See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/295072552

Calibration Process

Chapter · March 2005

DOI: 10.1002/0471497398.mm999

CITATIONS READS

3 52,167

1 author:

Halit Eren
Curtin University
224 PUBLICATIONS 1,048 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Halit Eren on 28 July 2022.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295072552

Calibration Process

Chapter · March 2005

DOI: 10.1002/0471497398.mm999

CITATION READS
1 30,638

1 author:

Halit Eren
Curtin University
222 PUBLICATIONS 867 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Electrocardiogram View project

Artificial Intelligence View project

"Impact of Technology on Environment:

Climate Change and Instrumentation" is
the latest book published by Halit Eren.
More information is available at:

www.haliterenbooks.com

All content following this page was uploaded by Halit Eren on 17 December 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

HANDBOOK OF

Measuring System
DESIGN

EDITORS PETER H. SYDENHAM RICHARD THORN

ARTICLE
OFFPRINT
45: Calibration Process
Halit Eren
Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

standards of the same quantity. In the second level, the

1 Definition of Calibration 271
2 Benefits of Calibration 272
3 Calibration Personnel 273
4 Calibration Laboratory Practice 273
5 Physical Features to be Calibrated 274
6 Labels Used in Calibration 274
7 Measurement Assurance Planning (MAPS) 275
8 Costs of Calibration 275
9 Trends in Calibrations and Case Studies 276
10 Literature on Calibration 277
Further Reading 277
1 DEFINITION OF CALIBRATION
Calibration of instruments and processes is essential for
checking their performances against known standards. This
provides consistency in readings and reduces errors, thus
validating the measurements universally. The calibration
procedure involves comparison of the instrument against
primary or secondary standards. In some cases, it may be
sufficient to calibrate a device against another one with
a known accuracy. After the calibration of a device or a
process, future operation is considered to be error bound for
a given period of time under similar operational conditions.
The process of calibration is carried out in a hierarchical
order. At the highest level, the primary reference standard
is assigned a value by direct comparison with the refer-
ence base of SI units. The primary standards are designated
and widely acknowledged as having the highest metrolog-
ical quantities that have values without reference to other
secondary reference standards are calibrated by compar-
ing with primary standards of the same quantity using a
high precision comparator and making appropriate correc-
tions. In the third level, working standards are routinely
used to calibrate instruments and processes against the sec-
ondary reference standards or their representatives. More
is provided about physical standards in Article 43, Units,
Volume 1.
The most important element in calibration is the relation-
ship between a single measurement and the reference base
for the unit of measurement: the reference base is the prime
source of authority. The base units of measurement are the
Le Systeme International d’Unites (SI) units maintained in
the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Paris. These
are kilogram for mass, meter for length, second for time,
candela for luminous intensity, kelvin for thermodynam-
ics, ampere for current, and mole for amount of substance.
Other reference bases such as newton for force, hertz for
frequency, and so on, are derived from the base units and
maintained by national standards.
Recently, with the wide applications of digital systems,
many intelligent instruments can make self-calibrations –
Article 160, Smart Sensor System Features, Volume 3.
In these cases, postmeasurement corrections are made and
the magnitudes of various errors are stored in the memory to
be recalled and used in the laboratory and field applications.
A new trend is that certain calibrations can be conducted
over the Internet by entering the appropriate Websites of
manufacturers or calibration authorities – see Article 47,
Internet Calibration, Volume 1.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term calibrate
as ‘1 mark (a gauge or instrument) with a standard scale of
readings. 2 compare the readings of (an instrument) with

