EXPERT COACHING ACADEMY

CHAPTER -13 [7M] Nuclei

Experiments showed that, the nucleus contains most It is also found that, the mass of neutron is same as that
(more than 99.9%) of the mass of an atom. of the mass of proton.
Every atom consists of a nucleus made of
2He + 4Be  0n + 6C
4 9 1 12
protons and neutrons called nucleons.
A free neutron is unstable. It decays into a proton, an
 Total no. of protons in the nucleus = atomic no. (Z)
electron and antineutrino (another elementary particle),
 Total no. of nucleons = atomic mass no. (A) and has a mean life of about 1000s. It is, however, stable
 Total no. of neutrons, N = A – Z
inside the nucleus.
Atomic mass unit (u or amu):
Deuterium (1H2) contains one proton and one
The unit used to express mass of atoms is called
neutron, tritium (1H3) contains one proton and two
atomic mass unit (amu).
th
neutrons.
1
1 atomic mass unit = (12) of the mass of carbon-12 General properties of the nucleus:
atom i.e. 1 amu = 1.66 × 10-27 kg Nuclear size:
 Accurate measurement of atomic masses is carried Experimental results indicate that the volume of
out with a mass spectrometer. It is found that, the nucleus is directly proportional to the atomic mass
 Mass of an electron, me = 0.00055amu = 9.1×10-31 kg number (A) of the nucleus.
 Mass of a proton, mp = 1.0073amu = 1.6726×10-27 kg i.e. Volume of nucleus ∝ Atomic mass number
 Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.0086amu = 1.6749×10-27 kg If R is the radius of a nucleus having mass number A,
 Mass of a H-atom, mH = mp + mn = 1.0078amu then
Types of atoms: 4
3
𝜋𝑅3 ∝ A
Atoms can be classified as three types, namely
1
Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones. R ∝ 𝐴 ⁄3
Isotopes: If atoms have same atomic number (Z) but Thus, the radius of the nucleus is given by
different mass number (A), then the atoms are said to be 1
R = Ro 𝐴 ⁄3
Isotopes.
Where Ro is a constant and Ro = 1.2×10-15m
e.g.: 1H1, 1H2 and 1H3, 6C10 and 6C11 etc.
Or Ro = 1.2fm (femtometer or fermi).
1H  called protium or proton, 1H  called
1 2
Nuclear mass:
deuterium or deuteron and 1H3 called tritium or
The sum of the masses of all the nucleons
triton.
present in a nucleus is called nuclear mass. Let mp be the
Tritium is being unstable, do not occur naturally
mass of each proton and mn be the mass of each neutron,
and produced artificially in laboratories.
Isobars: If atoms have same mass number (A) but then Nuclear mass = (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
)+ (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
)
different atomic number (Z), then the nuclei are said to M = Zmp + (A - Z)mn
be Isobars. Nuclear density:
e.g.: 11H22 and 10H22, 8O16 and 7N16 etc. Mass per unit volume of a nucleus is called
Isotones: If atoms have different atomic number (Z) and nuclear density.
different mass number (A), but equal number of 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
i.e. Nuclear density = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
neutrons (N), then the atoms are said to be Isotones.
e.g.: 1H3 and 2He4, 8O16 and 6O14 etc. For a nucleus of mass number A,
Discovery of neutron: The neutron was discovered by Mass of nucleus = mA
James Chadwick in 1932. He was awarded the Nobel (m – Average mass of a nucleon)
Prize in 1935. James Chadwick observed emission of 𝑚𝐴 𝑚𝐴
∴ Nuclear density = 4 =4 1
neutral radiation when beryllium nuclei were bombarded 3
𝜋𝑅 3 𝜋(𝑅𝑜 𝐴 ⁄3 )3
3
𝑚𝐴 𝑚
with alpha-particles. It was found that this neutral i.e Nuclear density = 4 =4
𝜋𝑅𝑜3𝐴 𝜋𝑅𝑜3
radiation could eliminate protons from light nuclei such 3 3
𝑚
as helium. Application of the principles of conservation i.e. ρ = 4
𝜋𝑅𝑜3
3
of energy and momentum showed that the neutral
For all nuclei, ρ = 2.3 × 1017kgm-3
radiation consists of a new type of neutral particles
called neutrons. Thus,

