Using named examples of animals, describe the various forms of parthenogenesis

highlighting its importance to animals.

Parthenogenesis is a process that occurs when an egg begins to undergo embroyogenesis
without genetic contribution from the sperm, (Holtcamp 2009). This process allows creatures
like honey bees to rattlesnakes to have the so-called “virgin births” (Awad, 2023). Some
scientist believe that parthenogenesis was the early form of sexual reproduction, which was
then preceded by hermophrodism where by an organism has both the male and female
gametes and can self-fertilize. Parthenogenesis allows for increased offspring production,
leading to rapid population growth. This is important because it implies that over time, the
rate of population growth will be faster compared to species that solely use sexual
reproduction. Additionally, the increase in offspring production could provide a survival
advantage that would be beneficial in terms of population size from a conservation
perspective. There are two primary forms of parthenogenesis: apomictic parthenogenesis,
predominantly observed in plants, and automixes parthenogenesis, which primarily occurs in
animals, resulting in offspring with a homozygous genome. Parthenogenesis offers an
advantage by enabling endangered female organisms to produce viable offspring without the
need for male contribution. However, it also poses a disadvantage by diminishing genetic
diversity.
Parthenogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction in which females produce eggs that develop
into embryos without fertilization by a male. This method of reproduction is very rare in
vertebrate animals, which include fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
However, it is known to occur, and some species found to be undergoing this process are
well-studied. Insects and plants are the only organism groups where parthenogenesis has
become a major mode of reproduction. Animals such as bees, wasps, ants have no
sex chromosomes. These organisms reproduce by parthenogenesis. A few plants, reptiles and
fish are also capable of reproducing in this manner. A few organisms such as crayfish,
snakes, komodo dragons and sharks can reproduce sexually as well as by parthenogenesis.
This is known as facultative parthenogenesis. Parthenocarpy is the production of fruits
without the fertilisation of ovules. Fruits like banana and figs are developed without
fertilisation and do not produce any viable seeds

Parthenogenesis can be induced through natural or artificial means, with natural

parthenogenesis further classified into complete and incomplete forms. In some organisms,
particularly those lacking males for fertilization, such as certain insects, parthenogenesis
serves as the primary mode of reproduction. Others, like bees, practice incomplete
parthenogenesis, alternating between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis based on
environmental conditions or the absence of male individuals for fertilization. For instance,
bees may resort to parthenogenesis when they cannot leave the hive for the mating season
(Smith, 2020).

Artificially inducing parthenogenesis in various eggs involves employing physical and

chemical methods. Physically, parthenogenesis can be triggered by altering temperature, such
as transitioning eggs from -30°C to -10°C, or by exposing them to UV light. Additionally,
eggs can be stimulated through electric shocks or puncturing with a needle, provoking
reactions that disrupt natural processes within the egg. Chemically, parthenogenesis can be
induced using substances like chlorophomes, urea, sucrose, strychnine, fat solvents, acids,
and chlorides. Scientists commonly utilize artificial parthenogenesis induction in research
endeavors (Brown, 2019).

There are mainly two types of parthenogenesis: "Diploid parthenogenesis" and the "Haploid
parthenogenesis". In "Diploid parthenogenesis", embryos are developed from the eggs that
have not been fertilized by a sperm, and the offspring is a clone of the mother. In this type,
the female gamete (the egg) develops into a new individual without fertilization. However,
the male gamete does not contribute to the genetic makeup of the offspring. "Haploid
parthenogenesis" is the development of an egg without fertilization, but the egg has to go
through a process called "meiosis". Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division which
reduces the chromosome number by half. When the egg is not fertilized following meiosis,
the egg develops into an individual with half the normal number of chromosomes. For
example, many insects that alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction generations
produce males when the zygote is fertilized, and females when the egg develops without
fertilization. This ability for one organism to transform their sexual modes of reproduction
based on the mode of reproduction used by their parents is quite intriguing (Freeman, 2017).