Handbook of Measuring System Design, edited by Peter H. Sydenham and Richard Thorn.
 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-02143-8.
272 Units, Standards and Calibration
those of a standard. 3 adjust (experimental results) to take
external factors into account or to allow comparison with
other data.’
Calibration can be defined as ‘a set of operations to
establish the relationship between values of quantities
indicated by measuring instruments and systems under
specified conditions.’
Therefore, calibration is a process that assigns values to
the response of an instrument relative to reference standards
or to a designated measurement process. Calibration aims
to eliminate or reduce bias in the measurement system
relative to the reference base in accordance to a specific
algorithm. The bias may be introduced by the instrument
itself and remain constant independent of the direction of
measurement. Alternatively, bias may be caused by linear
drift over the time of measurement.
Some of the important definitions related to calibration
are as follows
Calibration procedure: ‘A documented, verified, and vali-
dated process that describes a set of operations in accor-
dance to a given method.’
Calibration provider: ‘Laboratory or facility including
personnel that performs calibration in an established
location.’
Errors: ‘Result of a measurement minus the true value of
the measurand.’
Reference standard : ‘Measurement standard having the
highest metrological quality available in an organization.’
Uncertainty of measurement: ‘Dispersion of values that can
be attributed to the measurand.’
In accordance with the above definitions, a calibration
can serve two main purposes:
1. If the instrument reads in the same units as the
reference standards, the purpose of calibration is to
eliminate biases and minimize the instrumental errors.
2. If the instrument reads in different units than the
reference standards, the calibration serves the purpose
of converting the instrument readings to the units
of interest.
In both cases, most calibrations are likely to have
uncertainties.
Since most calibrations are likely to have uncertainties
in the calibrated values, they need appropriate evaluations.
Uncertainties can be evaluated as type A evaluations and
type B evaluations. The type A evaluation applies to both
random error and bias and uses statistical techniques. Type
B evaluations can apply to both random error and bias
too, but the calculation of the uncertainty component is
not based on a statistical analysis of data but on factors
such as experience, scientific judgment, scant data, use of
different laboratories, and so on. The ISO guidelines, such
as ISO 11095, give guidance on how to assess, correct, and
calculate uncertainties.
2 BENEFITS OF CALIBRATION
Calibration is a process of testing and comparing the errors
of measurement instruments and processes with accepted
standards in order to detect and correct variations in
performance. Therefore, calibration assures that devices
and processes meet expected performance specifications
within universally acceptable levels and accuracy. Hence,
calibration has the following benefits:
• It determines whether measurements made before the
calibration were valid.
• It gives confidence that the future measurements will
be accurate.
• It assures consistency and compatibility with those
made elsewhere.
• It leads to repeatability and reproducibility assessments
of the instruments and processes.
• It provides confidence that products meet their specifi-
cations, thus reducing legal liability – see Article 25,
Introduction to Signals in Physical Systems, Vol-
ume 1.
• Without calibration, the product quality may be poor,
thus opening up legal challenges and high failure rates
of the products, thus increasing costs.
• It increases efficiency by ensuring that measurements
are correct.
• In the process industry, calibration of devices assures
that the processes are well controlled and that the
products meet expected specifications.
• It leads to documentation of performance of instruments
and processes to meet quality standards such as ISO
9000, ISO 1400, and QS-9000.
• Frequent calibrations can provide a graphical view of
the equipment uncertainty over time, thus leading to
reliability of performance. This gives in-service life
analysis; hence, depreciation and replacements can be
predicted in an informed manner.
• Measurements made within international standards pro-
motes global acceptance, thus increasing competitive-
ness.
• It helps convenient implementation of related regula-
tions and legislation that govern the use of equipment
in a particular application.
• As the technology changes, the regulations and legisla-
tion of test and measuring instruments change continu-
ally, and calibration helps compliance validity of mea-
surements and processes under changing conditions.

