Accepted Manuscript

Avocado by-products: nutritional and functional properties

Rafael G. Araújo, Rosa M. Rodriguez-Jasso, Héctor A. Ruiz, Maria Manuela E.

Pintado, Cristóbal Noé Aguilar

PII: S0924-2244(17)30643-X
DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.07.027
Reference: TIFS 2288

To appear in: Trends in Food Science & Technology

Received Date: 7 October 2017

Revised Date: 27 July 2018
Accepted Date: 28 July 2018

Please cite this article as: Araújo, R.G., Rodriguez-Jasso, R.M., Ruiz, H.A., Pintado, M.M.E., Aguilar,
C.N., Avocado by-products: nutritional and functional properties, Trends in Food Science & Technology
(2018), doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.07.027.

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to
our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo
copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please
note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all
legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
1 A Review

4 Avocado by-products: nutritional and functional

PT
5 properties

RI
6

SC
8

10
U
Rafael G. Araújoa, Rosa M. Rodriguez-Jassoa, Héctor A. Ruiza, Maria Manuela E.
AN
11 Pintadob and Cristóbal Noé Aguilara*
M

12

13
D

14 (a) Food Research Department. School of Chemistry. Universidad Autónoma de

TE

15 Coahuila, 25280 Saltillo, Coahuila, México

16 (b) CBQF – Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina, Escola Superior de

EP

17 Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Porto, 4202-401 Porto,

Portugal
C

18
AC

19

20

21 * Corresponding author.

22 E-mail address: cristobal.aguilar@uadec.edu.mx (Prof. C.N. Aguilar)

23

24
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
25 Abstract
26 Background: Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) is a tropical and subtropical fruit that is
27 native to Mexico and Central America; avocado is gaining increasing worldwide
28 acceptance and has received extensive marketing and a wide distribution due to its
29 relevant nutritional benefits for human health. Mexico harvests more than 30 % of
30 avocados worldwide, representing the main producer and exporter of avocado, which

PT
31 has become a crop of high interest and has great economic impact on Mexico.

32 Scope and approach: In this paper, we describe relevant information on the production,

RI
33 composition and application of avocado, with an emphasis on its by-products, focusing
34 on the proper use of waste and the possibility of monetizing waste for nutritional and

SC
35 environmental purposes. The entire avocado is rich in biocompounds (pulp, seed and
36 peel) and has many health benefits, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant and anticancer

U
37 activities, as well as dermatological uses and others. In this paper, we demonstrate the
38 current panorama of production, exportation and uses of avocado in Mexico.
AN
39 Key findings and conclusions: Several food grade ingredients can be obtained from
40 avocado wastes, particularly premium-grade fats or extracts with a high functional
M

41 power. Studies should continue to identify the profiles and phytochemicals available to
42 the business sector, which can also be implemented to valorize the nutritional and
D

43 functional potential of avocado seeds and peels.

TE

44

45 Keywords:
EP

46 Persea americana Mill., nutritional value, functional properties, by-products

C
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
47 1. Introduction

48 The word “avocado” derives from the Aztec word “ahuacatl”, which after modifications

49 by the Spanish language, resulted in the word “ahuacate” or “aguacate” (Cowan &

50 Wolstenholme, 2016). Avocado is native to Mexico and Central America, and there is

51 evidence of its consumption in Mexico for the last 10000 years (Gutiérrez-Contreras,

PT
52 Lara-Chávez, Guillén-Andrade, & Chávez-Bárcenas, 2010). The first evidence of the

RI
53 existence of avocado dates to the presence of avocado seeds in the Coxcatlan Cave,

54 Tahuacan Valley Puebla, Mexico (Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). Usually, avocado is referred to

SC
55 as butter pear due its shape and the smooth texture of its pulp. Avocado belongs to the

U
56 kingdom Plantae, family Lauraceae, order Laurales, genus Persea, and species P.
AN
57 americana (Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). Avocado is the most important and only edible fruit

58 of the family Lauraceae and has a high commercial value. The genus Persea has more
M

59 than 150 species, of which 70 species grow in warm regions of America (Ding, Chin,

60 Kinghorn, & D’Ambrosio, 2007; Ranade & Thiagarajan, 2015). Botanically, the name
D

61 of the avocado is Persea americana Mill., which contains three ecological races that, in
TE

62 some sources, are incorrectly labelled as botanical varieties or subspecies. However, the

validity of these "botanical variants" has been questioned by researchers and requires
EP

63

64 further studies (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016). The main purpose of this review article
C

65 is to generate interest in the research and development of new technologies and

AC

66 methodologies to valorize avocado residues and elucidate the importance and

67 characteristics of bioactive compounds and added value compounds of avocado to

68 propose these residues as a source of ingredients or additives in the food industry.

69 1.1 Avocado tree

70 The avocado tree is leafy, evergreen and tall and can reach heights of up to 20 m (Litz,

71 Raharjo, & Lim, 2007). Each tree can produce up to one million flowers, although only
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
72 one in a thousand flowers transforms into a fruit, and a single tree can generate up to a

73 thousand avocados in a year. The flowers appear in clusters and have the peculiarity of

74 opening at two different times: first as a feminine flower and later as a male, thus

75 avoiding self-fertilization (Litz et al., 2007; SIAP 2015). It is usually necessary to wait

76 five years to obtain the first harvest from avocado trees that have grown from seeds, and

PT
77 approximately 50 fruits are obtained during this cycle; production continues to increase

RI
78 with time. Maximum production is usually achieved after 10 years, with each tree being

79 able to supply more than 1000 fruits (SIAP 2015). By contrast, with grafted trees, the

SC
80 production of fruits takes place in the first 2 years and reproducibility and fruit quality

81 are totally ensured (Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). The avocado tree can grow in areas with

82
U
different conditions, depending on the variety; with mild-winter conditions; dry
AN
83 subtropical and Mediterranean climates; and cool and high altitude tropical areas, but
M

84 not under desert conditions (Zafar & Sidhu, 2011).

85 1.2 Avocado fruit

D

86 Avocado is known as alligator pear, vegetable butter or sometimes as butter pear and is
TE

87 called aguacate, cura, cupandra, or palta by Spanish-speaking people; abacate in by

88 Portuguese- speaking people; and avocatier by French-speaking people (Morton, 2004).

EP

89 Avocado can be as small as 120 g and as large as 2.5 kg; can have a smooth or rough
C

90 surface; thin or thick skin; and pyriform, obovate or globose berry; avocado may have a
AC

91 single seed depending on the variety (Morton, 2004). Avocado is very heterogenous and

92 has a long juvenile period due to the low occurrence of self-pollination. The varieties

93 are classified as type A or B based on the flowering pattern, and the flowers are

94 functionally female or male. However, type A is functionally a female flower in the

95 morning, while type B is female in the afternoon, with two days of pollination (Litz et

96 al., 2007). Avocado ripening is completely different from that of most other fruits
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
97 because ripening does not happen in the tree, but only after harvest. Avocados present in

98 trees achieve physiological ripening and can remain on the tree for many months until

99 harvest (Blakey, Bower, & Bertling, 2009; Yahia & Woolf, 2011). Maturation in the

100 tree is determined by the percentage of dry matter, which is reciprocal to the percentage

101 of moisture and has been shown to correlate very well with the post-harvest ripening

PT
102 ability of avocado. This procedure has become standard for determining avocado

RI
103 maturity and is currently used worldwide (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016; Zafar &

104 Sidhu, 2011).

SC
105 Avocado fruit is dispersed worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions. There are

106 numerous varieties of avocado around the world, according to the climate in which they

107
U
grow, with different shapes, flavours, textures, colours and smells. The most well-
AN
108 known and marketed types are the Hass and Fuerte varieties (Litz, Raharjo, and Lim
M

109 2007; SIAP 2015).

110 1.3 Avocado varieties

D

111 Avocado fruit is variable size, shape and weight, depending on the variety, climatic
TE

112 conditions and agricultural practices used during cultivation (Arriola, Menchú, & Rolz,

113 1979). Currently, more than 500 varieties of avocado have been identified, but most of
EP

114 them are not commercially produced due to diverse problems, such as production time,

115 quality in terms of protein and fat contents, resistance problems and damage during
C

116 transportation. There are many differences between the varieties of avocado, namely,
AC

117 form, weight, size, and flavour, but the most prominent difference is the colour of the

118 bark during ripening (Yahia & Woolf, 2011). Avocado is botanically classified into

119 three groups, which have been termed the Mexican (Persea americana var. drymifolia),

120 Guatemalan (Persea nubigena var. guatemalensis) and West Indian (Persea

121 americana var. americana) types or races. The names are based on the respective

122 origins and differences in growing conditions and characteristics of the fruit (Bergh &
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
123 Ellstrand, 1986; Morton, 2004; Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). Currently, commercial varieties

124 are mainly based on the Guatemalan and Guatemalan-Mexican hybrid cultivars, for

125 example, the Hass variety is a Guatemalan-Mexican hybrid race (Cowan &

126 Wolstenholme, 2016). Other varieties, such as Bacon, Ettinger, Pinkerton, Reed, Fuerte

127 and Lam Hass, are currently commercialized, as shown in Table 1 (Cowan &

PT
128 Wolstenholme, 2016; Dabas, Shegog, Ziegler, & Lambert, 2013).