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 Density of the nuclei for all the atoms is same as it is
independent of mass number (A).
 Density is maximum at centre of nucleus and reduces
towards its edges. So, nucleus does not have sharp
boundaries.
 The high density of the nucleus suggests that nucleus
is highly compact.
Nuclear force:
The force of attraction between the nucleons is
called nuclear force.
Characteristics of Nuclear forces:
 Strongest force:
Nuclear force is strongest force in nature. This
force is about 1038 times greater than gravitational
force.
 Strongly attractive:
Nuclear force is strongly attractive. At very
small distance between two nucleons (about less than
1fm) the nuclear force suddenly becomes repulsive. As a
result, the nucleus is prevented from total collapse.
 Short range force:
The nuclear force is a short range force. It exist
only when the distance between two nucleons ≤ 10-15 m.
 Charge independent:
The nuclear force is charge independent. Thus,
the nuclear force between proton-proton (p-p), proton-
neutron (p-n) and neutron-neutron (n-n) is same.
 Spin dependent:
The nuclear force between two nucleons having
parallel spin (↑↑) is stronger than anti-parallel spin (↑↓).
 Saturation force:
Nuclear force has the property of saturation. i.e.
a nucleon can interact only with a limited number of
nucleons in its neighbourhood.
 Exchange force:
Nuclear force exists between two nucleons due
to the exchange of pions (𝜋 − , π° and 𝜋 + ).
 Non-central force:
It does not act along the line joining the centres
of two nucleons.
Einstein’s mass energy relation:
According to Einstein any mass can be
converted into a large amount of energy. Mass is
measured in amu and the energy is measured in MeV.
It is given by E = mc2
Where m – mass of the nucleus
And c – speed of light in air
e.g.: Hydrogen bomb, nuclear bomb etc.
Energy equivalent to 1 amu:
Let E = mc2 = (1.66 × 10−27 )(3 × 108 )2
14.9 ×10−11
= 14.9 × 10−11 J = eV
1.6×10−19
8 6
i.e. E = 9.31 × 10 eV = 931 × 10 eV = 931MeV
Thus, 1 amu of nuclei produces 931MeV of energy.
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Mass defect (ΔM):
The difference between the sum of the masses of
the nucleons and the rest mass of the nucleus is called
mass defect.
𝑖. 𝑒. ∆𝑴 = 𝒁𝒎𝒑 + (𝑨 – 𝒁)𝒎𝒏 – 𝑴
Where, M → rest mass of the nucleus
A → Atomic mass number
Z → Atomic number
𝒎𝒑 → mass of proton and 𝒎𝒏 → mass of neutron
e.g.: Consider a nucleus 8O16 which has 8 neutrons and
8 protons.
∴ Mass of 8 neutrons = 8×1.00866u
Mass of 8 protons = 8×1.00727u
Mass of 8 electrons = 8×0.00055u
∴The expected mass of 8O16 nucleus =8×2.01593 = 16.12744u
The atomic mass of 8O16 found from mass
spectroscopy experiments is seen to be 15.99493u.
Subtracting the mass of 8 electrons (8×0.00055u) from
this, we get the experimental mass of 8O16 nucleus to be
15.99053u. Thus, we find that the mass of the 8O16
nucleus is less than the total mass of its constituents by
0.13691u.
Packing fraction (P.F.):
The mass defect per nucleon of a nucleus is
called packing fraction.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 ∆𝑀
i.e. P.F. of nucleus = =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐴
If P.F. is positive, then the nucleus is unstable
and if the P.F. is negative then the nucleus is stable.
Binding energy (Eb or B.E.):
The minimum energy required to split the
nucleus into its constituent nucleons is called binding
energy.
According to Einstein’s mass energy relation
binding energy is given by,
𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑀𝑐 2 = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn − M]𝑐 2
For C – 12 atom, 𝐸𝑏 = 89.1MeV
That means, minimum 89.1MeV is needed to
separate all the nucleons of C–12 atom.
Specific binding energy:
The average energy required to remove one
nucleon from the nucleus is called Specific binding
energy or binding energy per nucleon.
𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑏
i.e. Specific binding energy = =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐴
Specific binding energy signifies the stability of
nucleus.
Binding energy curve:
The graphical representation of a variation of
binding energy per nucleon with mass number is known
as binding energy curve. The binding energy curve rises
sharply in the beginning and attaining a maximum value
of 8.79MeV for an isotope of iron with A = 56.
Page 2 of 10
 2. β -rays are deflected by both electric and magnetic
fields.
3. They have ionising power more than γ rays and less
than α-rays.
4. They have penetrating power more than α-rays and
less than γ-rays.
5. Velocity of β-particles is about 1% to 99% of velocity
of light.
6. They affect photographic plates more than α-rays.
The curve then gradually falls to 7.6MeV for the
last naturally available element U-238. This decrease is
γ-rays:
due to coulomb repulsion between the protons which 1. γ-rays are uncharged particles and is equivalent to
makes the heavier nuclei less stable. photon.
Features and conclusions of binding energy curve: 2. γ-rays are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
 The binding energy per nucleon is practically constant, Hence they are electromagnetic waves.
i.e. practically independent of the atomic number for 3. They have very low ionising power.
nuclei of middle mass number (30 < A < 170). This 4. They have very high penetrating power than α and β-
shows that the nuclear force is short ranged. rays.
 The binding energy per nucleon is lower for both light 5. Velocity of γ-particles is equal to velocity of light in
(A < 30) and heavy nuclei (A > 170). This helps in vacuum
explanation of nuclear fission and fusion. 6. They affect photographic plates more than α and β-
Significance of Binding energy curve: rays.
It gives the information about the nuclear forces. Radioactive displacement law:
Radioactivity: During a radioactive disintegration, the nucleus
The spontaneous disintegration of heavy nuclei which undergoes disintegration is called a parent nucleus
with the emission of certain radiations (α, β and γ rays) is and that which remains after the disintegration is called a
called radioactivity. The elements which show this daughter nucleus. In 1913, Soddy and Fajan framed the
phenomenon are called radioactive elements. displacement laws governing radioactivity.
Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel in Alpha - decay:
1896 accidentally. Elements with atomic mass number When a radioactive nucleus emits α-particle its
greater than 200 exhibits the phenomena of natural atomic number decreases by 2 and mass number decreases by
radioactivity. 4. The new element formed falls two places left to the parent
e.g.: Uranium, Radium, Thorium etc. element in the periodic table. The α-decay can be expressed as
𝛼−𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦
The process of making ordinary elements into 𝑍𝑋
𝐴
→ Z−2𝑌
A−4
+𝛼– particle
radioactive elements is called artificial radioactivity or 238
𝛼−𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦
234
induced radioactivity. e.g.: 92U → 90Th + 2He4
e.g.: Cobalt-60, Phosphorous, Nitrogen etc. Beta - decay:
The radioactive phenomenon is spontaneous and When a radioactive nucleus emits β-particle (an
is unaffected by any external agent like temperature, electron or positron) its atomic number increases or decreases
pressure, electric and magnetic fields etc. by 1 and mass number remains same. The new element
Properties of α-rays, β-rays and γ-rays or differences formed shifts one place right or left to the parent element in
between α-rays, β-rays and γ-rays: the periodic table. The β-decay can be expressed as
𝛽−𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦
α-rays: ZX
A
→ A
Z±1Y + 𝛽 – particle
𝛽−𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦
1. α-rays are positively charged particles and is e.g.: In (𝛽‫ )־‬decay, 92U239 → 93Np
239
+-1e0 +𝑣̅
equivalent to 2He4 nucleus. 𝛽−𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦
2. α-rays are deflected by both electric and magnetic In (𝛽+ ) decay, 11Na22 → 22 0
10Ne + +1e + v

