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    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    2 views6 pages

    Chapter 7

    Uploaded by

    Akef Afaneh
    Chapter7 General che

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    of 6
    Chapln 7: Atomic. Stuxchure “The Dual Nosture of the Electron, In oun discussieno, we wilt consider Ke elechon in tao defferwnt ways: G) as a particle, with. chanacteristic. mass amo) change. (@) as a wave, with characteustic flaguency whch can undiago difpactin, like Ligh. This inferrelahonship between particle and wave behavior was sheum fiat for ight and other elecromagretic radiation. Eg Light can he descr! a0 a wave urith charackuste wavelength (A), frequony.(v) + c= Av — where c= speed of hight = 3.0010" m/s A= wavelength (m) = flaquency (S" or cycles/s or Ha) However, in Some expenmerile suchas Ke phefoelactic effect (Sectim 5-0) light behaves lilee it waoconposed of Particles, called photons, having crrtain amount of ervrgy. h E=hv= 3 whee E= eney ofa phokm (/pheion) he Planck’ omotant, 663% 10*Ts Nate: DeBroglie in M25 thought that ott particles like elechos might alse: exhibit ware proparkeo under te right Condihms and gave us thio relahonship « a= iy where A = worelongth (rr) ware-Hlke ——potila-ltee Pray maao of velocity v ( kg) v= velocity (Ys) he Plancka cmstant (Ts) Witk “his quation,, yeu cam Colelati. “Ke voaelengih ofa. baseball or the mado of a. Pheton(moving, oftourse, at speed of Lipkt) 42 An obsewotton. wan made in 1800S by Rydberg and otk + when elachic cumont woo pee hough a. gao at low pressure , emission linas were produced, collad “bright Lune spectra’ None of the earlier theores of the atom could account for his. Bohr (1412) explained “this observation. with his theary of the atom + G) the atom has a number of definite discrete energy levels, @) am electron may meve -from ene exergy level toansther but it must emit or absorb energy. (radiation) AE = hy h . E "HET os eny is abled Copan) n, lowe er) (b) energy is relecoed (as photos) Example: Wf an atom absorbs a photm of greon light (2= 5300 A) (o> what is faguimey of radiodten. (Gy havo much energy does the atom ain ? @ c=Av _ 300x108 ve "X " (5200 Kx Hej my (by) AE = hy = 63x10" Ts * 5,77* 10% st 3.83 10°" J/otom = 5%txi0% 5! w Jot 402% 10% ator ce Ba ee x SRST * 2.30 «107 S/o (3) electrons move in circular paths (orbits) around the nucleus. Their mohons are reshicd by laws of mechanics and eladrostadice. Hower, electrons, atoms and molecules do hot behave like gelfballs, according fo classical Newtonian, mechanics mechamics : We muct use a. dfferent kind of QuaNTUM MECHANICS - which treat electrons ao waves | An undielying proneiple of Quantum Mechanics is the Heisenbure Lncurtaanty Burciple. (1922) IH is impossible fo determine both the momentum (moss x velocity) and ‘the position. offan-elichon at the some time. Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle ‘Whenever any measurement is made, some uncer- tainty existe. Our experience with objects of ordi nary dimensions, like balls or trains or laboratory ‘equipment, indicates that the uncertainty of a mea- ‘surement can be decreazed by using more precise ‘natraments. in fact, we might expect thatthe uncer- tainty in a measurement can be mado indefinitely small, However, the uncertainty principle states that there is an actual limit to the accuracy of measure: rents, This limit is not a restriction on how well fmetruments can be made; rather, it i9 inherent in nature, This limit has no practical consequences when we are dealing wih ordinary sized objects, bt sts implications are enormous when we are Gealing with subatomic particles, such as electrons. ‘Tomeasure an object, we must disturb i, at least litle, wth our measuring device. Imagine that you fuse a flashlight to locate a large rubber ball in a ‘dark room. You see the ball when the light from the ‘aghiight bounces off the ball and strikes your eyes, When a beam of photons strikes an object of this, size, it does not alter itz position OF momentum 10 any practical extent. Imagine, however, that you ‘Wish o locate an electron by similarly bouncing ight off it into some detector. Objects can be located to fan accuracy no greater than the wavelength of the radiation used. Thus if wo want an accurate position ‘measurement for an electron, we must use a short Therefore, we nik abat the probability of fending am eleckon ‘wavelength. This means that photons of high eneray rust be employed. The more energy the photons have, the more momentum they impart to the elec: tron when thoy strike it, which changes the elec. tron’s motion in an unpredictable way. The attempt