Title: Investigating Species-Area Relationships for Plant Species

Abstract:
The Species-Area Relationship (SAR) is a fundamental ecological principle that explores the
correlation between the size of an area and the number of species it supports. This practical
aims to investigate SAR for plant species within the College Campus by conducting surveys
in marked squares of varying sizes on the lawns. The primary objective was to establish a
comprehensive inventory of plant species in the study area and subsequently analyse how the
number of species varies with the size of the surveyed square. In this experiment, we
explored the correlation between the size of plots in a local ecosystem on the College
Campus and the number of plant species present. By systematically counting the plant species
in plots of varying sizes, we documented our observations and organized the data into a table
that detailed the area and corresponding number of species for each plot. To assess the
species-area relationship, we created a plot that illustrated the number of species against the
respective plot sizes, aiming to identify any discernible patterns or linearity. Our primary
objective was to test the hypothesis suggesting an increase in the number of plant species
with larger plot sizes, by the anticipated species-area relationship. Employing statistical
analysis, to determine any correlation.
Practical Objectives:
Species Collection and Inventory:
To explore the relationship between the size of an area and the number of plant species
present.
Main Survey:
To carry out a systematic survey of each marked square, counting, and recording of the
number of plant species present in each was done.
Data Compilation:
To obtain the survey results, the number of species observed in each square size was
compiled. The data in a format suitable for analysis was organized.
Data Analysis and Visualisation:
To explore the species-area relationship by plotting the number of species against the area of
the surveyed squares.
Aims:

1. To Explore Species-Area Relationship: Investigate how the size of a defined area

influences the number of plant species present.

2. To Assess Biodiversity Patterns: Understand the distribution of plant species across

different-sized squares, providing insights into biodiversity patterns within the College
Campus.

3. To Test Ecological Predictions: Evaluate whether the observed species-area relationship

aligns with ecological predictions, contributing to our understanding of community ecology.
Introduction

The Species-Area Relationship (SAR) is a fundamental ecological principle that explores the
correlation between the size of an area and the number of species it supports. This concept
finds practical application in biodiversity surveys, where understanding the relationship
between species richness and the area sampled is crucial for ecological assessments. The
relationship between the size of an area and the number of plant species it supports is a
fundamental concept in ecology known as the species-area relationship. This principle posits
that the number of recorded plant species in a given area is influenced, at least in part, by the
size of that area. It is widely acknowledged that larger habitats tend to harbour more diverse
communities of plant organisms compared to smaller ones. Understanding this relationship is
crucial for predicting and managing plant biodiversity in various habitats. Species-area
relationships are fundamental in ecology, providing insights into the distribution and diversity
of plant species within different habitats. This practical aims to explore and quantify the
species-area relationship within the context of the College Campus lawns, specifically
focusing on plant species.

The theory underlying SAR is based on the assumption that larger areas provide more diverse
habitats, resources, and niches, thereby supporting a greater variety of species. The inverse
relationship between species richness and area is a cornerstone in ecological research and
conservation planning. The SAR is often represented graphically, illustrating how species
richness changes as the surveyed area varies. Biodiversity Surveys (Magurran, 2004),
Biodiversity surveys are essential tools for quantifying and documenting the variety of life
within a given area. By incorporating SAR principles into these surveys, researchers can gain
insights into the ecological dynamics of different habitats and contribute valuable data for
conservation efforts. The species-area relationship is a fundamental principle in ecology that
describes the relationship between the size of an area and the number of species in that
particular area (Rosenzweig 1995).

