PAAVAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
UNIT III
S.No Term
1 Insulation
2 Composite
3 Heat exchangers
4 Instrumentation
5 Liquid
6 Displacement
7 Density
CRYOGENIC ENGG
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL
CRYO INSUYLATIONS AND DEVICES
Technical Meaning
Insulation is the process of keeping
heat, sound, or electricity from
spreading. It's also the material used to
do so
A composite material is a combination
of two materials with different
physical and chemical properties.
A heat exchanger is a system used to
transfer heat between a source and a
working fluid.
istrumentation is the design, equipping,
and/or use of measuring instruments in
determining real-life conditions in a
plant's process, as for observation,
measurement and control.
A liquid is a type of matter with
specific properties that make it less
rigid than a solid but more rigid than a
gas. A liquid can flow and does not
have a specific shape like a solid
Displacement is defined as the change
in position of an object. It is a vector
quantity and has a direction and
magnitude
Density is the substance's mass per
unit of volume
Literal Meaning
the act of covering something
to stop heat, sound, or
electricity from escaping or
entering, or the fact that
something is covered in this
way:
Consisting of different parts or
materials.
a device for transferring heat
from one medium to another.
a substance, for example
water, that is not solid or a gas
and that can flow or be poured.
the action of moving
something from its place or
position.
the number of things or people
in a place in relation to its
area.
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INSULATION
The choice of insulation for a particular application is a compromise among economy, convenience,
weight, ruggedness, volume, and insulation effectiveness.

The effectiveness of a thermal insulation is judged on the basis of thermal conductivity. Thermal
conductivity is defined as the property of a homogeneous body measured by the ratio of steady-state
heat flux (time rate of heat flow per unit area) to the temperature gradient (temperature difference per
unit length of heat flow path) in the direction perpendicular to the area.
In general, the performance of a thermal insulation depends on the temperature and emittance of the
boundary surfaces, its density, the type and pressure of gas contained within it, its moisture content,
its thermal shock resistance, the compressive loads applied to it, and the effects of mechanical shocks
and vibrations.
Emissivity is the ratio of emission of radiant energy by an opaque material to the emission of a perfect
emitter ( a blackbody) at the same temperature

HEAT TRANSFER
During cool down, the heat capacity of the insulation must be considered. Heat can flow through
insulation by the simultaneous action of several different mechanisms:
• Solid conduction through the materials making up the insulation and conduction between
individual components of the insulation across areas of contact.
• Gas conduction in void spaces contained within the insulation material.
• Radiation across the void spaces and through the components of the insulation.

Cryogenic insulation can be conveniently subdivided into five categories:

(1) Vacuum Insulation
(2) Multilayer insulation
(3) Powder and fibrous insulation

(4) Foam insulation

(5) Special-purpose insulations

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VACUUM INSULATION
James Dewar, the first to liquefy hydrogen, was also the first to use vacuum insulation. His
invention, the double-walled glass vessel with a high vacuum in the space between the walls, is a
common household article in addition to being extensively used in research laboratories. The
inventor is honored by the name ‘ Dewar vessel’’ or sometimes simply ‘‘dewar’’. The importance of
vacuum insulation is evident when it is realized that it can almost completely eliminate two of the
principal modes of heat transfer, gaseous conduction and convection. When appropriate measures
are also taken to minimize heat transfer by radiation and conduction by solid structural members,
vacuum insulation is by far the most effective known. Two common types of vacuum-insulated
vessels (dewars) are illustrated in Fig Because of its importance, a large part of this chapter is
devoted to a discussion of high-vacuum insulation. First let us examine the principal modes by
which heat enters a vacuum-insulated low-temperature vessel and show how the heat flow can be
computed.

Two types of vacuum-insulated containers for liquefied gases. Vessel A is Pyrex glass. Surfaces of
the glass facing the vacuum space are silvered to reduce heat transfer by radiation. Vessel B is
metal. Spheres are copper, with surfaces facing the vacuum space cleaned to achieve the high
intrinsic reflectivity of copper.

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Heat Transfer by Radiation

The rate at which a surface emits thermal radiation is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann equation

where e is the total emissivity at temperature T; A the area and σ is the constant having the value

The net exchange of radiant energy between two surfaces is given by the expression

where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the cold and warm surfaces, respectively. A is an area factor. In the
case of cylinders or spheres, it will be taken as the area of the enclosed (inner) surface; in the case
of parallel plates, it is obviously the area of either surface. E is a factor involving the two
emissivities. For spheres and cylinders, its value depends on whether the reflections at the enclosing
surface are specular (mirror like) or diffuse (i.e., with intensity proportional to the cosine of the
angle between the direction of emission and the surface). The mode of reflection at the enclosed
surface is immaterial, and for parallel plates the mode of reflection at both surfaces is immaterial.
Examination of the available data on low-temperature emissivities discloses certain generalizations:
1. The best reflectors are also the best electrical conductors (copper, silver, gold, aluminum).
2. The emissivity decreases with decreasing temperature.
3. The emissivity of good reflectors is increased by surface contamination.
4. Alloying a metal with good reflectivity increases its emissivity.
5. The emissivity is increased by treatments such as mechanical polishing that result in work
hardening of the surface layer of metal.