to accurately measure the elactron’s position intro- duces considerable uncertainty in sts momentum: the act of measuring the electron’s position at one ‘moment makes our knowledge ofits future position . then, that we use photons of longer wavelength. Because these photons have lower en- fergy, the momentum of the electron is not so appre: ‘ably changed during measurement, butts position ‘willbe correspondingly less accurately known. This {3 the easence of the uncertainty principle: There is ‘an uncertainty in either the position or the momen- tum of the eleciron that cannot be reduced beyond 4 certain minimum level. The more accurately one is known, the lets accurately the other is known. Although we can never know with cortanty the ex- fact position and motion of the electron, we can tale about the probability of the electron being at certain locations in space. In the next section we introduce ‘a model of the atom that provides the probability of finding electrons of specific energies at certain positions in atoms, Brown + Lemay in a. certain space ; me resort to a statistical approach. An odemic otbital, is a region im space where the. probability of ffordvng am elechon. is Wig. We heat each elachon in aun atom. aso Stansling wove ~ a. Wave hat date not tanel sind hoo af least ore pair where it hoo Zero amphcbude 7 The temets of Quantum Mechanics one G),(@) similar to Bohr model (3) the allowed energy shitia of atome and molculis can be described by sels of numbers called quantum rwmbers Csolutions to the Schrédinger eguation besed on elechms ao was ike) Four Quomtum Numbers|— uniguily descube each electron in.am atom 1. Principle quantum number (n) + describes the mayer energy Kvel ardvolume of He region. in which an electron, 2 Cam be fund, ne Laer EF a & Subsidiary (or agmucthal) quortum number (L) + designetio the energy subvel end the qeomehic. shape of fhe region Boe (ni) occupied by amelechon . The lets L S, pid f are code leters fa. shapes 7 of obi 3. Magnetic quomtum rwmber (mp) + designaks the spatial onentatin (hao the shape is onienkd)) of the orbital mye -2, ChH), On 428 The number of voluso of my is ‘the number of orbitals in a poshoular sublevel. eq when L=1 (refining to p orbitals), | me= “1,0 +1, “There ane 3 volaw of my , -+ thereae 3 p culritole. 4. Spin quamtum number (ims) + refro to ‘he spin and orientation. of the hogrehe fald peducad by the motion. \ m= 1k, 7 ofthe elachon inom orbital. w The first 3 quantum numbers: 1, L, my define am adenic. orbital. Al A quantum ruvmbuss define am election in. an orbital Ruki Exclusion. Funeiple : No fue elachons in on atm may have ileadical seks of 4 quantum num bers. Ard so we know: + An odomic. oubital is he probabiloty of fondling am elichon in a covhin Space. «Ht ic defines by the fort S quantum numbers > n, L, my Each orbital can Five no nove on 2 lcs init, © Lets look of the lowest major entigy fev am election cam occupy? = 1 2 L must be O simea L= One! and n-l = 1-120 se my must be O — svica mys LO and LO This sa Ls orbital : The 1s cnbibel is sphunical co contered on the nuclus. The probabili of finding On election. hughtst near ruckus manimum jes = Qnt = Quyr=a @ The nart hughr major enugy Otel: n= a. Therofore L= O on 1 Zz ° 1 Note: When 2-1, thereare 3 7 clues of my ond so there ow 3 Thy ° 1 Oo + : Me p orbitals (px, Py» Pe) But orbitet| 2S | Apx Ady Dre] dees not recemanily corvespod fe Za ect, oe. We na tro] ned Stel . mechbespugh ee For na, manimumdte’s = Qnt= 2(@* = 8, . The pabinls ow dumbbell shaped Fig Ie wih Px on Xaxis , pnyene, Pe on 2 oxis, 7 @® The n=B major ergy level: L can be Ou laud. L ° 1 2 my ° 10 4 A -l Ot} 4 orbitsL | 35 | 3p, 3p, 3p | Sdaa My Bd, Bye She aed ho | “ne Be tO Ee Maximum 4 eS in A=3 ergy Luel = An? = 2(g)* = IP es The d orbrfals art sham im Fig %IS Memorige | @ he nz maypr entrgy Devel» £ cam be Salada 4s) Ap 4a 4 When £=3, my= -3,-2,-1,0,41,42,+3 3 2 fF The mosimum res in H=4 energy Duel = And = BH) = 32s Refi to Fig S25 fi pictuwo of Ke forbib— donot memaige, oly appreciits “The spin. quawhim numer, ms, says that each atomic crbital (n, £, m,) con have & elechons, each spinning in opposite duections , cuatony magretic ‘flalds which otttact each other We are now going fo examine the efachoric. shuctumas of diffrent eliarerits Using hun ground state (as opposed! to enced stata) election cmnfigurodion.. In being wp ground kite elechon Configurations, we uae the Aufbou Principle which Says that elachono fill orbit fiom the loweat ennyy up. + The orbitals incataag in Cnuigy with inaseroirg (in goruol) s Within A, energy morcases With incvasing volus of L s

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