RI
129 1.4 Nutritional composition of avocado

130 Avocado is known for its high nutritional content (Table 2) and health benefits, which

SC
131 are essentially due to the source of fat-soluble nutrients or phytochemicals (Alvarez,

U
132 Moreno, & Ochoa, 2012). Avocado pulp contains higher quantities of insoluble and
AN
133 soluble fibres (70 and 30%, respectively) and proteins than many other fruits (Cowan &

134 Wolstenholme, 2016; Dreher & Davenport, 2013) as well as sugar, including sucrose
M

135 and 7-carbon carbohydrates, such as d-mannoheptulose, pigments, tannins, polyphenols,

136 phytoestrogens and perseitol (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016; Zafar & Sidhu, 2011).
D

137 The nutritional composition of avocado pulp has been reported to have a moisture
TE

138 content ranging from 67 to 78%, lipid content ranging from 12 to 24 %, carbohydrate

content ranging from 0.8 to 4.8%, protein content ranging from 1.0 to 3.0%, ash content
EP

139

140 ranging from 0.8 to 1.5%, fibre content ranging from 1.4 to 3.0%, and energy between
C

141 140 and 228 kcal per avocado (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016; Duarte, Chaves, Borges,
AC

142 & Mendonça, 2016; Rodríguez-Carpena, Morcuende, Andrade, Kylli, & Estévez, 2011).

143 The composition of avocado or any other fruit is dependent on the variety, grade of

144 ripening, climate, composition of soil and fertilizers (Alvarez et al., 2012).

145 The lipid content is one of the most important factors in avocado since it contains a

146 large amount of oil in comparison to other fruits (Ranade & Thiagarajan, 2015) and is

147 rich in polar lipids, such as glycolipids and phospholipids, which are important in
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
148 various cellular processes in cell membranes (Zafar & Sidhu, 2011) as well as in

149 monounsaturated fatty acids, which are effective in reducing the blood levels of

150 undesirable low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and increasing the levels of the beneficial

151 high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (Alvarez et al., 2012; Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016).

152 Compared to other vegetable oils, avocado oil is known to contain high levels of

PT
153 monounsaturated fatty acids (oleic and palmitoleic acids), low quantities of

RI
154 polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid) and a significant quantity of saturated fatty

155 acids (palmitic and stearic acids) (Duarte et al., 2016). Other fatty acids are found in

SC
156 avocado oils in a small proportion, such as myristic, linolenic, and eicosenoic acids

157 (Carvalho, Bernal, Velásquez, & Cartagena, 2015). The composition of these fatty acids

158
U
vary depending on the cultivars, maturity stage, anatomical region of the fruit and
AN
159 geographic location of plant growth (Lacerda et al., 2015; Tango, Carvalho, & Soares,
M

160 2004).

161 The mineral content of avocado includes an abundant quantity of potassium,

D

162 phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and sodium, and other minerals, including iron and
TE

163 zinc, which appear at amounts of less than 1 mg per gram of fresh weight of avocado.

164 The high content of potassium and low content of sodium are beneficial for persons
EP

165 with low-sodium diets and protect against cardiovascular diseases (Alvarez et al., 2012;

Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016; Zafar & Sidhu, 2011).

C

166
AC

167 Another relevant advantage of avocado is the presence of vitamins, such as β-carotene,

168 vitamin E, retinol, ascorbic acid, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine and folic acid,

169 which are of great importance for overall health and wellbeing (Alvarez et al., 2012;

170 Duarte et al., 2016).

171 2. Worldwide production

172 Avocado has a high nutritional content that has recently aroused increasing global

173 interest. Global avocado production in 2014 was more than 5 million tons, with 547849
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
174 hectares dedicated to avocado production. Mexico accounts for almost 30% of total

175 avocados produced and is considered to be the largest worldwide avocado producer,

176 producing 1.52 million tons (“FAOSTAT,” 2014). In recent years, avocado production

177 and exportation has been increasing due to increasing demand for this fruit for food and

178 medicinal purposes due to its aforementioned properties (Chel-Guerrero et al. 2016;

PT
179 López-Cobo et al. 2016). Avocado production is adaptable to different tropical regions,

RI
180 and for this reason, avocado is produced in more than 60 countries, mainly Mexico,

181 Israel, the United States of America, Colombia and the Dominican Republic (Chel-

SC
182 Guerrero et al., 2016; “FAOSTAT,” 2014). It is important to note that avocados are

183 available throughout the year and that the Hass variety is the most produced and

184
U
dominates the international market due its quality, productivity, resistance to
AN
185 commercial management and constant availability (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016;
M

186 Rodríguez-Carpena et al., 2011).

187 2.1 Avocado in Mexico

D

188 In 2015, avocado production in Mexico was 1.6 million tons and had a value of more
TE

189 than 1 billion dollars. Production was 6.6% more than in previous years, with a harvest

190 area of 166944 hectares. Michoacán is the Mexican state with the largest area
EP

191 dedicated to avocado plantation and provides more than 80% of national production.
C

192 Michoacán is considered to be the most important avocado producing area in the
AC

193 world due to its microclimate, which is favourable for the production of avocado

194 (“SIAP,” 2015). Mexico contains for more than 20,000 producers and more than 48

195 exporting and packing companies certified for international export to 16 international

196 markets. In 2015, Mexico reported values avocado exportation of 989718 tons valued

197 at 1.9 million dollars, which represents an increase of 32% compared to the previous

198 year. The United States of America is the main importer of Mexican avocados,
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
199 followed by France, Japan and Canada (SIAP 2015). The Association of Producers

200 and Packers Exporters of Avocados of Michoacán, A.C., (APEAM), reported that

201 95,000 tons of avocados was sent to the United States, placing this fruit as one of the

202 food protagonists of the Super Bowl 50.

203 2.2 Conservation and uses

PT
204 The resistance to ripening of avocado is lost after one to two days following harvesting

205 (Alvarez et al., 2012; Yahia & Woolf, 2011) and requires 5 to 7 days to achieve this

RI
206 level of ripening at room temperature, leading to an increase in ethylene production and

SC
207 respiration rate (Wang, Bostic, & Gu, 2010). In the avocado industry, fruits are

208 homogenously ripened in the presence of ethylene and at a controlled temperature

U
209 before processing. Different biotechnological processes have been used to ripen
AN
210 avocados, while preserving its sensory and nutritional properties, to obtain avocado

211 pulp, guacamole, avocado sauce and oils for food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical
M

212 purposes (Cowan & Wolstenholme, 2016). Industrially, the main processing
D

213 technologies are lyophilization, freezing, microwaving and high pressure; these
TE

214 technologies are used to preserve the qualities of the fruit and prevent enzymatic

215 browning, which is the main conservation problem of avocado pulp (Alvarez et al.,
EP

216 2012; Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). Colour is the most important characteristic in judging the

217 quality of a food since sight is the first sense employed for the selection and acceptance
C

218 of any commercial product (Souza, Marques, Gomes, & Narain, 2015). Lyophilization
AC

219 is a post-freezing process and a potential avocado conservation method, but currently,

220 no promising results have been obtained because studies have shown (Souza et al.,

221 2015) that freezing, lyophilization pressure and rehydration induce darkening of

222 avocado pulp. Microwave treatment by microwave radiation inactivates the enzymes

223 polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and pectinmethylesterase in 80 % of cases and prevents the

224 reactivation of PPO during storage. These effects occur due to changes in temperature
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
225 over short exposure times (80 s with 11 W/g sample) and an increasing the phenolic

226 content up to 29 %; however, no significant changes in colour, chlorophyll content or

227 rheological behaviour have been observed (Zhou, Tey, Bingol, & Bi, 2016).

228 Processed avocado products benefit from the use of high-pressure technologies, which

229 allow the maintenance of the original freshness of the fruit, extension of the shelf-life of

PT
230 the product and, perhaps most importantly, increase its commercial life. The effect of

RI
231 high pressures on the enzyme polyphenol oxidase prevents browning and oxidation of

232 the product (Toledo & Aguirre, 2016; Zafar & Sidhu, 2011). Other approaches used to

SC
233 inhibit the PPO enzyme include the use of natural extracts in avocado purees, such as

234 aqueous extracts of Allium and Brassica, which are effective at preventing the natural

235
U
darkening of avocado pulp for 30 days (Bustos, Mazzobre, & Buera, 2015).
AN
236 Additionally, avocados are used as fresh fruits to prepare different foods or sauces and
M

237 can also be used as a dessert. In this case, the objective is to delay ripening to extend the

238 avocado shelf life, which consists of reducing ethylene production and the respiration
D

239 rate to decrease the responses that lead to ripening, such as tissue softening, cell wall
TE

240 disintegration, and pigment degradation (Alvarez et al., 2012). Some strategies are used

241 to improve the avocado shelf life and preserve its quality, such as conservation at low
EP

242 temperatures (2 – 7 ºC) (Yahia & Woolf, 2011); controlling atmospheric pressure with

1-methylcyclopropene, which prevents ethylene binding and consequent ripening;

C

243
AC

244 decreasing internal chilling injuries (Pereira, Sargent, & Huber, 2015; Zhang, Huber, &

245 Rao, 2013); or using a formulation of edible coatings for quality preservation of

246 avocado fruits using biodegradable, natural and bioactive compounds of plants, such as

247 moringa, aloe mucilage, purified polyphenols from Larrea tridentata, chitosan,

248 carboxymethyl cellulose, candelilla wax, pectin and ellagic acid (Aguirre-Joya et al.,

249 2017; Saucedo-Pompa et al., 2009; Tesfay & Magwaza, 2017). With these strategies,
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
250 avocado shelf life can increase up to 2 weeks, which is of great importance in avocado

251 exportation, mainly during exportation of Mexican avocados to Europe or Occidental

252 countries, such as Japan, due to the extensive transportation time, which can be up to 17

253 days (Alvarez et al., 2012).