fields. The symbols and 𝑣̅ represent neutrino and

3. They have high ionising power than β and γ rays.
4. They have very small penetrating power than β and γ
rays.
5. Velocity of α-particles is about 107ms-1.
6. They affect photographic plates.
β-rays:
1. β-rays are negatively charged particles and is
equivalent to electron.
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antineutrino, respectively; both are neutral particles, with
very little or no mass. These particles are emitted from
the nucleus along with the electron or positron during
the decay process.
Neutrinos interact only very weakly with matter; they
can even penetrate the earth without being absorbed. It is
for this reason that their detection is extremely difficult
and their presence went unnoticed for long.
Page 3 of 10
 In beta-minus decay, a neutron transforms into a 𝑑𝑁
From eq (1) ⇒ 𝑁
= − λdt
proton within the nucleus according to
Integrating the above equation we get
n  p + e‫ ־‬+ 𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑁
∫ = ∫ −𝜆𝑑𝑡 or ln N = − λt + C -----(2)
Whereas in beta-plus decay, a proton transforms 𝑁
Where C – constant of integration
into neutron (inside the nucleus) via
At t = 0, N = No
p  n + e+ + v
∴ eq (2) becomes ⇒ In No = C ------(3)
Gamma – decay:
When a radioactive nucleus emits γ-particle From eqns (2) and (3) we have
neither the atomic number nor the mass number changes, In N = - λt + In No
they remains same. The γ-decay can be expressed as In N - In No = - λt
𝑁
𝛾−𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 In (𝑁 ) = - λt
ZY + 𝛾 – particle
A A
ZX → 0
𝑁
e.g.: 91Pa →234
𝛾−𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦
91Pa
234
+ 𝛾 - ray 𝑁0
= e- λt
There are energy levels in a nucleus, just like N = Noe- λt -------(4)
there are energy levels in atoms. When a nucleus is in an Eq(4) shows that the number of nuclei of a
excited state, it can make a transition to a lower energy radioactive sample decreases exponentially with increase
state by the emission of electromagnetic radiation. As in time.
the energy differences between levels in a nucleus are of The graph of number of nuclei v/s time is as
the order of MeV, the photons emitted by the nuclei shown in the figure.
have MeV energies and are called gamma rays.
Most radio-nuclides after an alpha decay or beta
decay leave the daughter nucleus in an excited state. The
daughter nucleus reaches the ground state by a single
transition or sometimes by successive transitions by
emitting one or more gamma rays. A well-known Practically, an infinite time is required for the
example of such a process is that of 27Co60. By beta complete disintegration of all the nuclei.
emission, the 27Co60 nucleus transforms into 28Ni60 Decay constant:
nucleus in its excited state. The excited 28Ni60 nucleus so Consider the equation, N = Noe- λt
formed then de-excites to its ground state by successive 1
If t = , then N = Noe-1
𝜆
emission of 1.17MeV and 1.33MeV gamma rays. This 1
process is depicted in figure through an energy level N = (𝑒)No
diagram. N = 37% No
Thus, decay constant may be defined as the reciprocal of
the time during which the total number of radioactive
1
nuclei in a sample decreases ( )times the number of
𝑒
nuclei present initially.
Half-life period (T1/2):
Q – value or disintegration energy:
The time required to disintegrate half of the
The difference between the initial mass energy
nuclei present in the sample initially is called half-life
and the final mass energy of the decay products is called
period.
the Q value of the process or the disintegration energy.
According to decay law, N = Noe- λt
Thus, the Q value of an alpha decay can be expressed as 𝑁𝑜
𝐐 = (𝒎𝑿 – 𝒎𝒀 – 𝐦𝐇𝐞 )𝐜 𝟐 At t = T1/2, N = 2
𝑁𝑜 −𝜆𝑇1⁄2
Radioactive decay law: ∴ = No𝑒
2
It states that, “The rate of disintegration of a 1 1
= 𝜆𝑇1⁄2
radioactive sample is directly proportional to the total 2 𝑒
number of nuclei in the sample”. or 𝑒 𝜆𝑇1⁄2 = 2 or 𝜆T1/2 = In 2 = 0.693
If N is the number of nuclei in the sample, then 𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
∴ T1/2 = 𝝀
the rate of disintegration is
𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
i.e. 𝑑𝑡
∝ 𝑁 or 𝑑𝑡
= − λN ------(1) Thus the half-life of a radioactive sample is
Where, λ is called radioactive decay constant or inversely proportional to its decay constant and is
disintegration constant. Negative sign indicates that independent of the number No, the number of nuclei
number of nuclei decreases with increase in time. present initially in the sample.