• In some cases, calibration can be used as a gain;
the value multiplied by some input can produce a
scaled output.
3 CALIBRATION PERSONNEL
The calibration is conducted by the use of appropri-
ate devices representing the reference standards that are
deployed by trained personnel. Appropriate devices are kept
as secondary standards and working standards by national
authorities and companies themselves. The calibration pro-
cess involves set rules, regulations, and processes.
During the calibration, the calibrating personnel make the
following assumptions:
1. Handling procedures are consistent.
2. Test item and reference standard respond in the same
manner in the test environment.
3. Random errors associated with the measurement are
independent.
4. Multiple measurements form a distribution curve with
the same standard deviation.
5. The test item and reference standards are stable during
the measurement.
6. The bias of the test item and reference standard are
the same, and hence it can be eliminated by taking the
difference between the two readings.
7. Once the calibrations are carried out, ideally the
difference is zero or can be explained by appropriate
charts and statistical relationships.
8. Calibration is repeatable, yielding the same results.
Skilled calibration personnel are essential to the preci-
sion of the calibration. Calibration personnel may need to
have appropriate clothing (static free clothing, gloves, face
masks, etc.) for safety as well as to avoid the possibility of
contamination. Although fully trained and experienced, it
is possible for different operators to produce measurements
differing in signs and magnitudes. To overcome this prob-
lem, measurements by different operators can be plotted
and compared. Another solution may be to maintain sepa-
rate calibration curves by the same operator. This may not
be a problem in automated calibrations.
4 CALIBRATION LABORATORY
PRACTICE
Calibration is conducted by organizations that perform
tests and or calibrations in permanent, temporary, or
remote locations. These organizations may have several
Calibration Process 273
laboratories (called calibration laboratories) for calibrating
different instruments and processes.
Some organizations cover a broad spectrum of tech-
nologies within a wide variety of industries such as com-
munication, defense, medical, aerospace, automotive, and
chemical industries.
Laboratories are accredited by authorities in accordance
with guidelines such as the ISO Guide 58.
Accreditation is a formal recognition that a particular
laboratory is competent to conduct specific tests and/or
calibrations.
Calibration of an instrument is intended to eliminate or
reduce bias in its readings over a continuous range of
values. For this purpose, a reference standard with known
values is measured by the instrument and the functional
relationship between the values of the standards and the
corresponding measurements is established.
A successful calibration procedure requires the following
basic steps:
• selection of an appropriate reference standard with
known values covering the range of interest;
• application of the instrument or the reference standard;
• conducting calibration curves (i.e. least-squares fit) to
establish the relationship between the measured and
known values of the reference standard;
• correction of measurements using calibration curves;
• preparation of the appropriate documentation of the cal-
ibration procedure, results, analysis, and interpretation
of results for the client.
Once a procedure is adapted, the calibration relies on the
instrument continuing to respond consistently and in the
same way during the calibrations. If the system drifts or
takes unpredictable deviations, the calibrated values may
not be easily corrected for bias and errors, thus degrading
the accuracy of the measurements.
During the calibration process, the readings of the test
item are compared with the reference standards such that
values can be assigned on the basis of the known values
of the reference standard. The reference standards can be:
resistors, length standards, voltage standards, and so on.
However, in many situations, it may be impossible to
achieve a perfect calibration because of instrument and
measurement biases, and uncontrollable random errors.
Mathematically: Ideal value = Measured value + Bias +
Error
Similarly, a reference value may be subject to bias and
error: Ideal reference value = Reference value + Bias +
Error
This leads to a deficiency in the calibration: Deficiency
= Ideal measured value − Ideal reference value
274 Units, Standards and Calibration
Owing to randomness of errors, this deficiency may not
be zero; therefore, the calibration measurements have to be
repeated many times. Then, the statistical techniques can be
applied to work out the calibration curves, average readings,
and standard deviations.
The process of collecting data for creating the calibration
curve is critical to the success of the calibration program.
As a rule of thumb, a minimum of five reference stan-
dards is required for a linear calibration curve and ten
reference standards are sufficient for more complicated cal-
ibration models.
Nowadays, most calibrations are conducted using com-
puters to capture and analyze data. Once the results are
obtained, software packages can assist in analyzing the
information. Most packages use the method of least squares
for estimating the coefficients. Some of the packages are
capable of performing a weighted fit if the errors of the
measurements are not constant over the calibration interval.
The software tools provide information such as the coeffi-
cients of a calibration curve, standard deviations, residual
standard deviation of the fit, and goodness of the fit.
Calibrations of instruments and processes can be made
under static or dynamic conditions. If the calibrated variable
has multiple inputs and outputs, the input is varied in
increments, in increasing and decreasing directions, over
a specified range.
The observed output then becomes a function of that
single input. For better results, this procedure may be
repeated by varying the input, thus developing a family
of relationships between the inputs and outputs.
In multivariable situations, the input/output relation-
ship usually demonstrates statistical characteristics. From
these characteristics, appropriate calibration curves can
be obtained, and statistical techniques can be applied
for analysis.
5 PHYSICAL FEATURES TO BE
CALIBRATED
The physical features to be calibrated depend on the
characteristics of the measuring instrument or process
under test.
Calibration is applied in a diverse range of measurement
instrument and processes. Some examples follow.
Flow calibration: There are many devices and facilities
available for the measurement of liquid, air, or solid
flow – see Article 190, Calibration and Standards in
Flow Measurement, Volume 3. Once the method of
measurement is determined by an appropriate flowmeter
set up, static or dynamic calibrations can be carried out.
In the case of static-gravimetric liquid flow, a calibration
facility may include a reservoir, a pumping system, a
pipeline, flowmeter under test located on the pipeline,
collection system, computers and interface, supporting
software, and so on. The calibration of flow of fluid
through the meter can be determined by collecting the
prescribed mass of steady fluid flowing over a measured
time interval.
Sensor calibration: Sensors may have to be calibrated after
having their data integrated with a signal conditioning
system. This process for calibrating the processing part
of the system requires injection of a known input signal
into the sensor. By observing the output, a correct output
scale can be configured for that particular application. If
the sensor is used for time varying inputs, the dynamic
calibration becomes necessary. In most cases, transient
behavior of sensor top step response may be sufficient to
assess the dynamic response of the sensor.
Calibration of food products: As food contains many chem-
ical substances, the calibration of devices becomes com-
plex. In the case of honey, for example, the following
parameters need to be identified by calibrated instruments
and processes: fructose, glucose, turanose, maltose, mois-
ture level, acidity, and so on.
Calibration of images: Calibration is one of the first steps
in image processing. For example, astronomical images
are calibrated to eliminate the effect of cameras, light
pollution, and distortions. Various methods are used to
ensure calibrated images by eliminating thermal, readout,
and other effects. For thermal effects, the cameras are
cooled below certain temperatures and dark frames are
used to compensate the noise generated by camera
electronics.
6 LABELS USED IN CALIBRATION
Calibration labels are important as they supply information
on the efficiency and applicability of instruments. They
indicate parameters of instrument, tolerances, and special
conditions of use. Calibration labels need to conform to the
requirements of ISO/IEC 17025 General Requirements for
the Competence of Testing and Calibration Laboratories.
ISO 17025 requires the following
• All measurement equipments shall be securely and
durably labeled.
• The labels should clearly indicate the name of the
calibration laboratory, date of calibration, due date,
usage equivalent, and the authorized officer.
• Information on the label must be legible and durable
under reasonable use and storage conditions.
 Calibration Process 275

