Reproduction in Organisms

Dr. Sayed Roshan Mulla

➢ INTRODUCTION
1) Life span: The period from birth to the natural death of an organism.

2) Reproduction:

The biological process through which an organism gives rise to young

offspring similar to itself.

That Enables the continuity of the species, generation after generation.

The process of reproduction of an organism depends on the following:

 1. Organism’s habitat
2. Its internal physiology
3. Several other factors

Types of Reproduction

1) Asexual mode: Reproduction involving a single parent or without the

involvement of gamete formation.

2) Sexual mode: Reproduction involving two parents (opposite sex) and

also involves fusion of male and female gametes.

I) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

a) A single individual (parent) is capable of producing offspring.

b) The produced offspring are clones of each other.

c) Clones: Organisms which are morphologically and genetically similar.

Modes of Asexual Reproduction

1. Binary fission- Amoeba, Parameciam

2. Encystation and
3. sporulation- Amoeba

4. Budding- yeast, hydra

5. Strobilization- Aurelia,

6. Fragmentation- Spirogyra, Fungi-

 7. Gemmae- Marchantia

8. Gemmules- Sponges

9. Regeneration- Lizard, Liver,

10. Hydra, Planeria, flatworm, Echiniderms ,

11. Spore formation- chlamidomonas,

1. Plants.
2. Algae.
3. Protozoa.
4. Bacteria.
5. Fungi.

Vegetative Reproduction-

Formation of new plants from vegetative units such as

Buds, Tubers , Rhizomes, etc.

Types of Vegetative Reproduction

1. Natural Vegetative Reproduction

2. Artificial Vegetative Reproduction

1) Natural Vegetative Reproduction

SPECIALISED STRUCTURES
( vegetative propagules)

1. Tubers- Potato
 2. Root tubers - Dahlia, Sweat potato.

3. Sucker- Banana

4. Rhizome- Ginzer

5. Corms- colococia, crocus, gladiolus, and taro.

6. Leaf buds- Bryiphillum

7. Bulbs- Onion

8. Bulbil- Agave

9. Runner- Oxalis, grasses.

10. Stolon- strawberry and mint, Taro arrow roots. Colococia.

11. Zoospores- chlamidomonas,

12. Conidia - Penicillium

13. Offset- Echhornia, Pistia,

14. Sucker- Chrysanthemum,

2) Artificial Vegetative Reproduction

Example:
Cutting
1. Rose, Bougainvillea,
2. Chrysanthemum,
3. Grapes,
 4. Sugarcane,
5. Bananas and
6. Cactus

Layering-
1. Climbing roses,
2. Forsythia,
3. Rhododendron,
4. Honeysuckle,
5. Boxwood,
6. Azalea, and
7. wax myrtle

Grafting-
1. Roses,
2. Apples,
3. Avocado

Micropropigation- tissue culture

1) Binary Fission: In this process, the cell divides into halves, and each
half develops into an adult (E.g.-Amoeba, Paramecium).

2) Budding: In this process, the cell divides unequally to form buds, which
remain attached to the parent initially, and then detach and develop, into a
mature cell (E.g. - yeast).

3) Sporulation: The process of spore formation.

It occurs under unfavourable conditions like desiccation and extreme

temperature( Amoeba)
The products of multiple fission, become individually surrounded by
resistant coats, called the cyst wall before they are released from the
parent cell/body.

The spore remains inactive during the unfavourable condition and upon
arrival of favourable condition the cyst hatches and develops into an adult.

Sporulation is thus not only a mean of reproduction but also enables the
organism to survive during unfavourable conditions and disperse to new
localities with air.

It occurs in amoeba Uniparental

It is the condition where a person receives two copies of a chromosome or

part of a chromosome, from one parent and no copies from the other.

FRAGMENTATION
Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where an organism splits
into fragments.

Each of these fragments develops into mature fully grown individual

followed by mitosis.

It occurs in some algae (Spirogyra), fungi, some annelids and sea stars.

REGENERATION

Regeneration is the process of renewal, restoration and growth.

It can occur at the level of the cells, tissues and organs.

It is common in Hydra, planarian flatworm and echinoderms.