The distribution of plant species on the campus grounds is subject to the influence of various
factors, each playing a vital role in shaping the ecological dynamics of the area. Habitat
diversity, competition among species, and genetic diversity are key elements that might affect
the distribution of plant species (Srivastava and Vellend. 2005.). Additionally, specific
environmental factors contribute significantly to the spatial arrangement of plant life on the
College Campus. According to https://www.epa.gov/report-environment/diversity-and-
biological-balance, the composition and quality of the soil emerge as pivotal determinants, as
they dictate the types of plant species capable of thriving in specific areas. Microclimates,
characterized by variations in factors such as sunlight exposure and moisture levels across the
campus, also exert a substantial impact on plant distribution. Human activities, encompassing
landscaping, construction, and maintenance practices, introduce anthropogenic influences
that can alter the natural distribution patterns of plant species. Furthermore, biotic
interactions, including competition for resources and symbiotic relationships with other
organisms, contribute to the intricate tapestry of plant distribution. The physical features of
the landscape, such as elevation and slope (topography), further shape the distribution of
plant species on campus grounds. Understanding these multifaceted factors is paramount for
interpreting the observed patterns in plant distribution and the species-area relationship
during the practical exploration of the campus ecosystem.
The main survey will entail counting the number of plant species within each designated
square of varying sizes. The recorded data will be collated and presented, allowing for the
construction of a species-area relationship graph. By plotting the number of species against
the area of the surveyed squares, participants can visually explore the correlation between
these two variables. During the main survey, the number of plant species in each square will
be counted, and the results will be collectively analysed. By plotting the number of species
against the corresponding area of the square, we aim to visualize and understand the Species-
Area Relationship within our College Campus. This practical exercise not only provides
hands-on experience in biodiversity assessment but also allows us to explore the ecological
dynamics that govern species distribution about habitat size (Fridley and Kyle, 2023). Our
hypothesis for this experiment is that there exists a positive correlation between the size of a
surveyed area and the number of plant species it supports. We expect to observe an increase
in the number of recorded species as the area under consideration expands. This hypothesis
aligns with the ecological theory that larger habitats provide more niches and resources,
allowing for the coexistence of a greater variety of species (MacArthur and Wilson 1967).
Leading to a null hypothesis stating, there is no significant relationship between a number of
species and area and an alternative hypothesis stating there is a significant relationship
between the number of species and area.

The experiment assumes that there is Homogeneity of Sampling, that sampling method
provides a representative snapshot of the plant species present in the marked areas and that
the distribution of plant species is relatively uniform within the marked squares, enabling us
to draw meaningful conclusions about the species-area relationship (Rosenzweig, 1995).
Materials and Methods:

In the execution of the experimental setup on the college campus lawn, several essential
materials played crucial roles in ensuring precision and accuracy. The tape measure was
employed to obtain accurate measurements, allowing for the determination of the dimensions
of each designated plot with precision. Following this, strings and nails were instrumental in
the demarcation process, used to outline and establish the boundaries of each plot. Through
strategically placing strings and securing them with nails, distinct and well-defined areas
were created for the study. This ensured a standardized and systematic layout for the
investigation into the species-area relationship. Additionally, a small hammer proved
indispensable for securely anchoring the nails into the ground, providing stability to the string
boundaries. The meticulous use of strings, nails, a tape measure, and a small hammer
collectively contributed to the reliability of the experimental design, enabling the creation of
a controlled and organized framework for the subsequent study of plant species distribution
within different-sized plots on the campus lawn. Each species was assigned a unique number,
contributing to the creation of a comprehensive inventory detailing the various plant species
present within the demarcated areas. Subsequently, the number of species within each plot
was counted, providing valuable data for analysis. To facilitate a clearer understanding of the
observed patterns, the results were prominently displayed on a board, allowing for visual
inspection and further interpretation. This meticulous process was crucial in comprehensively
examining the species-area relationship in the chosen ecosystem. Images of each species
found in the area were also captured to document the plant species inhabiting these plots.
Results:
Area Number of species found
8x8 square 12
4x4square 11
2x2square 8
1x1square 4

Common species found: species number 2 that is the Ribseed sandmat…

TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES IN THE FOLLOWING PLOTS
1X1 2X2 4X4 8X8
PLOT PLOT PLOT PLOT
1 0 1 6 1 15 1 60
2 11 2 20 2 65 2 263
3 10 3 16 3 62 3 247
4 7 4 13 4 47 4 190
5 6 5 11 5 46 5 184
6 0 6 0 6 1 6 5
7 5 7 10 7 36 7 144
8 2 8 5 8 13 8 52
9 4 9 16 9 58 9 240
10 0 10 0 10 3 10 15
11 0 11 2 11 7 11 30

A Graph showing the relationship between the number of species relative to the amount of
spaces provided.

species present

8x8

4x4

2x2

1x1

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

species present
Species identified
Para grass

Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Magnoliophyta
Class: Liliopsida
Subclass: Commelinidae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Urochloa
Subject: Urochloa mutica (Forsk.) T.Q. Nguyen
Scientific name: Urochloa mutica