• When it is impractical to affix a label directly on 7 MEASUREMENT ASSURANCE

an item, the label may be affixed to the instrument PLANNING (MAPS)
container.
• Temperature-resistant seals may be used when neces- Measurement Assurance Planning (MAP) is a group of
sary. activities designed for critical evaluation of a group of mea-
• Functional labels should contain reference standards. surements. The term was generated by the National aero-
nautics and Space Administration (NASA) and National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for describing
As an example, labels on radioactivity-measuring instru-
the calibration of instruments for their Earth Observing Sys-
ments contain information on calibration parameters, appli-
tem (EOS) programs. The concept is applied to calibration
cable dose levels, type of radioactivity detected, source
of EOS satellite, ground-based and airborne instruments
used, and so on, as illustrated in Figure 1.
where it consists of a series of carefully designed activities
Meters with multiple probes have additional labels for
in space explorations and measurements.
each additional probe containing information such as the
However, the idea of MAPs has been adapted by many
following
other organizations as a guideline for good practices in
measurement and calibration activities under various names
• date last calibrated and call date
such as Volt MAP, Mass MAP, Accelerometer MAP, and
• probe or sensor type
so on.
• information on organization and personnel who con-
NASA applies MAPs to achieve accurate, precise, and
ducted the calibration consistent long-term series of radiometric measurement
• range of measurement and correction factors for each data form multiple instruments and multiple platforms to
range advance scientific understanding of the earth as a system.
• efficiency of the instrument, and so on. It is identified that the success of the project depends
on proper calibration of all instruments against a set of
Calibration labels must be durable and legible. They are recognized physical standards and careful characterization
made from various materials such as metal plates, soft of the instrument performance at the system level.
adhesive aluminum, vinyl overlays, or transparent adhesive Other important points would be adhering to good mea-
tapes. In the case of metal plates and adhesive aluminum, surement practices and established protocols, intercom-
information and markings may be permanently indented paring measurements wherever possible, and establish-
for durability. Calibration labels may have the following ing traceability for all instruments to the common scale
information: of physical quantities maintained at the national stan-
dards laboratories.
• calibrate before use
• not calibrated
• obsolete 8 COSTS OF CALIBRATION
• do not use
• does not conform A successful calibration process requires hardware and
• indication only software, special equipment, and manpower, hence the costs
• information only are variable depending intensity of use of these variables.
• out of calibration The cost of calibration depends on what is calibrated and
• reference only who is calibrating by it.
• uncalibrated instrument In simple cases where a one-off instrument is involved,
cost can be lower than one hundred dollars, but complex
• user-calibrated instrument, and so on.
cases can cost thousands of dollars.
Calibration cost depends on whether the calibration is
Cal. Date:__/__/__ Cal. By carried out on the premises of calibrating laboratories or on
Cal. Due:__/__/__ _____________ Probe the factory floor being outsourced to third parties.
type:_____ Certification by ISO 10012-1, ISO 9001, MIL-STD
Range C.F. Isotope Eff. Isotope
45662A, and MIL-HDBK-52B requires calibration for
Eff. measuring equipment. In many situations, such as weighting
X 0. C14 % % systems calibration, it is a statutory requirement.
One of the major factors for cost is the frequency of cal-
Figure 1. A typical calibration label. ibration of an instrument. Most calibration systems issue
276 Units, Standards and Calibration
a validity period during which the instrument can be used
without concern for major errors and uncertainties. Some
organizations use finely worked out methods for deter-
mining calibration intervals, while others use conservative
calibration intervals barely able to meet the legal demands.
The perception exists that calibration cost can be reduced
if the interval can be stretched legitimately. The use
of uncalibrated instruments in an organization can be
costly as it may affect the product quality and quality of