Automixis is another form of parthenogenesis commonly found in animals, particularly

invertebrates. It encompasses three types: arrhenotoky, thelytoky, and deuterotoky.
Arrhenotoky involves the production of male offspring from the development of an
unfertilized female gamete. This phenomenon occurs in various species such as honey bees,
mites, wasps, and certain nematodes. Arrhenotokous parthenogenesis leads to the generation
of haploid males. In honey bees, for instance, male zygotes are produced due to the
haplodiploid system, wherein males are haploid with 16 chromosomes, while females are
diploid with 32 chromosomes. Queen bees lay haploid eggs, which develop into drones (male
bees). When the queen mates with males, diploid eggs are produced, developing into female
bees (Normark, 2003)
Thelytoky is a form of parthenogenesis where females are generated from unfertilized eggs.
Scientists suggest that thelytoky in bees has evolved through natural selection and
evolutionary processes (Goudie, 2013). This method of parthenogenesis allows laying worker
bees and virgin queen bees to produce queens and other worker bees. In automatic thelytoky,
during anaphase II, one of the polar bodies merges with the ovum, resulting in embryo
formation through embryogenesis. The fusion of the polar body with the ovum produces a
diploid cell identical to the maternal cells. This uniformity arises because chromosomal
assortment and recombination typically occur within the same genome, unlike in normal
sexual reproduction where assortment and recombination involve chromatids from both
paternal and maternal sources. Thelytoky is often employed by bees during adverse weather
conditions, such as wet conditions, to safeguard the queen from potential destruction outside
the hives while attempting to mate. Deuterotoky, on the other hand, involves the production
of both males and females through parthenogenesis (Goudie, 2014).

Other animal groups have also been shown to display this unique breeding behaviour. For
example, many species of phasmids, also known as stick insects, practice "obligate
parthenogenesis", which means that no males are found in these species. In some species,
only females have ever been found. In a small number of species, exclusively
parthenogenetic strains have evolved and these animals have completely dispensed with
males. For example, parthenogenesis has been successfully induced in mouse and human
eggs. Such studies not only provide important clues on understanding the fundamental
process of embryo development, but also carry significant clinical implications. The ability to
artificially trigger parthenogenesis in human eggs may one day help researchers develop new
treatments for various diseases through "therapeutic cloning". This is a process where "stem
cells" are harvested from a cloned embryo, which is produced from an unfertilized egg
(Blackiston, 2013).

In typical sexual reproduction, multiple meiotic divisions of primary oocytes lead to the
formation of haploid ova, which are subsequently fertilized by haploid sperm to generate a
diploid zygote. Conversely, in parthenogenesis, fertilization does not occur; however, ovum
production and development take place, rendering the process as incomplete sexual
reproduction.

During normal reproduction, primary oocytes undergo meiosis I, resulting in the formation of
secondary oocytes and the first polar body. Subsequently, a second meiotic division occurs,
giving rise to the second polar body. An additional polar body is formed through the division
of the first polar body, totalling three polar bodies. These polar bodies are smaller in size
compared to the ovum cell due to unequal cytoplasmic partitioning during cell division. Since
they play no role in the fertilization process, these polar bodies undergo apoptosis and
disintegrate (Albert et al.,2002).

It is believed by scientists that millions of years ago, small animals initiated the process of
parthenogenesis, wherein they could produce offspring without fertilization. This
phenomenon is evident in animals such as aphids, which can generate fertile male offspring
that are genetically identical to their mother. Over time, it is hypothesized that
parthenogenesis evolved in larger animals through genetic evolutionary processes, likely
triggered by adverse environmental conditions. Bees are another example of organisms
employing this method, using parthenogenesis to produce genetically identical female
offspring (Normark, 2003).

Complete Parthenogenesis: Whiptail Lizards (Aspidoscelis spp.): These reptiles exclusively

reproduce through parthenogenesis, with females laying unfertilized eggs that develop into
offspring. This mode of reproduction allows them to efficiently propagate in environments
where males are scarce or absent (Vitt and Goldberg, 1983). Incomplete Parthenogenesis:
Honeybees (Apis mellifera): In certain circumstances, such as during the reproductive season
when drones (males) are unavailable, worker bees can lay unfertilized eggs that develop into
haploid males. While these males are not directly involved in reproduction, they contribute to
colony dynamics and maintenance (Winston, 1991). Artificially Induced Parthenogenesis:
Zebrafish (Danio rerio): Scientists have employed artificial methods to induce
parthenogenesis in zebrafish eggs for research purposes. By applying chemical or physical
stimuli, such as temperature changes or exposure to UV light, researchers can initiate egg
development without fertilization. This technique aids in studying developmental biology and
genetic mechanisms (Kane and Kishimoto, 2002).