3. Avocado residues

PT
254

255 Avocado fruit is pear-shaped, often more or less necked, oval or nearly round, may be

RI
256 7.5 – 33 cm long and up to 15 cm wide. The skin or peel may be yellow-green, deep-

257 green or a very dark-green, reddish-purple, or such a dark a purple as to appear almost

SC
258 black and is sometimes speckled with tiny yellow dots. The skin or peel may be smooth

259 or pebbled, glossy or dull, thin or leathery, up to 1/4 in (6 mm) thick, pliable or granular

260
U
and brittle. In some fruits, immediately beneath the skin there is a thin layer of soft,
AN
261 bright-green flesh, but generally, the flesh is entirely pale to rich-yellow, buttery and
M

262 bland or nut-like in colour. The only seed present is typically oblate, round, conical or

263 ovoid, 2 to 2 1\2 in (5-6.4 cm) long, hard and heavy, ivory in colour but enclosed in two
D

264 brown, thin, papery seed coats often adhering to the flesh cavity, while the seed slips
TE

265 out readily. Some avocado fruits are seedless because of a lack of pollination or other

266 factors (Morton, 2004). As shown in Fig. 1, the seed is composed of a very thin shell
EP

267 (endocarp) that encloses the kernel (seed proper). The avocado processing industry
C

268 produces essential oils, and once pulp is processed, seeds , peels and exhausted pulp are
AC

269 discarded as waste, which results in a large amount of solid residues that represent 21-

270 30 % of the fruit, with some exceptions in some varieties (López-Cobo et al., 2016).

271 Another residue that is generated in large quantities is the residual pulp from the

272 extraction of avocado oils (Dalle et al., 2016). Table 3 summarizes the chemical

273 composition of seeds and peels of different cultivars of avocado. The composition of

274 avocado residues varies between cultivars and sometimes varies between the same
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
275 cultivar. This phenomenon is normal because each cultivar is different and there are

276 many factors that influence the composition of the fruit during its development,

277 including the region of avocado production, climate, altitude, precipitation, genetics and

278 others. The predominant constituents of these residues are carbohydrates, such as fibres,

279 hemicellulose and starch (seed), which can be a potential source of energy (bioethanol)

PT
280 and produce other added value compounds (Ruiz, Rodríguez-Jasso, Fernandes, Vicente,

RI
281 & Teixeira, 2013). Normally, avocado residues are not utilized and are discarded as

282 waste, representing a severe environmental problem (Camberos, Velázquez, Fernández,

SC
283 & Rodríguez, 2013). Avocado residues represent a prospective source of bioactive

284 compounds containing more phenolic compounds and several-fold greater antioxidant

285
U
capacity than blueberries, which are known for their high antioxidant capacity
AN
286 (Agnieszka et al., 2012; Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011; Gómez, Sánchez, Iradi, Azman, &
M

287 Almajano, 2014; López-Cobo et al., 2016). Another application of avocado residues is

288 the extraction of oils, essential oils and fibres, which are currently highly sought-after
D

289 ingredients for producing foods and other products.

TE

290 3.1 Avocado residue phytochemical profile

291 The bioactive compounds produced from a plant mainly derive from secondary
EP

292 metabolic processes (Guzmán-Rodríguez et al., 2013). Avocado residues are rich in a

complex mixture of polyphenolic compounds, such as catechin, as well as high

C

293
AC

294 polymeric compounds, such as proanthocyanidins (Soong & Barlow, 2004). Tables 4

295 and 5 show the polyphenolic compounds found in avocado peel and seed, respectively.

296 Avocado residues have been shown to contain phenolic compounds, such as quercetin

297 glycosides, procyanidin dimers of type A and B, procyanidin trimers of type A,

298 catechin, caffeoylquinic acid, coumaroylquinic acid (Agnieszka et al., 2012; López-

299 Cobo et al., 2016).

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
300

301 3.2 Bioactivity of avocado residue extracts

302 Extracts of avocado residues have long been used in traditional medicine to treat many

303 diseases. Currently it is known that avocado extract has many interesting properties and

304 many potential applications. Larvicidal, antifungal, antimicrobial, antioxidant,

PT
305 antiprotozoal, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, hypocholesterolemic, and

RI
306 antimycobacterial activities as well as inhibition of lipid and protein oxidation are the

307 numerous biological activities reported to be related to extracts of avocado residues

SC
308 (Dabas et al., 2013; Jiménez-Arellanes et al., 2013; Leite et al., 2009; Yasir, Das, &

309 Kharya, 2010). These reported activities indicate that avocado residues contain

310
U
important bioactive compounds that can be recovered and applied for different
AN
311 treatments. Some studies report anticancer properties of avocado extracts. (Lee, Yu,
M

312 Lee, & Lee, 2008) Previous studies have also reported anticancer activity via induction

313 of apoptosis of MDA-MB-231 cells by methanol extracts of avocado seeds, (Abubakar,

D

314 Achmadi, & Suparto, 2017), while others have shown that triterpenoid compounds
TE

315 isolated from ethanol extract of avocado seed have significant cytotoxic activity against

316 breast and liver cells MCF-7 and HepG2, respectively. (Ambrosio, Han, Pan, Kinghorn,
EP

317 & Ding, 2011) demonstrated that two aliphatic acetogenins in synergism, isolated using

chloroform from the mesocarp of avocados, inhibited the proliferation of the human oral
C

318
AC

319 cancer cell line 83-01-82CA. Others approaches were studied by (Guzmán-Rodríguez,

320 López-Gómez, Salgado-Garciglia, Ochoa-Zarzosa, & López-Meza, 2016), who reported

321 that the peptide PaDef, which is present in chemically synthesized avocados, has

322 anticancer activity against the breast cancer cell line MCF-7, and (Brooke et al., 2011),

323 who reported that synthetic analogues of the avocado toxin (+)-(R)-persin had

324 anticancer activity on the same cancer cell line. Polyhydroxylated fatty alcohols
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
325 extracted from seed and pulp of avocados with organic solvents have an important role

326 as photo-protective agents against UV-induced damage in skin cells (Rosenblat et al.,

327 2011). Avocatin B, a lipid derived from avocado fruit, is a novel compound with

328 cytotoxic activity in acute myeloid leukemia and has been shown to inhibit fatty acid

329 oxidation and decrease NADPH levels, resulting in ROS-dependent leukemia cell death,

PT
330 which is characterized by the release of mitochondrial proteins, apoptosis-inducing

RI
331 factors, and cytochrome c (Lee et al. 2015).

332 Many studies have been carried out to verify the antimicrobial activity of avocado

SC
333 extracts. (Chia & Dykes, 2010) demonstrated the antimicrobial activity of ethanol

334 extracts of avocado seed (125-250 µg/mL) in select gram positive and gram negative

335 bacteria
U
(Salmonella enteritidis, Citrobacter freudii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
AN
336 Enterobacter aerogenes). (Leite et al., 2009) used methanol and hexane extracts of
M

337 avocado seeds (0.125-625 mg/L) to demonstrate their antifungal activity against

338 Candida spp, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Malassezia pachydermatis and larvicidal
D

339 activity against Artemia salina and Aedes aegypti in vivo. In the hexane extract, a higher
TE

340 larvicidal activity and higher concentration of β-sitosterol and 1,2,4-trihydroxy-

341 nonadecane were detected, which were associated with a high larvicidal activity.
EP

342 (Boadi, Saah, Mensah, Badu, & Addai-arhinand, 2015) showed that a methanolic

extract of avocado leaves exhibited a high zone of inhibition. (Falodun et al., 2014)
C

343
AC

344 isolated aliphatic fatty alcohol metabolites of avocado seeds and showed a moderate

345 antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus Escherichia coli, P. aeruginosa

346 and Mycobacterium intracellulare, with IC50 values >200 µg/mL, and strong activity

347 against methicillin-resistant S. aureus (IC50 13.81 µg/mL). Salinas-Salazar et al.,

348 (2017) reported the inhibitory activity of avocado seed fatty acid derivatives known as

349 acetogenins against Listeria monocytogenes.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
350 Pahua-Ramos et al. (2012) found that avocado seed flour had low toxicity and reduced

351 cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in a model of hypercholesterolemic

352 mice. This effect was attributed to the phenolic content, antioxidant activity and the

353 dietary and crude fibre contents of the seeds. Adeyemi, Okpo, & Ogunti, (2002)

354 showed the anti-inflammatory activity of an aqueous avocado leaf extract on mice with

PT
355 Carrageenan-induced oedema and obtained 57% inhibition of the control writhes,

RI
356 similar to that of acetylsalicylic acid at 100 mg/mL in, and 87% of that of morphine at 2

357 mg/kg with an aqueous extract at 1600 and 800 mg/mL. Reactive oxygen species

SC
358 production and antioxidative responses in unripe avocado fruits in response to

359 wounding were reported by Castro-Mercado et al., (2009), while isolation and chemical

360
U
identification of lipid derivatives with antiplatelet and antithrombotic activities were
AN
361 reported by Rodriguez-Sanchez et al., (2015).
M

362 The antioxidant capacities of avocado seed and peel of different cultivars and various

363 methods of extraction are summarized in Table 6. The contents of phenolic compounds
D

364 and antioxidants reported in avocado seed and peel are high but can be increased with
TE

365 the use of advanced technologies, such as microwave supercritical fluid extraction,

366 considering several parameters, such as the stability, degradation and biological activity,
EP

367 of the compounds extracted. It should be noted that most biological activities are

associated with avocado seeds, but it has also been reported that extracts of avocado
C

368
AC

369 seeds possess toxic and genotoxic activity in mice at concentrations of 500 mg/Kg

370 (Camberos et al., 2013; Rodríguez-Carpena et al., 2011).