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Mean life (τ):
The average time for which the nuclei of a
radioactive sample exist is called mean life or average
life of that sample.
Mean life is equal to the ratio of the sum of lives
of all the nuclei to the total number of nuclei present in
the sample. It is denoted by τ.
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖
i.e. Mean life = When a neutron was bombarded on a uranium
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖 236
1 92 U target, it gets excited and form 92U236. The excited
It can shown that, 𝜏 = 𝜆 uranium nucleus broke into two nearly equal fragments
0.693
∴ T1/2 = 𝜆
or T1/2 = 0.693𝝉 Barium-141 and Krypton-92 releasing great amount of
i.e. Half-life = 0.693 × Mean life energy with neutrons.
Activity (R or A) of a radioactive sample: Fission does not always produce barium and
The number of disintegrations per second is krypton. Other fission reactions are
92U +0n  92U  54Xe140 + 38Sr94 + 20n1+ Energy
235 1 236
called activity of a radioactive sample.
92U +0n  92U  52Te135 + 40Zr98 + 30n1+ Energy
235 1 236
If N is the number of nuclei present at a certain time t,
 The activity R is given by R = -
𝑑𝑁
or R = 𝝀N The energy released in fission is of the order of
𝑑𝑡 200MeV per nucleus.
 The S.I. unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq).
Nuclear chain reaction:
 1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration per second
In fission, 2 or 3 neutrons are produced and
 The commonly used unit is curie (Ci).
these neutrons may cause further fission. Hence the
 1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 disintegration/second
process is called chain reaction.
i.e. 1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
Types of chain reactions:
Note:
 Controlled chain reaction:
 Let R = 𝜆N = 𝜆Noe- λt = 𝑅 oe- λt
If the number of neutrons kept constant, then
Where Ro = 𝜆No the energy is released in controlled manner at a
0.693
 Consider N = Noe- λt, since 𝜆 = 𝑇1⁄2 constant rate. Hence it is called controlled chain
i.e. N = No𝑒 −0.693𝑡/𝑇1⁄2
= No(e-0.693 𝑡/𝑇1⁄2
) reaction.
1 𝑡/𝑇1⁄2 1
e.g.: Nuclear reactor
i.e. N = No (2) [∴ 𝑒 −0.693 ≈ ]  Uncontrolled chain reaction:
2
If n = t/T1/2 where n  number of half-lives, then If the numbers of neutrons are allowed to
𝟏 𝒏 multiply indefinitely, then the energy is released in a
N = No ( )
𝟐 very short interval of time. Then it is called
 If M and M0 are the masses of a radioactive uncontrolled chain reaction. e.g.: Nuclear bomb
substance at times t = t and t = 0 respectively then Nuclear reactor:
𝟏 𝒏 It is a device in which nuclear fission is
M = Mo (𝟐)
produced by controlled self-sustaining chain reaction. It
 If R and R0 are the activities of a radioactive
gives energy at the controlled rate.
substance at times t = t and t = 0 respectively then
𝟏 𝒏
Principle: It works on the principle of “controlled
R = Ro (𝟐) chain reaction”.
Nuclear energy: Construction:
The energy released during a nuclear reaction is The construction of nuclear reactor is as shown
called nuclear energy. in the figure.
The nuclear energy can be produced in two
phenomena. They are
Nuclear fission:
The phenomenon in which a heavy nucleus
splits into two lighter nuclei of comparable masses
releasing two or more neutrons and a large amount of
energy is known as nuclear fission.
e.g.: 92U235+0n1 92U236  56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1+ Energy