A lizard can discard a part of the tail when in danger, and the tail can
regenerate later.

In humans too the liver can regenerate if partially damaged.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction involves formation and the fusion of male and

female gametes

Produced by a single individual or by different individuals .

The offspring are not identical to their parents differences are called
variations

Variations form the basis for evolution .

The pre-reproductive period in plants is called vegetative phase and in

animals juvenile phase .

in angiosperms , flowering indicates the beginning of the reproductive

phase .

It is regulated by internal factors like genes , hormones etc. and external

factors like nutrients , temperature and photoperiod .

Plants can be
1. Annuals ,
2. Biennials and
3. Perennials

Annuals
Plants which complete both vegetative and reproductive phases in a
year are called annuals .

Example -Paddy , Wheat , Sunflower etc.

Biennials

Plants which complete vegetative phase in the first year and

reproductive phase in the second year are called biennials .

Example, Radish , Cabbage , beetroot , pineapple etc. .

Perennials

Plants which complete their life cycle in many years are called perennials
.

Monocarpic

Plants flowering in once in life time

Exam: Bamboo 50-100 years

Polycarpic

Plants which flower many times are polycarpic

Phases of growth:

1) Juvenile phase (Vegetative phase in plants): the stage of growth and

maturity, before the organism can reproduce sexually.

2) Reproductive phase: Begins at the end of the Juvenile phase.

3) Senescence phase (old age): The end of reproductive phase

The rate of metabolism slows down.

Ultimately leads to death.

Hormones are responsible for the transitions between the three phases.

Plants exhibiting unusual flowering phenomenon:

Bamboo: flower only once in their life time generally after 50-100 years,
produce a large number of fruits and die.

Strobilanthus kunthiana (Neelakuranji): flowers once in 12 years.

Oestrus cycle: Cyclic change in the activities of the ovaries and the
oviduct in non-primate mammals like
rats, sheep, dogs, cows and tigers.

Seasonal breeders: Mammals that can reproduce only in the favourable

seasons.

Menstrual cycle: Cyclic change in the activities of the ovaries and the
oviduct in primates like

monkeys, apes and humans.

Continuous breeders: Mammals which are reproductively active

throughout their reproductive phase

Events in sexual reproduction:

The events of sexual reproduction through elaborate and complex, follow a

regular sequence:
 1) Pre-fertilisation
2) Fertilisation
3) Post-fertilisation events

PRE-FERTILISATION EVENTS

Pre Fertlization Events

1. Gametogenesis

Gametogenesis is the process of the formation of haploid male and

female gametes ,

Isogametes

when both male and female gametes are similar

Ex: Algae .

Ansiogametes

When male and female gametes are Dissimilar called ansiogametes or

heterogametes
Exam: plants and animals .

Male gamete is referred as antherozoid or sperm and

Female gamete is called egg or ovum .

SEXUALITY IN ORGANISMS

Homothallic
Many fungi produce both male and female gametes , hence they are
called homothallic .

Heterothallic

Some plants produce either male or female gametes and hence they are
called heterothallic .

Monoecious

Algae are mostly monoecious because both types of gametes are

produced by an individual.
Eg Chara .

Bryophytes are monoecious

Angiosperms E.g. cucumber , coconut ,Hibiscus etc

DIOECIOUS ,
Bryophytes only Marchantia

Gymnosperms E.g. Pinus .

Angiosperms- E.g. Papya , date palm .

Some Angiosperms produce both

1. Male Flower is called staminate flower

2. Female flower is called pistillate flowers .

Hermaphrodites- nisexual Animals

● Leach
● Earthworm and
 ● Tape worm

Dioecious - Unisexual Animals

Male and female sexes are separate .

E.g. cockroach , spiders , frogs , Ascaris etc.

Cell division during gamete formation

Gametes are haploid.

Haploid plant body: Several organisms belonging to

Example. monera, fungi, algae and bryophytes.

Diploid plant body:

organisms belonging to pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms and

most of the animals including human beings.

Meiocytes: Gamete mother cell undergoes meiosis to give rise to

gametes.

Gamete Transfer

For their fusion to take place,the gametes need to be transferred.