371 3.3 Avocado seed starch

372 Avocado seeds have been reported to be a natural source of starch since they contain a

373 high content of this polysaccharide, approximately 30 %, making the seeds an

374 alternative starch source (Domınguez et al., 2014; Lacerda et al., 2015). Commercial
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
375 starches are obtained from seeds such as corn, wheat and rice and from some tubers and

376 roots such as potatoes, sweet potatoes and cassava, all of which are essential foods.

377 Starch is a natural biopolymer and the most important reserve of polysaccharides in

378 avocado plants (seed); starch is composed of two polymers, amylose and amylopectin.

379 Amylose is a linear polymer of α-1,4-linked glucans, and amylopectin is a larger

PT
380 molecule with highly α -1,6 branched chains. The morphology, structure, size of starch

RI
381 granules and ratio between amylose and amylopectin vary according to the botanic

382 source, stage of development of the plant and environmental conditions, making starch

SC
383 granules a complex and variable polysaccharide. Starch has been shown to undergo

384 thickening, gelling, stabilizing and binding, making it a widely used ingredient in the

385
U
food industry as well as allowing it to be used in other industrial applications (textile,
AN
386 paper, biodegradable materials and other products) (Chel-Guerrero, Barbosa-Martín,
M

387 Martínez-Antonio, González-Mondragón, & Betancur-Ancona, 2016; Henríquez et al.,

388 2008; Lacerda et al., 2014, 2015). Bioethanol is a promising alternative to fossil fuels in
D

389 the production of energy with the added advantages of being non-toxic, biodegradable,
TE

390 and a renewable fuel source. Currently, there are three generations of bioethanol

391 production. The first generation includes essential feedstocks that are rich in sucrose,
EP

392 such as sugar cane and sweet sorghum, or in starch, such as corn, wheat, rice, potato,

cassava, sweet potato and barley. The second generation uses lignocellulosic biomass,
C

393
AC

394 such as wood and straws, and the third generation uses algal biomass, including

395 macroalgae and microalgae (Lennartsson, Erlandsson, & Taherzadeh, 2014; Mohd

396 Azhar et al., 2017). Starch from fruit residues such as avocado seeds can be used to

397 produce bioethanol; however, a physical, chemical, biological or physicochemical pre-

398 treatment must be carried out to liberate starch sugars and a subsequent fermentation

399 must be performed to produce bioethanol (Aditiya, Mahlia, Chong, Nur, & Sebayang,
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
400 2016; Bahry et al., 2017). Avocado starch can thus be considered a second generation

401 bioethanol product, which may become a new source of raw material for the production

402 of bioethanol (Perea-Moreno, Aguilera-Ureña, & Manzano-Agugliaro, 2016).

403 3.4 Technological approach

404 Through application of the proper technology, avocado seed and peel can be used as

PT
405 sources of potent natural ingredients and additives to provide new technological

RI
406 solutions. The physical and chemical properties of the lipid constituents, polyphenols,

407 starch, and fibres and the low cost of avocado residues make this material a potential

SC
408 source of bioactive ingredients for use in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical

409 industries. Currently, the use of environmentally friendly technologies to extract

410
U
compounds from avocado residues is feasible. To reduce the negative effects on the
AN
411 bioactivity and structural modifications of bioactive compounds, in recent years, several
M

412 promising technologies have been reported (Chemat et al. 2012; Galankis, 2012; Wong-

413 Paz et al. 2017; Carciochi et al. 2017). For instance, pulsed electric field, ohmic heat,
D

414 ultrasound, microwave, pressurized liquids, and supercritical fluids can be quite
TE

415 interesting for such purposes (Carciochi et al. 2017). Additionally, biotechnological

416 procedures can be used to extract bioactive compounds, particularly enzyme-assisted

EP

417 extraction (Gomez-Garcia et al. 2012) and fermentation-assisted extraction (Martins et

al. 2011).
C

418
AC

419 These technologies can be applied to avocado residues using hydrophilic or

420 hydrophobic solvents to promote a better extraction of specific compounds. In vitro

421 studies of the bioactivity of avocado residues, such as those assessing the bioavailability

422 of bioactive compounds in a human gastric simulation, are essential to determine the

423 potential use of these compounds in the food and cosmetic industries as bioactive or
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
424 structural ingredients for various applications, such as antioxidants, antimicrobial

425 agents, vegetable oils, or additives, or to extend the shelf life of certain foods.

426 4. Patents with avocado uses

427 Currently there are many uses of avocado that are patented in foods, cosmetics and the

428 medical field, but these uses mainly involve pulp or avocado oil. Patents published that

PT
429 use avocado residues include the application of avocado seeds to prepare a beverage as

RI
430 an antioxidant tea and the use of seeds as a culture medium. In the future, to increase the

431 application of avocado residues, it is necessary to conduct more studies and promote

SC
432 the properties of these residues. The following applications have already been patented.

U
433 Food industry AN
434 - Application of avocado seeds in beverage and avocado seed internal heat-

435 reducing tea (CN2017174030 20170210)

M

436 - Culture medium derived from avocado seed material (WO2014IB66209

20141120)
D

437

438 - Method for making avocado tea (CN20151887121 20151207)

TE

439 - Avocado vinegar and making method thereof (CN20151877929 20151204)

EP

440 - Preparation method of avocado and yoghurt juice (CN201611114285

441 20161207)
C

442 - Apparatus and methods for cutting avocados (US201715449625 20170303)

AC

443 - Formulation based on roselle plant calices compounds for disinfecting or

444 preserving avocado (MX20150017441 20151216)

445 - Avocado paste elaboration process through the ultrafast expansion process

446 (MX20150015352 20151105)

447 - Nutritional fruit juice (CN20151866395 20151127)

448 - Avocado wine (CN2017163431 20170203)

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
449 Cosmetic industry

450 - A herbal cream (PH20162000705U 20160923)

451 - Process of producing herbal tea and the product derived thereof

452 (PH2016200014 U20161215)

453 - Traditional Chinese medicine mask (CN20171151714 20170315)

PT
454 - Avocado facial cleanser and preparation method thereof (CN201611075684

RI
455 20161130)

456 Health

SC
457 - Avocado-derived lipids for use in treating leukemia (US201515517914

U
458 20151009) AN
459 - Natural extracts for modulating pp2a methylation, and providing antioxidant

460 and anti-inflammatory activity (US201515327875 20150722)

M

461 - Topical mosquito control product with sunscreen (US201662281369P

462 20160121)
D

463 - New hair repairing permanent process (KR20160084291 20160704)

TE

464 5. Conclusions
EP

465 Avocado is a fruit that is distributed worldwide and recognized for its nutritional and

466 bioactive composition and extensive health benefits. Avocado residues are also an
C

467 important part of avocado because they are a potential source of nutritional food
AC

468 ingredients due to the high quality of their starches and oils and high content of

469 compounds with high biological activity. The distribution of avocados worldwide and

470 doubled production per year makes avocado residues an easily accessible raw material

471 throughout the year.

472 Research on avocado residues should be more intensive in the next few years to identify

473 different phytochemicals and find new compounds by implementing more adequate
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
474 recovery and extraction techniques. Bioactivity, nutritional and sensory studies are

475 necessary to incorporate these compounds in a final product. It is also important to

476 implement strategies of cooperation and awareness with the avocado business sector to

477 better value the potential of these residues.

478 6. Future Trends

PT
479 The promotion of avocado consumption in terms of its nutritional and beneficial

RI
480 properties as well as its different applications, for example, in cosmetic products, has

481 led to the exponential growth of the avocado market, with trend that will continue in the

SC
482 upcoming years. Implementation of a biorefinery, such as that proposed by (Dávila,

483 Rosenberg, Castro, & Cardona, 2017), with advanced and renewable technology to

484
U
recover added compounds from total avocado residues (seed, peel and exhausted pulp),
AN
485 coupled with the avocado packaging and processing industry and the improvement in
M

486 biotechnologies to obtain added value compounds, can lead to the development of an

487 integral biorefinery of avocado residues. Isolation, purification, marketing and use of
D

488 the specific compounds present in avocado residues that have high bioactivity can be
TE

489 way to better use and valorise these residues.

490 Acknowledgments
EP

491 Author Rafael G. Araújo would like to thank the National Council of Science and

Technology of Mexico for the scholarship received for this project in the PhD program
C

492
AC

493 in Food Science and Technology at the Autonomous University of Coahuila, México.

494

495

496

497

498

499
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
500

501

502

503

PT
RI
U SC
AN
M
D
TE
EP
C
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
504 References
505 Abubakar, A. N. F., Achmadi, S. S., & Suparto, I. H. (2017). Triterpenoid of avocado
506 (Persea americana) seed and its cytotoxic activity toward breast MCF-7 and liver
507 HepG2 cancer cells. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 7(5), 397–
508 400.
509 Adeyemi, O. O. U., Okpo, S. O., & Ogunti, O. O. (2002). Analgesic and anti-
510 inflammatory effects of the aqueous extract of leaves of Persea americana Mill
511 (Lauraceae). Fitoterapia, 73, 375–380.
Aditiya, H. B., Mahlia, T. M. I., Chong, W. T., Nur, H., & Sebayang, A. H. (2016).

PT
512
513 Second generation bioethanol production: A critical review. Renewable and
514 Sustainable Energy Reviews, 66, 631–653.
515 Agnieszka, K., Karamac, M., Estrella, I., Hernández, T., Bartolomé, B., & Dykes, G. A.