The main parts of nuclear reactor are as follows,

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 Nuclear fuel:
Nuclear fuel is a fissionable material. The
commonly used fuels are U235, U233 etc. Usually, the
nuclear fuel is sealed in long narrow tubes called fuel
rods.
 Moderator:
A moderator slows down fast moving neutrons.
The material used for moderator should be light and
should not absorb neutrons. The commonly used
moderators are graphite, heavy water, deuterium etc.
 Coolant:
It is a substance used to remove the heat
produced during fission and transfer it to heat
exchanger. The commonly used coolants are ordinary
water, CO2 gas etc.
 Control rods:
The devices used for controlling the rate of
fission are called control rods. The commonly used
control rods are Cadmium and Boron. By controlling
the length of these rods inserted into the core, the rate
of fission is controlled.
 Reflector:
The surface of the reactor chamber is coated
with a material which can reflect back neutrons.
Graphite is used as reflector.
 Reactor shield:
The entire reactor is protected with walls of
concrete about 2 to 3 m thick. This will protect from
the dangerous radiations produced during fission.
Working:
To start a nuclear fission, control rods are slowly
lifted. Then a neutron bombards U235 and undergoes
fission. The fast moving neutrons produced during
fission are slowed down by graphite moderator and also
by heavy water. They continue to cause further fission
and a controlled chain reaction takes place.
The heat produced during fission is absorbed by
the coolant. The coolant transfers the heat to ordinary
water which is converted into steam at 600K temperature
and 150atm pressure. This steam is used to generate
electrical power by the help of turbines.
The nuclear waste produced must be buried
under the ground and safety measures to be taken.
Neutron multiplication factor (K):
The ratio by which the number of neutrons
increases during a period equal to the lifetime of a
neutron is called neutron multiplication factor. It is given
by
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
K= 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 If K = 1, then controlled chain reaction take place.
 If K > 1, then uncontrolled chain reaction take place.
Hence care should be taken to maintain K nearest to 1.
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Nuclear fusion – energy generation in stars:
The process in which two or more lighter nuclei
combine to form a heavier nucleus with the release of
energy is called nuclear fusion.
Eg.: 1H1 + 1H1  1H2 + e+ + v + 0.42MeV -----(1)
In the reaction (1), two protons combine to form
a deuteron and a positron with a release of 0.42MeV
energy.
1H + 1H  2He + n + 3.27MeV -----(2)
2 2 3
In the reaction (2), two deuterons combine to
form the light isotope of helium.
1H + 1H  1H + 4.03MeV -----(3)
2 2 3
In reaction (3), two deuterons combine to form a
triton and a proton.
Nuclear fusion reaction takes place only when
the temperature of two nuclei is about 109 K, so that they
overcome their electrostatic repulsion and fuse into each
other. However the energy released in nuclear fusion
reaction is enormously large and hence it cannot be
controlled. It is also called thermonuclear reaction.
The temperature of the core of the sun is only
about 1.5×107 K. Therefore, even in the sun if the fusion
is to take place, it must involve protons whose energies
are far above the average energy.
Thus, for thermonuclear fusion to take place,
extreme conditions of temperature and pressure are
required, which are available only in the interiors of stars
including sun. The energy generation in stars takes place
via thermonuclear fusion.
Stellar energy:
It is the energy obtained from the sun and the
star. This energy is released by thermonuclear fusion
involving hydrogen and helium. Bethe (1938) proposed
a set of reactions for this energy. Namely,
 Proton-proton (p-p) chain reaction and
 carbon-nitrogen cycle
The proton-proton cycle is represented as follows;
1H + 1H  1H + e + v + 0.42MeV -----(1)
1 1 2 +
e+ + e-  𝛾 + 𝛾 + 1.02MeV -----(2)
1H + 1H  2He + 𝛾 + 5.49MeV -----(3)
2 1 3
2H + 2H  2He + 1H + 1H + 12.86MeV -----(4)