In most organisms, the male gametes are motile, while the female
gametes are non-motile, and the male gametes need a medium for their
movement.
A large number of male gametes do not make it to the female gamete, and
hence, several thousands of male gametes are produced to overcome
this loss.

In angiosperms,

1. the pollen grain carries the male gamete and

2. the ovule carries the female gamete.

Pollen grains are produced in the anther and need to be transferred to the
stigma for fertilisation to occur.

This is easy in monoecious plants as both the anther and the stigma is
present close by;

in dioecious plants, it takes place by pollination.

FERTILIZATION ( syngamy )

The process of the fusion of haploid male and haploid female gametes to
form a diploid rygote fertilization ( syngamy ) .

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION

Fusion of sperm and egg outside the body of an organism or in the

external medium is called external fertilization .

It occurs in water

Example: Algae , Fishes and Amphibians .

DISADVANTAGES of external fertilization

Chances of fertilization are less and therefore wastage is more

Gametes are exposed to the dangers of external environment.

INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

In terrestrial animals , fertilization takes place inside the body of the

organism and is called internal fertilization .

Example: Animals:
Reptiles, Birds, Mammals

Plants like
● Bryophytes,
● Pteridophytes,
● Gymnosperms and
● Angiosperms
●
ADVANTAGEOUS Internal fertilization

● The Less wastage of gametes

● The gametes are not exposed to the dangers of external environment

.

● The development
embryo depends on the parent for nutrition and protection .

In Angiosperms zygote further grows into a multicellular embryo by

mitosis .

In fungi and algae it divides by meiosis to produce haploid individuais .

PARTHENOGENESIS

In some of the organisms , an unfertilized egg develops into an embryo.

Development of an egg into a new organism without fertilization is called

parthenogenesis .

Example:
1. Male honeybees ,
2. Female turkeys and
3. Rotifers
develop from unfertilized eggs .

PARTHENOCARPY

If the ovary develops into a fruit without fertilization ,

it forms a seedless fruit .

This process is called parthenocarpy .

POST-FERTILISATION EVENTS

These include all the events after fertilisation.

ZYGOTE

A diploid zygote is formed as a result of the fusion of gametes in all

organisms.

In external fertilisation,
the zygote is formed in an external medium, and

in internal fertilisation,

the zygote is formed inside the individual.

The development of a zygote depends upon the life cycle of an organism

and its surroundings.

Embryogenesis

It is the process of development of an embryo from the zygote.

The zygote undergoes mitotic cell division and cellular differentiation for
the further development.

Based on the location of development of zygote;

animals can be grouped into the following two categories

1) Oviparous:

Egg laying animals.

A hard calcareous shell covers the fertilised eggs.

The young ones hatch out after a period of incubation.

E.g., birds, reptiles, Fishes, snake etc.birds, lizards, frogs, chickens,

alligators, snakes, salamander, crocodiles, fishes,

OVOVIVIPAROUS :
Ovoviviparous animals produce eggs and keep them inside the mother's
body until the fetus develops completely and is ready to hatch.
Examples: sharks, rays, snakes, fishes, and insects.

2) Viviparous:

Animals giving birth to young ones.

The development of the zygote into a young one takes place inside the
body of the female organism.

After attaining a certain stage of growth, the young ones are delivered
out of the body of the female organism.

Eg-Dolphin, Whales, Humans, Lion, Tiger, Elephant, Dogs,

In flowering plants:

Zygote is formed inside the ovule.

POST FERTILISATION EVENTS IN FLOWERING PLANTS:

1. Pistil remain intact to the plant

2. Sepals, petals and stamens weather and fall off
3. Zygote becomes embryo

4. Ovule becomes seed

5. Ovary becomes fruit

6. Seeds germinate under favorable conditions to produce new

plants.
Chapter 1

REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

ONE MARK QUESTIONS:

1. Define reproduction.

2. What is the significance of reproduction?

3. What is life span?

4. What is asexual reproduction?

5. What is sexual reproduction?

6. Offspring obtained from asexual reproduction are called clones. Why?

7. Name the organism in which cell division itself is a mode of reproduction.

8. Name the asexual reproductive structures in Penicillium.

9. Name the asexual reproductive structures in Chlamydomonas.

10. Name the asexual reproductive structures in Hydra.

11. Name the mode of asexual reproduction in yeast.

12. Name the asexual reproductive structures in sponges.

13. Name the mode of asexual reproduction in Amoeba.

14. Name the asexual reproductive spores produced by Amoeba. (spores)

15. Name a fungus that undergoes asexual reproduction by means of

conidia.