6. Visual appearance (i.e., brightness) is not a reliable criterion of reflecting power at long
wavelengths.

Radiation transfer can be reduced by interposing thermally isolated shields parallel to the radiating
surfaces. Here we will limit ourselves for simplicity to the special case of two parallel planes
between which are n shields. We will further simplify by distinguishing only two kinds of
emissivity, that of the two bounding surfaces, e0, assumed to be the same, and that of the shields, es ,
assumed to be all equal to each other. Then it can be shown that the heat transfer for n≥1 is

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where I=σAT4 the blackbody emission. E0 is the emissivity factor applying between either boundary
and the adjacent shield. Es is the emissivity factor applying between any two adjacent shields:

This case represents the use of floating metallic radiation shields in a dewar. In an actual installation
it may prove difficult to realize the reduction in heat transfer indicated by the above formula
because of necessary openings, irregularities, and connecting lines that behave like areas of high
emissivity.

which is the same result. Hence a small number of such shields is virtually without effect. As n is
made very large, the thermal resistance of the shields, though individually small, takes effect
through sheer numbers and W approaches the same value as in case A. Thus the boundary
emissivity is of importance only for small numbers of shields. The case of numerous black shields
is simulated by opaque nonmetallic powders in the vacuum space.
Heat Transfer by Residual Gas
It is predicted by the kinetic theory of gases and confirmed by experiment that the thermal
conductivity of a gas in which the mean free path is small in relation to the distances between the

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surfaces constituting the heat source and the heat sink is independent of the gas pressure. Consider
measuring the rate of heat flow through air at 300 0C between surfaces of slightly different
temperatures with a separation of about 1 cm as the pressure is reduced from a starting pressure of 1
atm. It is found that the rate is essentially unchanged until the pressure becomes quite small.
However, as the pressure approaches the micrometer range (10–100 μmHg), there is a marked
decrease in the rate of heat transfer. At pressures below 1 mmHg, the rate is nearly proportional to
the gas pressure. There is a constant small amount of heat transferred by radiation, and if this is
corrected for, the transfer by the residual gas is quite precisely proportional to the pressure.
Outgassing
When a vacuum enclosure is pumped, the surfaces gradually release sizable quantities of gas, and
accordingly the attainment of a good vacuum is greatly retarded. Some of the gas being liberated is
bound to the surfaces by physical adsorption, some is dissolved in the solid, and some exists in
chemical combination—for example, in oxide on the surfaces. The most effective means of
removing these gases and thus speeding up the evacuation process is by heating during evacuation.
When this is not feasible, heating the components in a vacuum oven just prior to assembly may
accomplish nearly the same result. Heating in a hydrogen atmosphere will remove surface oxides
adsorbed air, and water vapor, but it is believed that for components to be used for a cryogenic
insulating vacuum, heating in vacuum is greatly preferable because this will also remove some of
the dissolved hydrogen. Residual hydrogen in an insulating vacuum is particularly objectionable
because of its high thermal conductivity and its resistance to condensation on cold surfaces. In some
metals large quantities of hydrogen trapped in pores during the smelting process may slowly diffuse
to the surface and spoil the vacuum. Diffusion is more rapid in steel than in copper or aluminum.
It is advisable to avoid, insofar as possible, organic materials in a vacuum system. These as a
rule contain appreciable quantities of air in solution and also may contain entrapped or dissolved
solvent or plasticizer. Particularly bad are rubber and phenolic plastics. Teflon, Kel-F, polyethylene,
polystyrene, and epoxy resins are much better.
It is very important that the interior of a vacuum system be scrupulously clean. A film of oil
on the pipes or soldering flux at the joints may make it almost impossible to achieve a satisfactory
vacuum. In cleaning a vacuum system, it is good practice to use hot water to dissolve the water-
soluble dirt, dry, and clean a second time with a organic solvent. If the principal contaminant is not

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water-soluble, the order of washing should be reversed. Of course, the presence of soluble plastics
may proscribe the use of organic solvents. In this case, a detergent in hot water may be satisfactory.
Because of the difficulty of outgassing metals, many large vacuum-insulated metal containers
are continuously pumped with a diffusion pump and forepump permanently attached. Smaller metal
vacuum vessels are usually provided with adsorbents that take up the residual gas when cold.