RI
516 (2012). Phenolic Compound Profiles and Antioxidant Capacity of Persea
517 americana Mill. Peels and Seeds of Two Varieties. Journal of Agricultural and
518 Food Chemistry, 60, 4613–4619.

SC
519 Aguirre-Joya, J. A., Ventura-Sobrevilla, J., Martínez-Vazquez, G., Ruelas-Chacón, X.,
520 Rojas, R., Rodríguez-Herrera, R., & Aguilar, C. N. (2017). E ff ects of a natural
521 bioactive coating on the quality and shelf life prolongation at di ff erent storage

U
522 conditions of avocado (Persea americana) cv. Hass. Food Packaging and Shelf
523 Life, 14, 102–107.
AN
524 Alvarez, L. D., Moreno, A. O., & Ochoa, F. G. (2012). Avocado. In M. Siddiq (ed),
525 Tropical and Subtropical Fruits: Postharvest Physiology, Processing and
526 Packaging (pp. 437–454). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
527 Ambrosio, S. M. D., Han, C., Pan, L., Kinghorn, A. D., & Ding, H. (2011). Biochemical
M

528 and Biophysical Research Communications Aliphatic acetogenin constituents of

529 avocado fruits inhibit human oral cancer cell proliferation by targeting the EGFR /
530 RAS / RAF / MEK / ERK1 / 2 pathway. Biochemical and Biophysical Research
D

531 Communications, 409(3), 465–469.

532 Arriola, M. del C. De, Menchú, J. F., & Rolz, C. (1979). The Avocado. In G. E. Inglett
TE

533 and G. Charalambous (Eds), Tropical Foods: Chemistry and Nutrition (Vol. 2, pp.
534 609–624). Academic Press, Inc.
535 Ayala-Zavala, J. F., Vega-Vega, V., Rosas-Domínguez, C., Palafox-Carlos, H., Villa-
EP

536 Rodriguez, J. A., Siddiqui, et al. (2011). Agro-industrial potential of exotic fruit
537 byproducts as a source of food additives. Food Research International, 44(7),
538 1866–1874.
539 Bahry, H., Pons, A., Abdallah, R., Pierre, G., Delattre, C., Fayad, N., et al (2017).
C

540 Valorization of carob waste: Definition of a second-generation bioethanol

541 production process. Bioresource Technology, 235, 25–34.
AC

542 Bergh, B., & Ellstrand, N. (1986). Taxonomy of the Avocado. California Avocado
543 Society Yearbook, 70, 135–146.
544 Blakey, R. J., Bower, J. P., & Bertling, I. (2009). Influence of water and ABA supply on
545 the ripening pattern of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) fruit and the prediction
546 of water content using Near Infrared Spectroscopy. Postharvest Biology and
547 Technology, 53(1–2), 72–76.
548 Boadi, N. O., Saah, S. A., Mensah, J. K., Badu, M., & Addai-arhinand, S. (2015).
549 Phytoconstituents , antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of the leaves of Persea
550 americana Mill cultivated in Ghana. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 9(36),
551 933–939.
552 Bressani, R., Rodas, B., & Ruiz, A. S. (2009). La Composición Química, Capacidad
553 Antioxidativa y Valor Nutritivo de la Semilla de Variedades de Aguacate. Final
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
554 Report of the Project FODECYT 02-2006 (National Science and Technology
555 Fund), Universidad del Valle (Guatemala).
556 Brooke, D. G., Shelley, E. J., Roberts, C. G., Denny, W. A., Sutherland, R. L., & Butt,
557 A. J. (2011). Synthesis and in vitro evaluation of analogues of avocado-produced
558 toxin ( + ) - ( R ) -persin in human breast cancer cells. Bioorganic & Medicinal
559 Chemistry, 19(23), 7033–7043.
560 Bustos, M. C., Mazzobre, M. F., & Buera, M. P. (2015). Stabilization of refrigerated
561 avocado pulp : Effect of Allium and Brassica extracts on enzymatic browning.
562 LWT - Food Science and Technology, 61(1), 89–97.

PT
563 Calderón-Oliver, M., Escalona-Buendía, H. B., Medina-Campos, O. N., Pedraza-
564 Chaverri, J., Pedroza-Islas, R., & Ponce-Alquicira, E. (2016). Optimization of the
565 antioxidant and antimicrobial response of the combined effect of nisin and avocado

RI
566 byproducts. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 65, 46–52.
567 Camberos, E., Velázquez, M., Fernández, J. M., & Rodríguez, S. (2013). Acute toxicity
568 and genotoxic activity of avocado seed extract (Persea americana Mill., c.v. Hass).

SC
569 The Scientific World Journal, 2013, 1–4.
570 Carciochi, R.A., D’Alessandro, L.G., Vauchel, P., Rodriguez, M.M., Nolasco S.M. and
571 Dimitrov, K. (2017). Valorization of Agrifood By-Products by Extracting
572 Valuable Bioactive Compounds Using Green Processes, In Handbook of Food

U
573 Bioengineering, edited by Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu and Alina Maria
574 Holban, Academic Press, 2017, Pages 191-228, Ingredients Extraction by
AN
575 Physicochemical Methods in Food, ISBN 9780128115213.
576 Carvalho, C. P., Bernal, J. E., Velásquez, M. A., & Cartagena, J. R. V. (2015). Fatty
577 acid content of avocados ( Persea americana Mill . cv . Hass ) in relation to
M

578 orchard altitude and fruit maturity stage. Agronomía Colombiana, 33(2), 220–227.
579 Chel-Guerrero, L., Barbosa-Martín, E., Martínez-Antonio, A., González-Mondragón,
580 E., & Betancur-Ancona, D. (2016). Some physicochemical and rheological
properties of starch isolated from avocado seeds. International Journal of
D

581
582 Biological Macromolecules, 86, 302–308.
583 Chemat, F., Vian, M.A., Cravotto, G. (2012). Green Extraction of Natural Products:
TE

584 Concept and Principles. International Journal of Molecular Sciencce, 13, 8615-
585 8627.
586 Chia, T. W. R., & Dykes, G. A. (2010). Antimicrobial activity of crude epicarp and
EP

587 seed extracts from mature avocado fruit (Persea americana) of three cultivars
588 Pharmaceutical Biology, 48(7), 753–756.
589 Cowan, A. K., & Wolstenholme, B. N. (2016). Avocado. In B. Caballero, P. M. Finglas,
F. Toldrá (Eds), Encyclopedia of Food and Health (pp. 294–300). Oxford:
C

590
591 Academic Press.
AC

592 Dabas, D., Shegog, R. M., Ziegler, G. R., & Lambert, J. D. (2013). Avocado (Persea
593 americana) seed as a source of bioactive phytochemicals. Current Pharmaceutical
594 Design, 19(34), 6133–6140.
595 Daiuto, É. R., Tremocoldi, M. A., Alencar, S. M. De, & Vieites, R. L. (2014).
596 Composição química e atividade antioxidante da polpa e resíduos de abacate
597 “Hass.” Rev. Bras. Frutic., 36(2), 417–424.
598 Dalle, C., Santos, M., Pagno, C. H., Maria, T., Costa, H., Faccin, L., … Nilo, S. (2016).
599 Biobased polymer films from avocado oil extraction residue: Production and
600 characterization. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 43957, 1–9.
601 Dávila, J. A., Rosenberg, M., Castro, E., & Cardona, C. A. (2017). A model biorefinery
602 for avocado (Persea americana Mill.) processing. Bioresource Technology, 243,
603 17–29.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
604 Ding, H., Chin, Y. W., Kinghorn, A. D., & D’Ambrosio, S. M. (2007).
605 Chemopreventive characteristics of avocado fruit. Seminars in Cancer Biology,
606 17(5), 386–394.
607 Domınguez, M. P., Araus, K., Bonert, P., Sanchez, F., Miguel, G. S., & Toledo, M.
608 (2014). The Avocado and Its Waste: An Approach of Fuel Potential/Application.
609 In G. Lefebvre, G. Jiménez, B. Cabañas (Eds), Environment, Energy and Climate
610 Change II: Energies from New Resources and the Climate Change (pp. 199–223).
611 Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
612 Dreher, M. L., & Davenport, A. J. (2013). Hass avocado composition and potential

PT
613 health effects. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 53(7), 738–50.
614 Duarte, P. F., Chaves, M. A., Borges, C. D., & Mendonça, C. R. B. (2016). Avocado:
615 characteristics, health benefits and uses. Ciência Rural, 46(4), 747–754.

RI
616 Falodun, Erharuyi, O., V., I., Ahomafor, J., Akunyuli, C., Jacobs, M., … Langer, P.
617 (2014). In vitro evaluation of aliphatic fatty alcohol metabolites of
618 Perseaamericana seed as potential antimalarial and antimicrobial agents. Nig J.