Rumus crispus
Kingdom Plantae – Plant
Subkingdom Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Subclass Caryophyllidae
Order Polygonales
Family Polygonaceae Juss. – Buckwheat family
Genus Rumex L. – dockP
Species Rumex crispus L. – curly dockP

Axonopus compressus
Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae (Grass family)
Genus: Axonopus

Bermuda grass

Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)

Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae (Grass family)
Genus: Cynodon

Stemless spiderwort
Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Order: Commelinales
Family: Commelinaceae (Spiderwort family)
Genus: Tradescantia
Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae (Sunflower family)
Genus: Tolpis
Species: Tolpis capensis

Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)

Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae (Grass family)
Genus: Panicum
Species: Panicum umbellatum

Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)

Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae (Grass family)
Genus: Paspalum
Species: Paspalum dilatatum
Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Euphorbiaceae (Spurge family)
Genus: Euphorbia
Species: Euphorbia glyptosperma
Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Amaranthaceae (Amaranth family)
Genus: Achyranthes
Species: Achyranthes aspera

Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)

Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae (Grass family)
Genus: Panicum
Species: Panicum effusum
Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae (Grass family)
Genus: Axonopus
species: compressus
Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Order: Commelinales
Family: Commelinaceae (Spiderwort family)
Genus: Tradescantia
species:

Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)

Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Euphorbiaceae (Spurge family)
Genus: Euphorbia
Species: maculata

Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)

Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae (Grass family)
Genus: Cynodon
Discussion:

The results support the concept of species-area relationships, indicating that larger areas tend
to host a greater diversity of plant species. Factors influencing this relationship, such as
habitat heterogeneity, should be considered in further analyses. Collaborative efforts among
participants involve deploying squares of varying sizes on the campus lawns to investigate
plant species diversity within different-sized plots. A comprehensive collection of plant
species is meticulously prepared, affixed onto a large sheet of paper, and each species is
assigned a unique number. This inventory serves as a crucial reference during the main
survey, where the number of plant species within each differently sized square is
systematically counted. The data collected is then presented on a board, facilitating the
exploration of the species-area relationship by plotting the number of species against the
corresponding area of each square (Kreb, 2009).

While our experimental design is robust, several limitations warrant consideration. Firstly,
the potential for sampling bias may arise due to the non-random placement of squares,
potentially skewing the representation of plant species on the campus. To mitigate this, we
propose implementing a randomized sampling design to ensure a more accurate depiction of
plant distribution. Additionally, the experiment may not fully account for temporal variability
in plant distribution caused by seasonal changes. Conducting surveys at different times of the
year will help address this limitation and provide a more comprehensive understanding of
plant species dynamics. Lastly, constraints on time and resources may limit our ability to
identify and name all collected plant species accurately. To overcome this, we suggest using
field guides, collaborating with experts, or employing genetic techniques for precise species
identification when necessary (MacArthur and Wilson 1967).

To enhance the diversity of species identified in the search area, it is advisable to broaden the
search to nearby regions, exploring different habitat types like forests, wetlands, and
grasslands. These varied habitats often support a wide array of plant species, contributing to a
more comprehensive survey. Diversifying the sampling technique is essential, as relying
solely on the morphological species concept has limitations, particularly in identifying
closely related species. To mitigate bias and improve data collection, it is recommended to
employ alternative sampling methods. Different species may be more effectively detected
using varied techniques such as visual surveys, trapping, DNA analysis, and alternative
species concepts like the phylogenetic, biological, and ecological species concepts (Tessel et
al, 2016). Consideration of the time of the year is crucial, as certain species exhibit
heightened activity or visibility during specific seasons. For instance, some plant species may
only be present during flowering stages, while others may be more recognizable through their
leaves. Adjusting sampling strategies based on seasonal variations is key to obtaining
accurate and comprehensive data. Focusing on plant surveys during the winter season may
not yield optimal results in certain regions and climates. Many plant species in temperate
areas become dormant during winter, lacking leaves or flowers, making identification
challenging. Adjusting sampling techniques becomes crucial during winter, possibly focusing
on other distinguishing features or resorting to methods like digging up roots to identify
species not visible above ground, as suggested by Anderson et al, (2011).