3 3 4 1 1
For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three
reactions must occur twice, in which case two light
helium nuclei unite to form ordinary helium or nucleus.
If we consider the combination 2×(1) + 2×(2) + 2×(3) +(4),
the net effect is
41H1 + 2e-  2He4 + 2v + 6𝛾 + 26.7MeV
Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form a
2He 4
atom with a release of 26.7MeV of energy. In about
5 billion years, however, the sun’s core, which by that
time will be largely helium, will begin to cool and the
sun will start to collapse under its own gravity. This will
Page 6 of 10
raise the core temperature and cause the outer envelope 2. Calculate the binding energy and binding energy
to expand, turning the sun into a red giant. per nucleon of oxygen nucleus (8O16 ) using the
If the core temperature increases to 108K again, following data in Mev. Mass of proton = 1.007825u,
energy can be produced through fusion once more – this mass of neutron = 1.008665u and mass of oxygen
time by burning helium to make carbon. As a star nucleus = 15.995u. [J- 2017]
evolves further and becomes still hotter, other elements Given:
can be formed by other fusion reactions. However, Mass of proton mp = 1.007825u,
elements more massive than those near the peak of the Mass of neutron = mn = 1.008665u,
binding energy curve cannot be produced by further Mass of 8O16 nucleus, M = 15.995u,
fusion. Mass number, A = 16, Atomic number, Z = 8
Differences between Nuclear fission and Nuclear fusion Solution:-
Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion To find mass defect, ∆m
Here a heavy nucleus when Here two nuclei fuse together
excited gets split up into two to form a heavier nucleus. ∆m = [Zmp + (A-Z) mn ] – M
smaller nuclei of nearly = [8× 1.007825+(16 − 8)1.008665]- 15.995
comparable masses. = 8.0626 + 8.06932 – 15.995
It is quick process It occurs in several steps
= 16.1392 – 15.995
Neutrons are the like particles Protons are the like particles
of this process. of this process. ∆m = 0.13692 u
It produces very harmful The products of fusion are
radioactive wastes. harmless. To find binding energy (BE)
******************End******************** B.E = ∆m 𝑐 2
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS For mass of 1 u, B. E = 1×931.5MeV
1. Calculate the binding energy and binding energy For mass of (∆m) u,
per nucleon (in MeV) of nitrogen nucleus (7N14) B. E = (∆m ×931.5)MeV
from the following data; Mass of proton = B. E = (0.13692×931.5)Me V
1.00783u, Mass of neutron = 1.00867u and Mass of B.E = 127.54MeV
nitrogen nucleus = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟑. 𝟕𝒖. [M- 2014]
Given: To calculate B. E per nucleon
Mass of proton mp = 1.00783 u, 𝐵.𝐸 127.54 𝐵.𝐸
𝐴
= 16
⇒ = 7.9713MeV
Mass of neutron = mn = 1.00867 u, 𝐴
𝑁 14
Mass of 7 nucleus, M = 14.00307 u,
3. Find the binding energy per nucleon of the nuclei
Mass number, A = 14, Atomic number, Z = 7 12
6C having rest masses 12.0000u. Given: rest mass
Solution:-
of proton mp = 1.00726u and rest mass neutron
To find mass defect, ∆m
𝒎𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟕𝐮.
∆m = [Zmp + (A-Z) mn ] – M Method is same as above problem. Solve yourself.
= [7 × 1.00783 + (14-7) 1.00867]- 14.00307 Answer: ∆m = 0.09558 u,
= 7.05481 + 7.06069 – 14.00307 𝐵.𝐸
B. E = 89.0327MeV, = 7.4193 MeV
= 14.1155 – 14.00307 𝐴
4. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of an
∆m = 0.11243 u alpha particle from the following data and express
To find binding energy (BE) it in MeV. Mass of helium nucleus = 4.00260u.
B.E = ∆m 𝑐 2 Mass of proton = 1.007825u. mass of neutron
For mass of 1 u, B. E = 1×931.5MeV = 1.008665u. [J-2019, J-2020]
For mass of (∆m) u, Alpha(𝛼) particle is helium nucleus = 2He4
B. E = (∆m ×931.5)MeV Method is same as above piblem. Solve yourself.
B. E = (0.11243×931.5)Me V Answers: ∆m = 0.0308u,
𝐵.𝐸
B. E = 282989MeV, = 7.074MeV
B.E = 104.7285 MeV 𝐴
5. Determine the mass of Na22 which has an activity of
To calculate B. E per nucleon 5mCi. Half life of Na22 is 2.6 years. Avogadro
𝐵.𝐸 104.7285 𝐵.𝐸
number = 6.023 x 1023 atom. [M- 2015]
𝐴
= 14
⇒ = 7.4806 MeV
𝐴 Given:
Mass of 𝑁𝑎22 = ?
Activity, a = 5 mCi = 5 × 10−3 Ci

