burned to the ground in the absence of the master, and
much of the household belongings had been destroyed.
The earl’s eyes lingered upon the girlish portrait of Madam
Washington as the two sat gravely conversing.
“It was thus you looked, madam, when I first had the honor of
knowing you in England,” he said.
“Time and sorrow and responsibilities have done their work upon me,
my lord,” answered Madam Washington. “The care of five children,
that they may be brought up to be worthy of their dead father, the
making of good men out of four boys, the task of bringing up an only
daughter to be a Christian gentlewoman, is no mean task, I assure
you, and taxes my humble powers.”
“True, madam,” responded the earl, with a low bow; “but I know of no
woman better fitted for so great an undertaking than Madam
Washington.”
Madam Washington leaned forward and bowed in response, and
then resumed her upright position, not once touching the back of her
chair.
“And may I not have the pleasure of seeing your children, madam?”
asked the earl, who cared little for children generally, but to whom
the children of her who had once been the beautiful Mary Ball were
of the greatest interest.
“Certainly, my lord,” answered Madam Washington, rising, “if you will
excuse me for a moment while I fetch them.”
The earl, left alone, rose and walked thoughtfully to the portrait of
Mary Ball and looked at it for several minutes. His face, full of
melancholy and weariness, grew more melancholy and weary. He
shook his head once or twice, and made a motion with his hand as if
putting something away from him, and then returned to his chair by
the fire. He looked into the blaze and tapped his foot softly with his
dress-sword. This beautiful, grave widow of forty, her heart wrapped
up in her children, was not the girl of eighteen years before. There
was no turning back of the leaves of the book of life for her. She had
room now for but one thought in her mind, one feeling in her heart—
her children.
Presently the door opened, and Madam Washington re-entered with
her usual sedate grace. Following her was a young girl of fourteen,
her mother’s image, the quaintest, daintiest little maiden imaginable,
her round, white arms bare to the elbow, from which muslin ruffles
fell back, a little muslin cap covering her hair, much lighter than her
mother’s, and her shy eyes fixed upon the floor. Behind her were
three sturdy, handsome boys of twelve, ten, and eight, as alike as
peas in a pod. In those days the children of gentlepeople were
neither pert and forward nor awkward and ashamed at meeting
strangers. Drilled in a precise etiquette, they knew exactly what to
do, which consisted chiefly in making many low bows to their elders,
and answering in respectful monosyllables such questions as were
asked them. They learned in this way a grace and courtesy quite
unknown to modern children.
“My daughter, Mistress Betty Washington, my Lord of Fairfax,” was
Madam Washington’s introduction.
The earl rose from his chair and made the little girl a bow as if she
were the princess royal, while Mistress Betty, scorning to be
outdone, courtesied to the floor in response, her full skirt making a
balloon as she sunk and rose in the most approved fashion.
“I am most happy to meet you, Mistress Betty,” said he, to which
Mistress Betty, in a quavering voice—for she had never before seen
an earl, or a coach like the one he came in—made answer:
“Thank you, my lord.”
The three boys were then introduced as Samuel, John, and Charles.
To each the earl made a polite bow, but not so low as to Mistress
Betty. The boys returned the bow without the slightest shyness or
awkwardness, and then took their places in silence behind their
mother’s chair. They exchanged keen glances, though, among
themselves, and wondered when they would be allowed to depart,
so that they might further investigate the coach and the four roan
horses. Madam Washington spoke.
“I am every moment expecting my eldest son George; he is out
hunting to-day, and said that he would return at this hour, and he is
always punctual to the minute. It will be a severe disappointment to
me if I should not have the pleasure of showing your lordship my
eldest son.”
It did not take a very acute person to note the tone of pride in
madam’s voice when she said “my eldest son.”
“It will be a disappointment to me also, madam,” replied the earl. “I
hope he is all that the eldest son of such a mother should be.”
Madam Washington smiled one of her rare smiles. “’Tis all I can do,
my lord, to keep down the spirit of pride, so unbecoming to all of us,
when I regard my son George. My other sons, I trust, will be as great
a comfort to me, but they are still of too tender years for me to
depend upon.” Then, turning to the three boys, she gave them a look
which meant permission to leave the room. The boys bowed gravely
to their mother, gravely to the earl, and walked more gravely out of
the room. Once the door was softly closed they made a quick but
noiseless dash for the back door, and were soon outside examining
the roans and the great coach, chattering like magpies to the negro
outriders, until having made the acquaintance of the old soldier,
Lance by name, they were soon hanging about him, begging that he
would tell them about a battle.
Meanwhile, within the sitting-room, Madam Washington heard a step
upon the uncarpeted stairs. A light came into her eyes as she spoke.
“There is my son now, going to his room. He will join us shortly. I
cannot tell you, my lord, how great a help I have in my son. As you
know, my step-son, Captain Laurence Washington, late of the British
army, since leaving his Majesty’s service and marrying Mistress
Anne Fairfax, has lived at the Hunting Creek place, which he has
called Mount Vernon, in honor of his old friend and comrade-in-arms,
Admiral Vernon. It is a good day’s journey from here, and although
Laurence is most kind and attentive, I have had to depend, since his
marriage, upon my son George to take his father’s place in the
conduct of my affairs and in my household. It is he who reads family
prayers night and morning and presides with dignity at the foot of my
table. It might seem strange to those who do not know his character
how much I rely upon his judgment, and he but fifteen. Even my
younger sons obey and respect him, and my daughter Betty does
hang upon her brother. ’Tis most sweet to see them together.” At
which Mistress Betty smiled and glanced at the earl, and saw so kind
a look in his eyes as he smiled back at her that she looked at him
quite boldly after that.
“It is most gratifying to hear of this, madam,” replied the earl; “but it is
hardly merciful of you to a childless old man, who would give many
worldly advantages had he but a son to lean upon in his old age.”
“You should have married twenty years ago, my lord,” answered
Madam Washington, promptly.
Something like a gleam of saturnine humor appeared in the earl’s
eyes at this, but he only replied, dryly, “Perhaps it is not wholly my
fault, madam, that I find myself alone in my old age.”
At that moment the door opened, and young Washington stood upon
the threshold.

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The Nalco water handbook Fourth

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Life care planning and case management handbook Fourth

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New York Chicago San Francisco

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eBook conversion by codeMantra

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Water Quality When River Meets Ocean. . . 3.6

Section 2 Basic Water Chemistry

5 Impurities in Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

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Section 3.1 Applications—Impurity Removal

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Resin Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.34

Section 3.2 Applications—Steam Generation

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Mathematical Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9

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13 Condensate Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1

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Neutralizing Amines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11

Section 3.3 Applications—Cooling Water Systems

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16 Cooling System Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1

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Determining the Bacterial Population of

Section 3.4 Applications—Water Safety for Building

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First Identified Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6

Section 3.5 Applications—Post-Treatment

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Drag Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.26

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00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 16 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Separation Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.7

Section 4 Energy in Water Systems

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31 Energy in Steam Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1

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Factors Affecting Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . 33.11

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Recycle and Reuse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31

35 The Refining Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.1

36 The Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.1

37 The Aluminum Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.1

38 The Steel Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.1

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 20 04/10/17 3:59 pm

39 The Institutional and Commercial Sectors . . . . . 39.1

40 The Food and Beverage Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.1

41 The Microelectronics Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1

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Cooling Towers and Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.6

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 22 04/10/17 3:59 pm

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 23 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Section 3.4 Applications—Water Safety for Building