Another significance of parthenogenesis in animal reproduction is the potential for genetic

variation. In genetics, variation refers to the genetic differences both within and among
populations. In sexual reproduction, variation enters the offspring gene pool through the
reshuffling of genes during the processes of meiosis and fertilization. In parthenogenesis, the
eggs that are produced do not undergo meiosis or fertilization, so there is no introduction of
paternal genes. However, for certain species, the offspring eventually do need to mate
sexually in order to further reproduce. If a species is always producing genetically identical
clones, then there is no new genetic variation added to the gene pool, which can result in
reduced adaptability to changes in the environment and increased susceptibility to disease.
Nevertheless, there is still genetic diversity with parthenogenesis because the mother's genetic
material is constantly accumulating mutations over time.
Parthenogenesis, or asexual reproduction, offers several advantages in terms of reproductive
potential, adaptation to challenging environments, increased genetic diversity, and
conservation and survival. One of the key benefits of parthenogenesis is the resulting
reproductive potential in the population. Parthenogenesis allows for increased offspring
production, leading to rapid population growth. This is because the females do not have the
cost and time associated with mating and searching for a mate. Instead, they can dedicate
more energy and resources to producing offspring. For instance, a study on the New Mexico
whiptail, a parthenogenetic species, found that females produced almost twice as many eggs
through parthenogenesis compared to sexual reproduction. By both analyses of field-caught
females and females raised in the laboratory, reproduction through parthenogenesis resulted
in a much higher mean number of eggs compared to combined field and laboratory estimates
for sexual reproduction. This increased offspring production can result in rapid population
growth. It allows the population to grow at very quick rates and means a species can recover
from a drastic population decline more readily.
The success of the population will then depend more on the environment than the genetic
variation, which would likely be very low initially. Rapid population growth permits
successful colonization of isolated habitats and can provide quick countermeasures against
increased predation. Finally, it eliminates the constraints of mating, allowing for continuous
reproduction. For organisms that utilize sexual reproduction, mates have to be found for
successful mating to occur. High population density, geographic barriers, mate preferences,
and behavioral compatibility are among the many factors that could limit the occurrence of
mating. All of these factors could slow population growth and it may take a long period of
time until the species reaches the maximum sustainable population size. With
parthenogenesis, these problems are completely bypassed. This is because population growth
is only limited by the availability of resources, the capacity of the environment to sustain the
growing population, and the fecundity of the organism. Continuous reproduction means that
generations do not overlap with each other. As a result, there is more opportunity for the
accumulation of advantageous mutations and the elimination of deleterious ones through
natural selection (Blackiston and Levin, 2013).
Parthenogenesis can easily be recognized as a mode of reproduction that increases the
number of offspring; however, it is just a minute part of the bigger picture. In this regard, it is
equally important to understand the significance of parthenogenesis in eliminating mating
systems. By refraining from the routine of sexual reproduction and the associated mating
processes, parthenogenesis enables living organisms to avoid all forms of behaviours and
traits geared towards securing mates. Mating systems play a key role in the study of sexual
behaviour in organisms, and it accounts for a number of traits that are displayed throughout
the mating stage. Mate behaviours are those directly contributing towards success in mating.
Consequently, male and female organisms will adapt to what they observe as the optimal
mate-seeking alternative through the course of generations. This results in the evolution of
different mate preferences and mate selection behaviours depicted by the two sexes.
Moreover, with the necessity to produce offspring not just alone but together with another
organism - a 'sexual partner', a third type of behaviours is observed during mating: intersexual
selection. These choices that individual

While parthenogenesis is thought to have evolved in many organisms as a response to a

specific niche or set of environmental conditions, from what I can see, a lack of genetic
variation will actually hinder the ability of parthenogenetic populations to adapt to
environmental changes. For example, if the population is subjected to new selection pressures
as a result of changing environments, sexual reproduction allows beneficial alleles to
accumulate. Thanks to recombination, many different genetic combinations can be produced.
On the other hand, parthenogenetic populations, more vulnerable to these conditions due to
the restriction in genetic variation, may languish, allowing sexual populations to outcompete.

Parthenogenesis leads to populations with limited genetic diversity. Because parthenogenesis

permits the reproduction of individuals without the contribution of a male, it leads to a
population that is essentially a clone of the single progenitor. If asexual reproduction is
repeated through many generations, the entire population of individuals can have very similar
- near identical - genotypes. It was observed that offspring weighs 15% less and have a 22%
higher mortality rate than sexually produced offspring. Such a phenomenon (known as the
cost of reproduction) occurs in many organisms when they reproduce asexually, as it is
contrary to the predictions of evolutionary theory.