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 a = 5 × 10−3 × 3.7 × 1010 Bq. Substitute the value of λ in (1)
0.693
a = 18.5 × 107 Bq. (SI unit) (1) ⇒ T = 139.0977×10−13
⇒ T = 0.004982 × 1013 second
Half life, T = 2.6 year
⇒ T = 4.982× 1010 second
T = (2.6×365×24×60×60) second
T = 81993600 = 8.12× 107 s
To find 𝑇𝑚
Avogadro number = 0.023 × 1023 1 1
⇒ 𝑇𝑚 = 𝜆 = 139.0977×10−13
According to Avogadro’s hypothes
Mass of 6.203 × 1023 atoms of Na = 22 gram. ⇒ 𝑇𝑚 = 0.007189 × 1013 second
22
Mass of 1 atom of Na = 6.203× 1023 gram ⇒ 𝑇𝑚 = 7.189 × 1010 second

Mass m of N atoms of Na is,

22×𝑁
7. The activity of radioactive substance 4700 per
m = 6.203× 1023 gram (1) minute later the activity is 2700 per minute. Find
To find N based above data decay constant and half of radioactive substance.
𝑎
Activity, a = λ N = N = 𝜆 (2) [J- 2016]
Given:
Calculate λ (decay constant)
0.693 0.6963 𝑎𝑜 = 4700 per minute, t = 5 minutes
λ= 𝑇
= 8.12× 107 A = 2700 per minute, λ = ?, T = ?
λ = 0.08534 × 10−7 persecond To find T (based on given data)
18.5×107 𝑡
(2)⇒ N = t = n × T ⇒T = 𝑛 ----------›(1)
0.08534× 10−7
To find n (number of half lives)
N = 216.7799 × 1014 atoms 𝑎 𝑎𝑜 4700
a - 2𝑛𝑜 ⇒ 2𝑛 = 𝑎
= 2700
(1)⇒ Mass m of atom of Na is
2𝑛 = 1.7407
22×216.7799×1014
(1)⇒ m = 6.203× 1023
gram Take log on both sides
m = 768.8469× 10−9 gram Log(2𝑛 ) = log(1.7407)
m = 768.8469× 10−9 ×10−3 kg N log(2) = log(1.7407)
log(1.7407) 0.2407
m = 768.8469× 10−12 kg n= log(2)
= 0.3010
m = 7.688469 × 10−12 n = 0.7996 half lives
kg
6. Calculate the half life and mean life of radium – 𝑡 5
(1) ⇒ T = 𝑛 = 0.7996 ⇒ T = 6.25 minutes
226 of activity 1Ci. Given mass of radium 226 is 1g
and 226g of radium consist of 6.023 x1023 atoms. To find λ (decay constant)
0.693 0.693
Given: [J- 2015] λ = ⇒λ =
𝑇 6.25
T = ?, 𝑇𝑚 = ?
λ = 0.11088per minute
a = 1Ci = 1 × 3.71010 Bq = 3.71010 Bq
Mass of Radium-226, m = 1 gram 8. When a neutron bombards with U- 235, the fission
226 gm of Radium contains 6.023 × 1023 atoms. fragments released are Ba-141 and Kr-92. Find the
To find T radii of nuclei of these fragments Ro = 1.3 fermi.
0.693
T= ------› (1) Given: 𝑅𝑜 = 1.3fermi, 𝑅𝐵𝑎 = ?, 𝑅𝐾𝑟 = ?
𝜆
To calculate λ For Ba – 141, A = 141, For Kr-92, A = 92,
𝑎 Solution:-
a = λ N ⇒ λ = -------› (2)
𝑁 Required formula is,
To find N(number of atoms) 1⁄
R = 𝑅𝑜 𝐴 3
226gram of Radium-226 contains, 1⁄
6.023 × 1023 atoms. To find 𝑅𝐵𝑎 , 𝑅𝐵𝑎 = 1.3(141) 3 ------› (1)
1
∴ 1gram of Radium-226 contains, Let x = (141) ⁄3
6.023×1023 Take log on both sides
N= 226
atoms.
1⁄
log x = log(141) 3
N = 0.0266× 1023 atoms
1
Substitute the value of N in (2) log x = log(141)
3
𝑎 3.7×1010 1
(2)⇒ λ = 𝑁 = 0.0266×1023 log x = 3 × 2.1492
log x = 0.7164
λ = 139.0977 × 10−13 per second x = Anti(0.7164)
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 x = 5.205 The method is same as above problem. Solve yourself.
(1) ⇒ 𝑅𝐵𝑎 = 1.3 × 5.205 Answer: ∆m = 0.0245u, BE = 22.8217MeV
11. The half life of a radioactive sample 38Sr90 is
𝑅𝐵𝑎 = 6.7665 fermi
28 years. Calculate the rate of disintegration of
To find 𝑅𝐾𝑟 15 mg of this isotope. Given Avogadro’s
1⁄
𝑅𝐾𝑟 = 1.3 (92) 3 -------› (2) number = 6.023x 1023. [J – 2018]
1
Let x = (92) ⁄3 Given: = 15mg = 15 × 10−3 g, R = ?
Take log on both sides, Half-life, T1⁄ = 28 Years = 28 × 0.54 × 107 s.
2
1⁄
log x = log(92) 3 As 90 g of serium contains 6.023× 1023 atoms, so
1
log x = log(92) the number of atoms in 15 mg serium,
3
1 6.023×1023 ×15×10−3
log x = × 1.9638 N= 90
3
log x = 0.6546 N = 1.0038 × 1020 atoms
x = Anti(0.6546) 0.693𝑁
We know that, R = λN = T1⁄
x = 4.514 2
𝑅𝐾𝑟 = 5.8682 fermi 0.693×1.0038×1020
(2) ⇒ 𝑅𝐾𝑟 = 1.3 × 4.514 ⇒ R== = 7.877 × 1010
28×3.154× 107
9. Assuming that four H2 nuclei (each of mass
1.00728u) combine to form a helium nucleus
R = 7.877 × 1010 atoms/second
(mass = 4.00548u) and 2 positrons each of mass R = 7.877 × 1010 Bq
0.000548u. Find the energy released. 12. Half life of U-238 undergoing 𝜶 – decay is
Given: 4.5 x 109 years. What is the activity of one
Mass of 𝐻2 nuclei = 1.00728u, gram of U-238 sample? [M – 2019]
Mass of 2𝐻𝑒 4 nuclei = 4.00150u, 9
Given: T1⁄ = 4.5 × 10 years,
2
Mass of positron = 0.000548u,
T1⁄ = 4.5×109 ×365×24×60×60s,
For 2𝐻𝑒 4 nuclei, A = 4, E = ? 2