SC
619 Biotech., 27, 1–7.
620 FAO (2014) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Agriculture
621 Database. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC. Accessed 23 August 2017.
622 Galanakis, C. M. (2012). Recovery of high added-value components from food wastes:

U
623 conventional, emerging technologies and commercialized applications. Trends in
624 Food Science and Technology. 26, 68-87.
AN
625 Gómez, F., Sánchez, S., Iradi, M., Azman, N., & Almajano, M. (2014). Avocado Seeds:
626 Extraction Optimization and Possible Use as Antioxidant in Food. Antioxidants,
627 3(2), 439–454.
M

628 Gómez-García, R., Martínez-Ávila, G.C.G. & Aguilar, C.N. (2012). Enzyme-assisted
629 extraction of antioxidative phenolics from grape (Vitis vinifera L.) residues. 3
630 Biotech 2: 297-304.
Gutiérrez-Contreras, M., Lara-Chávez, M. B. N., Guillén-Andrade, H., & Chávez-
D

631
632 Bárcenas, A. T. (2010). Agroecología de la franja aguacatera en Michoacán,
633 México. Interciencia, 35(9), 647–653.
TE

634 Guzmán-Rodríguez, J. J., López-Gómez, R., Salgado-Garciglia, R., Ochoa-Zarzosa, A.,

635 & López-Meza, J. E. (2016). The defensin from avocado (Persea americana var .
636 drymifolia) PaDef induces apoptosis in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7.
EP

637 Biomedicine et Pharmacotherapy, 82, 620–627.

638 Guzmán-Rodríguez, J. J., López-Gómez, R., Suárez-Rodríguez, L. M., Salgado-
639 Garciglia, R., Rodríguez-Zapata, L. C., Ochoa-Zarzosa, A., & López-Meza, J. E.
(2013). Antibacterial activity of defensin PaDef from avocado fruit (Persea
C

640
641 americana var. drymifolia) expressed in endothelial cells against Escherichia coli
AC

642 and Staphylococcus aureus. BioMed Research International, 2013, 1–9.

643 Henríquez, C., Escobar, B., Figuerola, F., Chiffelle, I., Speisky, H., & Estévez, A. M.
644 (2008). Characterization of piñon seed (Araucaria araucana (Mol) K. Koch) and
645 the isolated starch from the seed. Food Chemistry, 107(2), 592–601.
646 Jiménez-Arellanes, A., Luna-Herrera, J., Ruiz-Nicolás, R., Cornejo-Garrido, J., Tapia,
647 A., & Yépez-Mulia, L. (2013). Antiprotozoal and antimycobacterial activities of
648 Persea americana seeds. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 13:109,
649 1–5.
650 Lacerda, L. G., Colman, T. A. D., Bauab, T., Da Silva Carvalho Filho, M. A., Demiate,
651 I. M., De Vasconcelos, E. C., & Schnitzler, E. (2014). Thermal, structural and
652 rheological properties of starch from avocado seeds (Persea americana, Miller)
653 modified with standard sodium hypochlorite solutions. Journal of Thermal
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
654 Analysis and Calorimetry, 115(2), 1893–1899.
655 Lacerda, L. G., Da Silva Carvalho Filho, M. A., Bauab, T., Demiate, I. M., Colman, T.
656 A. D., Andrade, M. M. P., & Schnitzler, E. (2015). The effects of heat-moisture
657 treatment on avocado starch granules: Thermoanalytical and structural analysis.
658 Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 120(1), 387–393.
659 Lee, S. G., Yu, M. H., Lee, S. P., & Lee, I. (2008). Antioxidant Activities and
660 Induction of Apoptosis by Methanol Extracts from Avocado. J Korean Soc Food
661 Sci Nutr, 37(3), 269–275.
662 Leite, J. J. G., Brito, É. H. S., Cordeiro, R. A., Brilhante, R. S. N., Sidrim, J. J. C.,

PT
663 Bertini, L. M., … Rocha, M. F. G. (2009). Chemical composition, toxicity and
664 larvicidal and antifungal activities of Persea americana (avocado) seed extracts.
665 Revista Da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 42(2), 110–113.

RI
666 Lennartsson, P. R., Erlandsson, P., & Taherzadeh, M. J. (2014). Integration of the first
667 and second generation bioethanol processes and the importance of by-products.
668 Bioresource Technology, 165, 3–8.

SC
669 Litz, R. E., Raharjo, S. H. T., & Lim, M. A. G. (2007). Avocado. In P. E. Chong,
670 Davey, M. R. Davey (Eds.), Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry (Vol. 60,
671 pp. 167–187). Berlim: Springer.
672 López-Cobo, A., Gómez-Caravaca, A. M., Pasini, F., Caboni, M. F., Segura-Carretero,

U
673 A., & Fernández-Gutiérrez, A. (2016). HPLC-DAD-ESI-QTOF-MS and HPLC-
674 FLD-MS as valuable tools for the determination of phenolic and other polar
AN
675 compounds in the edible part and by-products of avocado. LWT - Food Science
676 and Technology, 73, 505–513.
677 Martins, S., Mussatto, S.I., Martínez-Avila, G., Montañez-Saenz, J., Aguilar, C.N.,
M

678 Teixeira, J.A. (2011). Bioactive phenolic compounds: Production and extraction
679 by solid-state fermentation. A review. Biotechnology Advances, 39:365-373
680 Mohd Azhar, S. H., Abdulla, R., Azmah Jambo, S., Marbawi, H., Azlan Gansau, J.,
Mohd Faik, A. A., & Francis Rodrigues, K. (2017). Yeasts in sustainable
D

681
682 bioethanol production: A review. Biochemistry and Biophysics Reports,
683 10(November 2016), 52–61.
TE

684 Morton, J. F. (1987). Fruits of Warm Climates. Miami: Creative Resource Systems Inc.
685 Oboh, G., Adelusi, T. I., & Akinyemi, A. J. (2013). Inhibitory effect of phenolic extract
686 from leaf and fruit of avocado pear (Persea americana) on Fe2+ induced lipid
EP

687 peroxidation in rats ’ pancreas in vitro. FUTA Journal of Research in Sciences,

688 9(2), 276–286.
689 Pahua-Ramos, M. E., Ortiz-Moreno, A., Chamorro-Cevallos, G., Hernández-Navarro,
M. D., Necoechea-Mondragón, H., & Hernández-Ortega, M. (2012).
C

690
691 Hypolipidemic Effect of Avocado (Persea americana Mill) Seed in a
AC

692 Hypercholesterolemic Mouse Model. Plant Foods Hum Nutr, 67, 10–16.
693 Perea-Moreno, A.-J., Aguilera-Ureña, M.-J., & Manzano-Agugliaro, F. (2016). Fuel
694 properties of avocado stone. Fuel, 186, 358–364.
695 Pereira, M. E. C., Sargent, S. A., & Huber, D. J. (2015). Delayed and prolonged
696 ethylene treatment alleviates firmness asynchrony enhanced by 1-
697 methylcyclopropene exposure in Guatemalan-West Indian avocado. Postharvest
698 Biology and Technology, 108, 54–60.
699 Ranade, S. S., & Thiagarajan, P. (2015). A review on Persea Americana Mill.
700 (Avocado)- Its fruit and oil. International Journal of PharmTech Research, 8(6),
701 72–77.
702 Rodríguez-Carpena, J. G., Morcuende, D., Andrade, M.-J., Kylli, P., & Estévez, M.
703 (2011). Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) phenolics, in vitro antioxidant and
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
704 antimicrobial activities, and inhibition of lipid and protein oxidation in porcine
705 patties. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59, 5625–5635.
706 Rosenblat, G., Meretski, S., Segal, J., Tarshis, M., Schroeder, A., Gilead, A. Z., …
707 Hochberg, M. (2011). Polyhydroxylated fatty alcohols derived from avocado
708 suppress in X ammatory response and provide non-sunscreen protection against
709 UV-induced damage in skin cells. Arch Dermatol Res, 303, 239–246.
710 Ruiz, H. A., Rodríguez-Jasso, R. M., Fernandes, B. D., Vicente, A. A., & Teixeira, J. A.
711 (2013). Hydrothermal processing, as an alternative for upgrading agriculture
712 residues and marine biomass according to the biorefinery concept: A review.

PT
713 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 21, 35–51.
714 Saucedo-Pompa, S., Rojas-Molina, R., Aguilera-Carbó, A. F., Saenz-Galindo, A.,
715 Garza, H. de La, Jasso-Cantú, D., & Aguilar, C. N. (2009). Edible film based on

RI
716 candelilla wax to improve the shelf life and quality of avocado. Food Research
717 International, 42(4), 511–515.
718 Segovia, F. J., Corral-Pérez, J. J., & Almajano, M. P. (2016). Avocado seed: Modeling

SC
719 extraction of bioactive compounds. Industrial Crops and Products, 85, 213-220.
720 SIAP (2015) Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera.
721 http://infosiap.siap.gob.mx/aagricola_siap_gb/ientidad/index.jsp. Accessed 21
722 August 2017.