downstream operations.
Standards such as MIL-STD 45662A suggest good
calibration intervals. As a rule of thumb, 85 to 95% of
all instruments returned for calibration meet the calibration
limits. The calibration limits are determined by probability
charts of age of instruments and their failure data.
Usually, an instrument must be calibrated if the failure
rate increases or functionality deteriorates when compared
to other standard instruments.
It is possible that a planned calibration costs, say, $200
as opposed to an unexpected failure costing thousands of
dollars. In this respect, a number of different mathemati-
cal techniques, such as the Weibull statistics and renewal
equations, can be employed to analyze the costs. There
are different software tools (e.g. visualSMITH, Calibration
Manager, etc.) available for cost analysis and for determin-
ing calibration intervals.
9 TRENDS IN CALIBRATIONS AND CASE
STUDIES
With the availability of advancing technology, the classical
calibration process is changing on at least three fronts, these
being the following:
1. electronic calibration
2. e-calibration using Internet and communication tech-
niques
3. intelligent and self-calibrating instruments and sensors.
These techniques are now explained with some examples.
Electronic calibration: Many modern instruments offer
features for closed-case calibrations so that electronic
calibration can be employed. Electronic calibration is a
single connection and one- or two-port calibration technique
without disturbing the components inside the case. Once
the calibrating equipment, for example, computer, is linked
with the device under calibration, appropriate software
generates the necessary calibration information. Errors
due to gains and offsets of the instrument are corrected
mathematically within the instrument processor to obtain
the correct measured values. Analog corrections can also be
made via the adjustment of the parameters of the digital-to-
analog converters. Corrected calibration constants are kept
within the nonvolatile memory for permanent use.
As an example of this method, the Agilent electronic
calibration modules 8719, 8720, and 8722 microwave net-
work analyzers provide a broad frequency range of cali-
brations from 10 MHz to 67 GHz (http://we.home.agilent.
com/USeng/nav/). Similarly, Fluke offers electronic cal-
ibration facilities for multifunction process, pressure, and
temperature instruments (http://www.fluke.com/calibrators/
cal.asp).
Remote calibration: A new trend of calibration is emerg-
ing in the form of Internet calibration. Undoubtedly, the
use of Internet is likely to expand the calibration capabili-
ties without the transportation of equipment from one place
to another. Internet calibration technique is supported by
web-accessible test procedures and appropriate hardware
and software.
As examples of Internet calibration, Fluke , UK, offers
calibration systems for the Fluke 4950 multifunctio-
nal instruments (http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/news/press/pr16-
2000.html).
Anritsu is active in investigating the possibilities of
Internet-based calibration using portable OTDR MW9076
(http://www.electronicstalk.com/news/anr/anr163.html).
The OTDR is controlled via the Internet with the aid
of appropriate software. The software can be controlled
through a PC via modem, mobile telephone access, or PCI
cards.
Similar efforts are made by NIST to realize Internet-
based calibrations particularly aimed for radiation process-
ing industry – see also the work of NPL in UK, as described
in Article 47, Internet Calibration, Volume 1.
In some cases, calibration algorithms and production
automation know-how are available online by combining
standard low-cost integrated circuits and Internet access.
Online calibration is supported by appropriate software
that includes the mathematical models of the interface
electronics and optimizes calibration on the basis of this
model.
Self-calibrating instruments and sensors: Nowadays,
many smart sensors are available in the marketplace, includ-
ing digital programmable calibration features, as shown
in Figure 2. Particularly, sensors complying with IEEE
1451.4 standards provide comprehensive transducer elec-
tronic datasheets (TEDs) that contain configuration, scaling,
and calibration information necessary to make measurement
through mixed mode interface.
Many smart sensors – see Article 160, Smart Sensor
System Features, Volume 3 – are capable of calibrating
themselves, scaling the incoming data, computing statistics,
and communicating with other digital systems on the