The common presence of certain species across different-sized squares can be attributed to
ecological factors such as adaptability, resilience, and ecological niche availability. Species
like Tolpis capensis, Euphorbia humifusa, and Panicum umbellatum may display adaptability
to varying environmental conditions, enabling their widespread distribution. Additionally, the
availability of suitable habitats and resources within the campus lawns may contribute to the
common occurrence of species like Paspalum dilatatum and Euphorbia glyptosperma
(Wilson et al, 2012). Among the diverse array of plant species identified, including Tolpis
capensis, Euphorbia humifusa, Panicum umbellatum, Paspalum dilatatum, Euphorbia
glyptosperma, Rumex crispus, Achyranthes aspera, Bermuda grass, Panicum effusum, and
Stemless Spiderwort Axonopus compressus, certain species exhibit consistent prevalence
across various squares on the campus. This observed pattern can be ascribed to a combination
of ecological factors influencing their adaptability, soil preferences, response to climate
conditions, and inherent invasive characteristics.

Species such as Bermuda grass, Panicum effusum, and Axonopus compressus stand out for
their remarkable adaptability to a diverse range of environmental conditions. This
adaptability confers a competitive advantage, allowing them to thrive in different areas across
the campus, irrespective of variations in microenvironments. Additionally, the soil
composition on the campus plays a pivotal role in shaping the distribution of plant species.
Species like Paspalum dilatatum and Panicum umbellatum may find the soil conditions
conducive to their growth, further contributing to their prevalence in various squares.
Furthermore, the presence of Euphorbia glyptosperma and Euphorbia humifusa may be
linked to their compatibility with the local climate on the campus, and their distribution may
be influenced by water availability (Connor and McCoy, 2017). These species exhibit
adaptations that make them well-suited to the prevailing climatic conditions, contributing to
their consistent presence across the surveyed squares. In contrast, certain species, such as
Achyranthes aspera and Rumex crispus, are recognized for their invasive nature. Once
introduced, these species can outcompete others and establish themselves in diverse
locations, contributing to their ubiquity across different squares. The cumulative impact of
these factors underscores the intricate dynamics that govern the distribution and prevalence of
plant species within the campus environment (Cristaudo et al, 2015).

The plant species chosen for this study include Tolpis capensis, Euphorbia humifusa,
Panicum umbellatum, Paspalum dilatatum, Euphorbia glyptosperma, Rumex crispus,
Achyranthes aspera, Bermuda grass, Panicum effusum, Stemless Spiderwort (Axonopus
compressus), and others. These species were selected due to their presence and commonality
within the study area.It is anticipated that certain species, such as Axonopus compressus,
Panicum effusum, Euphorbia glyptosperma, and Paspalum dilatatum, may be common in
most squares. This commonality could be attributed to their adaptability to the environmental
conditions present in the lawns of the College Campus. These species may have
characteristics such as rapid growth, wide ecological tolerance, or efficient reproduction
strategies, making them well-suited to various-sized squares. The results of the survey will be
analysed to determine the correlation between the number of species and the size of the
squares. A hypothesis may be proposed, suggesting that plant species exhibit a positive
correlation with the area size due to their adaptability and ecological preferences. The
expectation is that certain plant species will be recurrent and common across multiple
squares. This is attributed to the fact that these species have adapted to the environmental
conditions of the College Campus lawns, making them well-suited to thrive in different-sized
areas. The factors influencing their common occurrence could include ecological preferences,
adaptability to varying plot sizes, and possibly shared ecological niches (Rosenzweig, 1995).
The experimental approach involves laying out a series of squares of different sizes on the
lawns. Prior to the main survey, a comprehensive collection of different plant species will be
prepared, affixed to a large sheet of paper, and assigned individual numbers to create an
inventory of the diverse species present in the marked area. This inventory will serve as a
valuable reference during the main survey. Instead of physical species, pictures were taken.
In conclusion we reject null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis that states that
there is a significant relationship between number of species and area.

Conclusion:
This practical provided valuable insights into the species-area relationships for plant species
in the College Campus. The methodology could be adapted for broader ecological surveys
and conservation planning. The investigation aims to determine if there is a statistically
significant relationship between the number of plant species and the area of the squares. This
will be assessed through statistical analysis, such as linear regression, to ascertain the strength
and significance of the observed relationship.
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