16. Name a fungus that undergoes asexual reproduction by means of

budding.

17. Name an animal that undergoes asexual reproduction by means of

budding. - Hydra

18. Name an organism that undergoes asexual reproduction by means of

zoospores.

19. Name organisms that undergo asexual reproduction by means of

gemmules.

20. Name the organism which undergoes asexual reproduction by means

of encystation and
sporulation. (Amoeba)

21. What is encystation?

(the formation of a three-layered hard crust or a cyst around an amoeba to

protect itself from unfavourable conditions)

22. What are gemmules?

23. What are vegetative propagules?

24. Name the vegetative propagule in potato.

25. Name the vegetative propagule in ginger.

26. Name the vegetative propagule in water hyacinth.

27. Name the vegetative propagule in Agave.

28. Name the vegetative propagule in onion.

29. Name the vegetative propagule in Bryophyllum.

30. Mention an example for a plant which produces tuber as vegetative

propagules.

31. Mention an example for a plant which produces rhizome as vegetative

propagules.

32. Mention an example for a plant which produces bulb as vegetative

propagules.

33. Mention an example for a plant which produces offset as vegetative

propagules.

34. Mention an example for a plant which produces bulbil as vegetative

propagules.

35. Mention an example for a plant which produces adventitious leaf buds.

36. What is juvenile phase of life span?

37. What is reproductive phase of life span?

38. What is senescent phase of life span?

39. Give the scientific name of the plant which produces flowers once in 12
years.

40. Name the plant that flowers only once in its life time.

41. Name the reproductive cycle that occurs in females which are seasonal
breeders.

42. Name the reproductive cycle that occurs in females which are
continuous breeders.

43. Name the type of reproductive cycle that occurs in non-primate

mammals.

44. What are seasonal breeders?

45. What are continuous

breeders?

46. Define gametogenesis.

47. What are homogametes or isogametes?

48. What are heterogametes?

49. What are homothallic organisms?

50. What are heterothallic organisms?

51. What is a monoecious plant?

52. What is a dioecious plant?

53. Why Cucurbita plant is called a monoecious plant?

54. Why papaya plant is called a dioecious plant?

55. Why coconut palm is called a monoecious plant?

56. Why date palm is called a dioecious plant?

57. Mention an example for a monoecious plant.

58. Mention an example for a dioecious plant.

59. What is a staminate flower?

60. What is pistillate flower?

61. What are hermaphrodites?

62. Mention an example for a hermaphrodite.

63. Why tapeworm is considered as a hermaphrodite?

64. Why leech is considered as a hermaphrodite?

65. Why earthworm is considered as a hermaphrodite?

66. Why sponges are considered as hermaphrodites?

67. What are pre-fertilisation events?

68. What are post-fertilisation events?

69. What are meiocytes?

70. If 2n = 40 in an organism, what would be the number of chromosomes
in its meiocytes?

71. Why the number of male gametes produced in majority of the

organisms is several thousand times the number of female gametes
produced?

72. Define fertilization or syngamy.

73. Define parthenogenesis.

74. What is internal fertilization?

75. What is external fertilization?

76. Give an example for an animal where fertilization is external.

77. Give an example for an animal group where fertilisation is internal.

78. Give an example for a plant group where fertilisation is internal.

79. Why external fertilization is disadvantageous to animals when

compared to internal fertilization?

80. Why internal fertilization is advantageous to the animal when compared

to external
fertilization?

81. What type of cell division occurs in zygote of organisms with

haplobiontic life cycle?
82. What type of cell division occurs in the zygote of organisms with
diplontic or haplo-diplontic
cycle?

83. Define embryogenesis.

84. What are oviparous animals?

85. What are viviparous animals?

86. Why the chances of survival of young ones are more in viviparous
animals than in oviparous animals?

87. Name the protective wall of fruit.

88. What is pericarp?