Parthenogenesis is common in certain groups of insects, such as aphids, where the process of
parthenogenesis differs from the typical type and is called cyclical parthenogenesis. This
means that sexual reproduction occurs at certain times of the year and asexual
parthenogenesis occurs at other times. In aphids, unfertilized eggs develop into females,
known as fundatrices. These fundatrices are parthenogenetic and produce further
parthenogenetic generations of female aphids, which continue to produce more
parthenogenetic females every few days. When the weather becomes unfavourable, the
aphids produce sexual forms that undergo meiosis to produce eggs that are able to withstand
harsh conditions. After fertilization with a male sperm, these eggs develop into eggs known
as isoparasitized eggs, which can lay dormant until the following spring. The next generation
hatches and these eggs produce the fundatrices which mark the beginning of a new season of
parthenogenetic generations. Also in aphids, the phenomenon of telescoping generations
occurs, which increases the rapidity of population growth by having developing eggs within
adults.
 Another example of insects that undergo parthenogenesis is the wasp, Hymenoptera. The
production of males from unfertilized eggs is relatively common and several species of wasps
exhibit arrhenotokous parthenogenesis. In this process, males are haploid and develop from
unfertilized eggs and in contrast, females are diploid and typically develop from fertilized
eggs. As with aphids, environmental conditions have been shown to trigger or suppress
parthenogenetic cloning, which can help control the genetic diversity in a population. The
genome of the honeybee Apis mellifera has recently been found to contain a gene encoding
for a mediator of parthenogenesis, which is involved in mitochondria and may also have
significant relevance to the reproductive cycle of other insects.

The honeybee is known to generate males either via standard fertilization (resulting in
females) or through parthenogenesis. However, the causes of parthenogenesis and the
specifications of the underlying processes has been less understood. Dr Eckart Stolle, the
head of the Honeybee Behaviour and Reproduction research group at Queen Mary's
University of London, stated that understanding the different modes of honeybee
reproduction are not only important in terms of finding ways to control the honeybee
population, but also because the honeybee is of increasing importance in studying
environmental genomics and developmental biology due to its close relation to the genetic
model Drosophila. This shows that research on parthenogenesis in insects not only benefits
our knowledge of these organisms, but also expands the possible fields and scopes of
research that could be carried out in the future (Stolle, 2019).

Parthenogenesis has been observed in captive female Komodo dragons (Varanus

komodoensis), enabling them to produce viable offspring without the need for mating with
males. This reproductive strategy is particularly advantageous in situations where genetic
diversity needs to be maintained, such as in isolated populations or when males are not
readily available for mating (Watts et al., 2006). On the other hand, water fleas (Daphnia
spp.) showcase cyclic parthenogenesis, a phenomenon where they alternate between sexual
and asexual reproduction in response to environmental cues. This remarkable flexibility
allows water fleas to adapt swiftly to changing conditions and optimize their reproductive
success across diverse habitats. By switching between sexual and asexual reproduction, water
fleas can capitalize on favourable circumstances for sexual reproduction while rapidly
propagating through asexual means when conditions are less favourable or when mates are
scarce. This adaptive reproductive strategy enhances the survival and proliferation of water
flea populations in fluctuating environments (Watts et al., 2006).

Parthenogenesis is a reproductive strategy observed in various insect species, including

rotifers (Phylum Rotifera), ants (Family Formicidae), gall wasps (Family Cynipidae), and
certain cockroach species (Order Blattodea). Rotifers, for instance, rely extensively on
parthenogenesis, enabling them to rapidly reproduce under favorable conditions and adapt to
changing environments. Similarly, certain ant species, like the Cape honeybee (Apis mellifera
capensis), utilize thelytokous parthenogenesis, wherein unfertilized eggs develop into
females, contributing to colony expansion and survival. Gall wasps also employ thelytokous
parthenogenesis, facilitating rapid population growth and the exploitation of host plants. In
some species of cockroaches, parthenogenesis allows females to produce offspring without
mating, providing reproductive advantages in environments where males are scarce or
conditions are challenging. Overall, parthenogenesis serves as a crucial reproductive strategy
for these insects, ensuring population growth, adaptation, and survival in diverse ecological
niches.
In conclusion Parthenogenesis plays a crucial role in maintaining population numbers and
genetic diversity, especially in species facing challenges such as isolation or gender
imbalances. Understanding the mechanisms and consequences of parthenogenesis in various
animals provides valuable insights into reproductive strategies and evolutionary dynamics.
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