U
723 Soong, Y. Y., & Barlow, P. J. (2004). Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of
724 selected fruit seeds. Food Chemistry, 88(3), 411–417.
AN
725 Souza, D. S., Marques, L. G., Gomes, E. de B., & Narain, N. (2015). Lyophilization of
726 Avocado ( Persea americana Mill.): Effect of Freezing and Lyophilization
727 Pressure on Antioxidant Activity, Texture, and Browning of Pulp. Drying
M

728 Technology, 33(2), 194–204.

729 Tango, J. S., Carvalho, C. R. L., & Soares, N. B. (2004). Physical and chemical
730 characterization of avocado fruits aiming its potencial for oil extraction. Rev. Bras.
Frutic, 26(1), 17–23.
D

731
732 Tesfay, S. Z., & Magwaza, L. S. (2017). Evaluating the efficacy of moringa leaf extract,
733 chitosan and carboxymethyl cellulose as edible coatings for enhancing quality and
TE

734 extending postharvest life of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) fruit. Food
735 Packaging and Shelf Life, 11, 40–48.
736 Toledo, L. C., & Aguirre, C. C. (2016). Enzymatic browning in avocado (Persea
EP

737 americana) revisited : History , advances and future perspectives. Critical Reviews
738 in Food Science and Nutrition, 57(18), 3860-3872.
739 USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture). (2011). Avocado, almond, pistachio and
walnut Composition. Nutrient Data Laboratory. USDA National Nutrient Database
C

740
741 for Standard Reference, Release 24. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington,
AC

742 DC.
743 Vinha, A. F., Moreira, J., & Barreira, S. V. P. (2013). Physicochemical Parameters,
744 Phytochemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of the Algarvian Avocado
745 (Persea americana Mill.). Journal of Agricultural Science, 5(12), 100–109.
746 Wong-Paz, J.E., Muñiz-Márquez, D.B., Aguilar-Zárate, P., Ascacio-Valdés, J.A., Cruz,
747 K., Reyes-Luna, C., Rodríguez, R. and Aguilar, C.N. (2017). Extraction of
748 Bioactive Phenolic Compounds by Alternative Technologies, In Handbook of
749 Food Bioengineering, edited by Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu and Alina Maria
750 Holban, Academic Press, 2017, Pages 229-252, Ingredients Extraction by
751 Physicochemical Methods in Food, ISBN 9780128115213,
752 Wang, W., Bostic, T. R., & Gu, L. (2010). Antioxidant capacities, procyanidins and
753 pigments in avocados of different strains and cultivars. Food Chemistry, 122(4),
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
754 1193–1198.
755 Yahia, E. M., & Woolf, A. B. (2011). 8 – Avocado (Persea americana Mill.). In E. M.
756 Yahia (ed), Postharvest Biology and Technology of Tropical and Subtropical
757 Fruits (pp. 125–186). Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited.
758 Yasir, M., Das, S., & Kharya, M. (2010). The phytochemical and pharmacological
759 profile of Persea americana Mill. Pharmacognosy Reviews, 4(7), 77.
760 Zafar, T., & Sidhu, J. S. (2011). Avocado: Production, Quality, and Major Processed
761 Products. In N. Sinha (ed), Handbook of Vegetables and Vegetable Processing
762 (Vol. 1871, pp. 525–543). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

PT
763 Zhang, Z., Huber, D. J., & Rao, J. (2013). Antioxidant systems of ripening avocado
764 (Persea americana Mill.) fruit following treatment at the preclimacteric stage with
765 aqueous 1-methylcyclopropene. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 76, 58–64.

RI
766 Zhou, L., Tey, C. Y., Bingol, G., & Bi, J. (2016). Effect of microwave treatment on
767 enzyme inactivation and quality change of defatted avocado puree during storage.
768 Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 37, 61–67.

SC
769

770

771

772
U
AN
773

774
M

775

776
D

777
TE

778

779
EP

780

781
C

782
AC

783
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
784 Figure and Table Captions
785

786 Figure 1: Pericarp composition of avocado fruit.

787

788

PT
789

790

RI
791

SC
792

793

794
U
AN
795

796
M

797
D

798

799
TE

800

801
EP

802

803
C

804
AC

805

806

807

808

809

810
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

811 Table 1: Characteristics of principal varieties of avocado.

812

PT
813 Skin
Blossom Skin Colour Skin Average Fruit
Variety Parentage Seed size Skin texture Fruit Shape colour Origin
Type Unripe Thickness weight (oz)
814 ripe

RI
Narrowly obovate
Hass Hybrid Medium Pebbly A Green Black Medium 140-340 California
815 to obovate
Bacon Mexican Large Smooth B Obovate Green Green Thin 170-510 California

SC
816 Ettinger Mexican Large Smooth B Narrowly obovate Green Green Thin 255-570 Israel
Pinkerton Hybrid Small Rough-pebbly A Pyriform Green Green Medium 255-510 California
817
Reed Guatemalan Large Medium A Spheroid Green Green Medium 480-680 California

U
818 Fuerte Hybrid Large Medium B Obovate Green Green Medium 255-455 Puebla, Mexico

AN
Lam Hass Hybrid Medium Pebbly A Obovate Black Black Medium 280-510 California
819 Williams Guatemalan Medium Medium A High spheroid Green Black Medium 225 California
Zutanno Mexican Medium Smooth B Obovate Green Green Thin 310-400 California

M
820
Stewart Mexican Small Smooth A Obovate Black Black Thin 170-370 California
821 McDonald Guatemalan Medium Rough B Spheroid Green/Black Black Thick 340-450 Hawaii

D
Lula Hybrid Large Almost smooth B Pyriform Green Green N/A 450-680 Florida
822 Gwen Hybrid Medium Pebbly A Obovate Green Green Medium 170-425 California

TE
823 Nabal Guatemalan Large Smooth B Spheroid Green Green Medium 450-850 Guatemala
Mexicola Mexican Large Smooth A Obovate Black Black Thin 110-185 California
EP
824 Mexicola
Mexican Large Smooth A Obovate Black Black Thin 170-200 California
grande
825 Dickinson Guatemalan Small Pebbly A Narrowly obovate Black Black Thick 170-340 California
General Light
C

West India Large Mostly smooth A Pyriform Light green Medium 200-510 Morocco
826 Bureau green
AC

Gil Hybrid Large Pebbly A Narrowly obovate Green/Black Black Thick 255-400 Israel
827 Dickey Guatemalan Small Rough A Pyriform Green Green N/A 340-680 Mexico
Lewis West India Medium Smooth N/A Pyriform Green Black N/A 595 Hawaii
828
Puebla Mexican Large Smooth A Obovate Black Black Thick 170-450 Mexico
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

829

PT
RI
U SC
AN
M
D
TE
EP
C
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
830 Table 2: Avocado pulp composition (USDA, 2011).
Value per 1 fruit 1 serving
Nutrient/phytochemical Unity
100g 136 g 30 g
Proximate
Water (g) 72.3 98.4 21.7
Energy (kcal) 167 227 50
Energy (insoluble fiber adjusted) (kcal) 148 201 44
Protein (g) 1.96 2.67 0.59

PT
Total lipid (fat) (g) 15.4 21 4.62
Ash (g) 1.66 2.26 0.5
Carbohydrate (g) 8.64 11.8 2.59

RI
Fiber (g) 6.8 9.2 2
Sugars (g) 0.3 0.41 0.09
Starch (g) 0.11 0.15 0.03

SC
Minerals
Calcium (mg) 13 18 4
Iron (mg) 0.61 0.83 0.18

U
Magnesium (mg) 29 39 9
Phosphorus (mg) 54 73 16
AN
Potassium (mg) 507 690 152
Sodium (mg) 8 11 2
Zinc (mg) 0.68 0.92 0.2
M

Copper (mg) 0.17 0.23 0.05

Manganese (mg) 0.15 0.2 0.05
Selenium (ug) 0.4 0.5 0.1
D

Vitamins and Phytochemicals

Vitamin C (mg) 8.8 12 2.6
TE

Thiamine (mg) 0.08 0.1 0.02

Riboflavin (mg) 0.14 0.19 0.04
Niacin (mg) 1.91 2.6 0.57
EP

Pantothenic acid (mg) 1.46 2 0.44

Vitamin B-6 (mg) 0.29 0.39 0.09
Folate food (µg) 89 121 27
C

Choline total (mg) 14.2 19.3 4.3

Betaine (mg) 0.7 1 0.2
AC

Vitamin B-12 (µg) 0 0 0

Vitamin A (µg 7 10 2
Carotene beta (µg) 63 86 19
Carotene alpha (µg) 24 33 7
Cryptoxanthin beta (µg) 27 37 8
Lutein + zeaxanthin (µg) 271 369 81
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) (mg) 1.97 2.68 0.59
Tocopherol beta (mg) 0.04 0.05 0.01
Tocopherol gamma (mg) 0.32 0.44 0.1
Tocopherol delta (mg) 0.02 0.03 0.01
Vitamin k1 (phylloquinone) (µg) 21 28.6 6.3
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Lipids
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated (g) 9.8 13.3 2.94
Fatty acids, total saturated (g) 2.13 2.9 0.64
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated (g) 1.82 2.47 0.55
Cholesterol (mg) 0 0 0
Stigmasterol (mg) 2 3 1
Campesterol (mg) 5 7 2
Beta-sitosterol (mg) 76 103 23

PT
831

832

RI
833

834

SC
835 Table 3: Chemical composition of avocado seed and peel of different cultivars (dry
836 basis, % w/w).
Cultivar Moisture Minerals Lipids Fibres Proteins Carbohydrates Reference

U
Seed Hass 14.55 2.81 3.32 3.97 0.14 — (Daiuto, Tremocoldi,
Peel 9.87 2.15 2.18 1.29 0.17 — Alencar, & Vieites,
2014)
AN
Seed Hass 7.66 3.85 5.52 3.98 3.44 79.54 (Bressani, Rodas, &
Utz 9.44 2.79 6.32 4.24 3.09 78.37 Ruiz, 2009)
Booth 8 1.78 3.48 6.7 4.06 4.9 72.14
M

Panchoy 5.83 2.73 6 2.67 3.86 81.58

Shupte 8.04 4.3 4.05 2.19 9.63 42.45
Peel Hass 14.5 6.05 9.14 50.65 8.28 62.03
D

Utz 12.18 2.34 5.47 53.35 2.88 77.14

Booth 8 6.65 3.82 5.62 54.63 3.34 80.57
TE

Panchoy 10.26 3.82 5 48.3 4.39 76.53

Shupte 6.86 4.9 4.31 34.56 5.75 43.62
Seed Hass 54.45* 1.29 14.7 — 2.19 — (Vinha, Moreira, &
EP

Peel 69.13* 1.5 2.2 — 1.91 — Barreira, 2013)

Moisture Minerals Extractives Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin

Seed Hass 7.02 0.87 35.95 6.48 47.88 1.79
C

Peel 7.33 1.04 34.38 27.58 25.3 4.37 (Dávila et al., 2017)
837 *Data reported in wet basis.
AC

838

839

840

841

842

843

844
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
845 Table 4: Polyphenol compounds proposed by Agnieszka Kosińska et al. 2012 in
846 avocado seed and peel.