The given reaction is T1⁄ = 1.41912×1017 s

2
4 𝐻2  2𝐻𝑒 4 + 2 positrons A = 238, a = ?
To find mass defect, ∆m 0.693
λ=
∆m = mass of reactants – Mass of products T1⁄
2
∆m = 4 (1.00728) – 4.00150 + 2(0.000548) 0.693
λ = 1.41912× 1017 = 4.883× 10−18 𝑠 −1
∆m = 4.0291 – 4.002596
Number of atoms in 1 g of U238,
∆m = 0.0265 u 6.023×1023
N= = 2.5306× 1021
238
To find binding energy (BE)/ energy released
a = λN
B.E = ∆m 𝑐 2
a = 4.883× 10−18 ×2.5306× 1021
For mass of 1u, B.E = 1×931.5MeV
For mass of (∆m) u,
a = 1.235× 104 atoms / s
B.E = (∆m × 931.5)MeV 13. A copper coin has a mass of 63.0g. calculate the
B.E = (0.0265 × 931.5)MeV nuclear energy that would be required to separate
all the neutrons and protons form each other. The
B.E = 24.6847 MeV
coin is entirely made of 𝟐𝟗𝑪𝒖𝟔𝟑 atoms.
Mass of 𝟐𝟗𝑪𝒖𝟔𝟑 atom = 62.92960u
10. Calculate the energy released in the following Mass of proton = 1.00727u
reaction 1H2 + 3Li6  22He4 Mass of neutron = 1.00866u
Given: Avogadro’s number = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 [M-2020]
Mass of the deuterium nuclei = 2.015u, 6.023×1023
𝑁= × 63 = 6.023 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
Mass of the lithium nuclei = 6.017u, 63
Mass of helium nuclei = 4.0039u. Mass defect, ∆m
Given: ∆m = [Zmp + (A-Z) mn ] – M
Mass of the deuterium nuclei = 2.015u, = 29 × 1.00727 + 34 × 1.00866 − 62.92960
Mass of the lithium nuclei = 6.017u, ∆m = 0.5759amu
Mass of helium nucleus = 4.0039u. 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ∆m × 931MeV
Hint: = 0.5759 × 931 = 536.1629𝑀𝑒𝑉
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𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1. Calculate the binding energy and binding
𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 energy per nucleon (in MeV) of nitrogen
𝐸 × 𝑁 = 536.1629 × 6.023 × 1023 nucleus (7N14) from the following data; Mass of
= 3229.309 × 1023 𝑀𝑒𝑉 proton = 1.00783u, Mass of neutron = 1.00867u
******************End******************** and Mass of nitrogen nucleus = 14.003.7u.
Previous Years Question bank (M – 2014)*
22
One mark questions 2. Determine the mass of Na which has an
1. State the radioactive decay law. (M – 2014) activity of 5mCi. Half life of Na22 is 2.6 years.
2. What are isotopes? (J – 2014) Avogadro number = 6.023 x 1023 atom.
(M – 2015)
3. Define specific binding energy? (M – 2015)
3. Calculate the half life and mean life of radium –
4. Write the SI unit of activity.
(J – 2015,M– 2017,J-2020) 226 of activity 1Ci. Given mass of radium 226 is
5. In the following nuclear reaction identify the 1g and 226g of radium consist of 6.023 x1023
particle x n → p +e ˉ + x (M – 2016) atoms. (J – 2015)

6. What is the ratio of the nuclear densities of two
nuclei having mass numbers in the ratio 1: 3?
(J – 2016)
7. Define half life of a radioactive sample.
(J – 2017)
8. The decay of proton to neutron is possible only
inside the nucleus why? (M – 2018)
238
9. 92
𝑈 Undergoes alpha decay giving rise to
thorium. What is the mass number of daughter
nuclide? (J – 2018)
10. Write the relation between Half- Life and
Mean-Life of radioactive element. (M- 2019)
11. What is the rest mass of photon? (J – 2019)
12. What are isotopes? (J – 2019)
13. Write the nuclear reaction equation for alpha decay of
238
92
𝑈. (M- 2020)
Two mark questions
1. What are isotopes and isobars? (M – 2016)
2. Write any two characteristics of nuclear forces.
(M – 2018)
Three mark questions
1. State any three features of nuclear force.
(J – 2014,M – 2016)
2. Define half life period of radioactive sample.
Arrive at the relation between half life and
decay constant. (J – 2014)
3. Derive the expression for the half life of
radioactive nuclide. (M – 2018)
Five mark questions
1. State radioactive decay law. Derive N = N0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
for a radioactive element. (M – 2017)
Five mark problems
4. The activity of radioactive substance 4700 per
minute later the activity is 2700 per minute.
Find decay constant and half of radioactive
substance. (J – 2016)
5. Calculate the binding energy and binding
energy per nucleon of oxygen nucleus ( 168𝑂)
using the following data in Mev. Mass of proton
= 1.007825u, mass of neutron = 1.008665u and
mass of oxygen nucleus = 15.995u. (J – 2017)
6. The half life of a radioactive sample 38 𝑆𝑟 90 is
28 years. Calculate the rate of disintegration of
15 mg of this isotope. Given Avogadro’s
number = 6.023x 1023. (J – 2018)
7. Half life of U-238 undergoing a – decay is
4.5x109 years. What is the activity of one gram
of U-238 sample? (M – 2019)
8. Calculate the binding energy of an alpha
particle in MeV. From the following data
Mass of the helium nucleus = 4.00260u mass of
the neutron = 1.008662 u mass of the
proton = 1.007825u. (J – 2019,J-2020)
**********************END*******************

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