Sensor
Serial
interface
Calibration
DSP
User code
Figure 2. Main features of self-calibrating smart sensors.
network. Most commercially available software permits
calibration of smart sensors and upload the new parameters
directly to the sensor’s circuitry.
In an application of smart sensors (the Atmos SSP14
Sensor Signal Processor family) (http://www.sensorsmag.
com/isensors/dec00/34/main.shtml), each smart sensor has
a memory that is programmed at the factory with a set of
default zero and span curves defining the relationships with
the physical phenomenon. These default curves represent
average sensor output adjusted for the most accurate
response at room temperature. Each time calibration is
done, the appropriate zero or span curve is adjusted in the
vicinity of the calibration.
10 LITERATURE ON CALIBRATION
Literature on calibration is available from various sources.
These are:
1. Manufacturers: They supply comprehensive informa-
tion about calibration requirements of their products.
2. Regulating authorities and standards institutions:
These supply information on calibration requirements
of instruments and devices. Calibration can be
statutory, particularly where health and safety is
important.
3. Calibration services: These provide information on
calibration processes.
4. Organizations: They provide rules and regulations for
their equipments for assurance planning.
5. Books: These provide information on calibration issues
and processes. Details of some of these books can be
found in the bibliography.
Many nations and organizations maintain laboratories
with the capability of primary functions of calibrating
instruments and field measuring systems that are used in
everyday operations. Examples of these laboratories are:
View publication stats
Calibration Process 277
Standards Council of Canada (SCC), National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST), National Association of
Testing Authorities (NATA) of Australia and the British
Calibration Services (BCS), and Australian Standard (AS).
Some important information on calibration can be found
in ISO, IEC, IEEE, and national standards publications.
Some of these publications are briefly explained below.
ISO 17025 is an international standard for calibration
and testing laboratories. It requires labs to demonstrate
that they operate a quality system covering processes,
documentation, and quality management. The laboratories
need to generate technically valid results accounting for
the equipment procedures and personnel. Information on
ISO 1705 can be found in many books or ISO publications
(http://www.fasor.com/iso25/)
BS EN ISO 9000:2000 is a family of standards for
international quality management. These standards are
globally accepted and applied by many organizations.
(www.iso.ch/iso/en/iso9000-14000/)
The military standards MIL-STD-45662A are standards
that describe the requirements for creating and maintaining
calibration systems for measurement and testing. They are
available at http://store.mil-standards.com/.
FURTHER READING
BS EN ISO 9000:2000, (2000) http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/iso9000-
14000/iso9000/iso9000index.html.
Eren, H. (2004) Electronic Portable Instruments-Design and
Applications, CRC Press, LLC, Boca Raton, FL.
Fluke (1994) calibration, Calibration: Philosophy in Practice,
Fluke Corporation, Everet, WA, http://www.fluke.com/
calibrators/cal.asp.
ISO/IEC/EN 17025, http://www.fasor.com/iso25/.
i-sensor Sensor Interface and Calibration Solutions via the Inter-
net http://www.sensorsmag.com/isensors/dec00/34/main.shtml,
2004.
Microwave calibration kits, Agilent, http://we.home.agilent.com/
USeng/nav/, 2004.
Noizette, J.L., Robert, M. and Riviera, J.M. (1997) Intelligent
Sensor Calibration. Complexity, Methodology, and Conse-
quences, IEEE-IMTC Conference Proceedings, Vol. 2, New
York (pp. 948–952).
Sydenham, P.H., Hancock, N.H. and Thorn, R. (1989) Introduc-
tion to Measurement Science and Engineering, Wiley, New
York.
Webster, J.G. (ed.) (1999) The Measurement, Instrumentation, and
Sensors Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.