Retention Fragment Molecular

Peak Proposed compound UV ʎmax [M-H]-
time MS MS Formula
Avocado peel
1 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid 15.4 324 353 191, 179 C16H18O9
2 procyanidin dimer B (I) 17.3 278 577 289 -

PT
3 procyanidin dimer A 18.6 279 575 289 -
4 catechin 20.2 278 289 - C15H14O6
5 procyanidin dimer B (II) 23.8 279 577 289 -

RI
6 quercetin-3,4′-diglucoside 26.4 356 625 301 C27H30O17
7 quercetin 3-O-rutinoside 27.2 354 609 301 C27H30O16
quercetin-3-O-arabinosyl-

SC
8 29.6 355 595 301 -
glucoside
9 quercetin-3-O-arabinoside 29.7 354 433 301 C20H18O11
10 quercetin 3-O-galactoside 33.9 354 463 301 C21H20O12

U
11 quercetin-3-O-glucoside 35.5 356 463 301 C21H20O12
12 quercetin derivative (I) 40.3 353 479 301 -
AN
13 quercetin derivative (II) 40.9 353 609 301 -
14 quercetin derivative (III) 44.4 355 565 301 -
Avocado seed
M

15 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid 10 326 353 191, 179 C16H18O9

16 3-O-p-coumaroylquinic acid 13.5 314 337 191, 163 C16H18O8
17 procyanidin trimer A (I) 19.1 280 863 289 -
D

18 procyanidin trimer A (II) 21.7 280 863 289 -

19 catechin/epicatechin gallate 33.8 266, 299 441 283, 269 C22H18O10
TE

847

848
EP

849

850
C

851
AC

852
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
853 Table 5: Polyphenol compounds proposed by Lopez-Cobo et al. 2016 in avocado seed
854 and peel.

Retention Fragment Molecular

Peak Proposed compound UV ʎmax [M-H]-
time MS MS Formula
Avocado peel
1 perseitol 0.868 242/265 211.0823 101 C7H16O7
2 quinic acid 0.914 230/262 191.0561 111 C7H12O6

PT
3 penstemide 4.344 230/272 443.1923 101, 113 C21H32O10
4 chlorogenic acid 4.496 234/295/326 353.0878 191 C16H18O9
5 quercetin-diglucoside 6.456 238/280/352 625.141 301 C27H30O17

RI
6 quercetin-3-O-arabinosyl-glucoside 7.059 236/279/354 595.1305 301 C26H28O16
7 rutin 9.855 234/282/350 609.1461 301 C27H30O16

SC
8 perseitol 0.872 242/265 211.0827 101 C7H16O7
9 quinic acid 0.917 230/262 191.0567 111 C7H12O6
Avocado seed
10 citric acid 1.183 230 191.0197 111, 101, 113 C6H8O7

U
11 hydroxytyrosol glucoside 3.126 234/280 315.1094 135, 153 C14H20O8
AN
12 1-caffeoylquinic acid 3.585 239/293/324 353.088 191, 179, 135 C16H18O9
13 tyrosol glucoside 4.012 229/276 299.1138 119, 137 C14H20O7
14 penstemide 4.344 234/295/326 443.1924 101,113 C21H32O10
15 3-O-p-coumaroylquinic acid 4.538 238/285/311 337.093 163 C16H18O8
M

16 4-caffeoylquinic acid 5.075 241/284/326 353.0887 135, 173, 191 C16H18O9

17 vanillic acid glucoside 6.366 239/279 329.0878 123, 167 C14H18O9
(1’S, 6’R)-8’-hydroxyabscisic acid
D

18 8.546 242/274 441.177 330,139 C21H30O10

beta-D-glucoside
855
TE

856

857
EP

858

859
C

860
AC

861
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

862 Table 6: Phenolic content and antioxidant capacities reported from avocado seed and peel of some cultivars.
Fresh Total phenolic ORAC DPPH ABTS FRAP
Portion Cultivars Region or Dry content (µmol (µmol (µmol (µmol Method of extraction Reference

PT
material (mg GAE g-1) TE g-1) TE g-1) TE g-1 ) Fe(II)E g-1)
Seed

RI
Slimcado Florida Fresh 19.2 229.0 128.3 — — Vortex and sonication extraction (Wang et al., 2010)
with acetone/water/acetic acid
Simmonds Florida Fresh 40.2 459.3 240.2 — — (70:29.7:0.3, v/v/v).

SC
Loretta Florida Fresh 31.5 229.0 159.7 — —
Choquette Florida Fresh 33.4 348.9 157.8 — —

U
Booth 7 Florida Fresh 33.4 319.8 188.1 — —

AN
Booth 8 Florida Fresh 35.7 368.7 207.3 — —
Tonnage Florida Fresh 33.1 464.4 162.9 — —
Hass Mexico Fresh 51.6 428.8 164.6 — —

M
Mexico Dry 5.7 0.006 — — 9.5*** Agitation extraction with boiling (Calderón-Oliver et al., 2016)
water

D
Australia Dry 9.5 210.0 — 94.0 — Methanol (80%) extraction with (Agnieszka et al., 2012)
ratio 1:8 (w/v) in a thermostatic
Shepared 13.0 350.0 — 91.0 —

TE
Australia Dry shaking water bath at 60 °C
Fuerte Spain Fresh 69.1 — 167500 194800 — Acetone/water (70:30, v/v) (Rodríguez-Carpena et al., 2011)
extraction by homogenization
Hass 60.8 — 130600 159300
EP
Portugal Fresh 7.0 — 43%* — — Water extraction by (Vinha et al., 2013)
homogenization at 40 ⁰C
Brazil Dry 57.3 — 410.7 645.8 — Water/ethanol (80:20, v/v) (Daiuto et al., 2014)
C

extraction by ultrasound-assisted
at 25⁰C
AC

ND Spain Dry 45.0 616.5 — — — Agitation extraction with (Gómez et al., 2014)
ethanol:water (56 and 44.7 %) at
63 and 93.6 ⁰C
ND Nigeria Extraction with 1M HCL and (Oboh, Adelusi, & Akinyemi, 2013)
Dry 29.4 — — — 27.7● methanol (1:1, v/v)
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

ND Singapore Dry 88.2 — — 725.0 ** 1484.0 Refluxed Extraction with

(Soong & Barlow, 2004)
ethanol:water (1:1, v/v) at 70 ⁰C
Water extraction by ultrasound- (Segovia, Corral-Pérez, & Almajano,
ND Spain Fresh 40 200 — — — assisted batch at 60 ⁰C 2016)

PT
Peel
Slimcado Florida Fresh 4.6 58.2 39.7 — — Vortex and sonication extraction (Wang et al., 2010)

RI
with acetone/water/acetic acid
Simmonds Florida Fresh 7.4 226.8 84.9 — — (70:29.7:0.3, v/v/v).
Loretta Florida Fresh 7.6 92.3 38 — —

SC
Choquette Florida Fresh 13.9 174.8 90.8 — —
Booth 7 Florida Fresh 13.2 164.9 80 — —

U
Booth 8 Florida Fresh 8.1 110.5 52.6 — —

AN
Tonnage Florida Fresh 4.3 187.6 51.9 — —
Hass Mexico Fresh 12.6 631.4 189.8 — —

M
Portugal Fresh 6.8 — 35%* — — Water extraction by (Vinha et al., 2013)
homogenization at 40 ⁰C

Mexico Dry 19.7 0.866 — — 23.1*** Agitation extraction with boiling (Calderón-Oliver et al., 2016)

D
water
Brazil Dry 63.5 — 310.0 791.5 — Water/ethanol (80:20, v/v) (Daiuto et al., 2014)

TE
extraction by ultrasound-assisted
at 25⁰C
Australia Dry 25.3 470.0 — 161.0 — Methanol (80%) extraction with (Agnieszka et al., 2012)
EP
ratio 1:8 (w/v) in a thermostatic
Shepared Australia Dry 15.6 290.0 — 112.0 — shaking water bath at 60 °C
Fuerte Spain Dry 172.2 — 199610 242300 — Acetone/water (70:30, v/v) (Rodríguez-Carpena et al., 2011)
extraction by homogenization
C

Hass 89.9 — 88940 103800 —

ND — — Extraction with 1M HCL and (Oboh et al., 2013)
Nigeria Dry 30.0 — 34.6●
AC

methanol (1:1, v/v)

863 ND: Non-Defined
864 * Reported in percentage of inhibition of 0.1mg/mL of extract.
865 ** Reported in µmol Ascorbic Acid Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity by g of matter: µmol AEAC g-1
866 *** Reported in mg Trolox Equivalents by g of matter: mg TE g-1
867 ● Reported in mg Ascorbic Acid equivalent by g of matter: mg A
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
868

PT
RI
U SC
AN
M
D
TE
EP
C
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights:

1. Avocado is a tropical and subtropical fruit with worldwide acceptance,

extensive marketing, wide distribution and relevant nutritional benefits.

2. Avocado by-products are viable sources of bioactive compounds.

PT
3. Avocado by-products are source of premium-grade fats or bioactive
phytochemical extracts with high functional power.

RI
4. Avocado by-products have nutritional and functional properties.

SC
5. Several food grade ingredients can be obtained from avocado wastes

U
AN
M
D
TE
C EP
AC