Getters
A getter is a substance that takes up gas at very low pressures and so is used to improve or maintain a
vacuum in a closed system. The processes responsible for the action of various getters include
physical adsorption of the gas on an extended surface adsorbent, chemical combination with suitable
active materials, and the solution of gases in certain metals.
(a) Chemical Getters. The term ‘ getter’ originated with substances of this type used to maintain
vacuum in electronic tubes. The one having the most general utility is barium, but other alkali and
alkaline earth metals have also been used. To be effective at ambient temperatures, the substance must
be finely dispersed so as to present a large surface area. This is usually done by subliming it onto the
walls of the vacuum space.
(b) Solution Getters. Solution getters consist of certain transition metals of which titanium,
zirconium, and thorium are the most widely used. These take common gases such as N2, O2, and H2
into solid solution either as dissociated atoms or possibly by dissolving compounds formed by the gas
and the metal. Stoichiometric proportions are not maintained overall. The more active of these metals
may absorb very large volumes of gas. The system palladium–hydrogen is one of the most striking,
especially at ordinary temperatures. Such systems show thermochemical and electrical properties that
indicate them to be more properly considered as a special class of alloys than as ordinary solutions.
(c) Adsorbents. Adsorbents such as activated coconut charcoal have long been used to maintain good
insulating vacua in vessels used to store cryogenic liquids. This is a particularly apt utilization
because the effectiveness of an adsorbentis greatly enhanced by lowering the pressure of the liquid
being stored. Figure presented earlier, shows a cross-section of a typical commercial vessel used for
storing and transporting liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen. The adsorbent is activated charcoal
contained so as to be very nearly at the temperature of the liquid being stored. Although the vacuum
between the walls of such a vessel may not be particularly good when it is empty (warm), as soon as

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the cryogenic liquid is introduced the adsorbent will take up gas and greatly improve the insulating
vacuum.
Heat Transfer by Supports
It is a simple matter to compute the amount of heat conducted through ordinary solid supports, such
as rods or cables, which may be used to bear the weight of the inner container of a dewar. The rate of
heat transfer is given by

where A is the cross-sectional area of the support (A=constant), k the thermal conductivity and dT /
dx the temperature gradient.

where L is the length of the support with one end at the higher temperature T2 and the other end at T1.

EVACUATED POROUS INSULATION

When an insulating space is filled with a powder having a low gross density (a large ratio of volume
of gas-filled voids to volume of solid material), it is found that the apparent thermal conductivity is
approximately that of the gas. It appears that the amount of heat transferred by solid conduction
through the powder is relatively small. Also the presence of the powder inhibits, to some extent, heat
transfer by convection and radiation. Now if the gas pressure in the interstices is reduced by pumping
the enclosure, the rate of heat transfer is little affected at first because the thermal conductivity of the
gas is almost independent of pressure in this higher pressure region. However, when the gas pressure
approaches the value at which the mean free paths of the molecules are comparable with interstitial
distances, there is a marked reduction in the apparent thermal conductivity. This is illustrated in Fig.
For most powders used with nitrogen as the interstitial gas, it appears that the condition of free-

molecule conduction sets in at pressures on the order 1.0–0.1mm Hg. If the only mechanism for heat

transfer were that of gaseous conduction, the rate of heat transfer at all lower pressures would be
proportional to the pressure of the gas. However, this is found not to be the case; at quite low
pressures the rate of heat transfer becomes almost independent of pressure, showing that heat is being

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transmitted by other means. This residual heat transfer can be by solid conduction through the powder
or by radiation or by both. Figure shows somewhat idealized to represent the behavior of a powder
with voids of uniform size and therefore having a rather sharp transition into the range of free-
molecule conduction. For most actual powders, this transition is more diffuse

Convenient Formula for Porous Insulation

A good approximation for the heat transfer through a porous insulation of constant thickness in a
vessel of conservative shape is given by

The mean effective thermal conductivity can be obtained from the relation

Where k is the thermal conductivity at temperature T. If k is a linear function of T, then is the

arithmetic mean conductivity between T1 and T2.

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SOLID FOAMS
There is a class of insulating materials that have a cellular structure caused by the evolution of a
large volume of gas during manufacture. When the cells in such a material are small and do not
communicate with each other, the material has some properties that make it a useful insulator for
certain low-temperature applications. Foams of this type have been made of polystyrene,
polyurethanes (isocyanates), rubber, silicones, and other materials. Since gas can penetrate such a
foam only by diffusion through the cell walls, the material behaves as though it were completely
impermeable when the exposure to a foreign gas lasts only a short time. Also, if the temperature of
the cold side of the foam is so low that the gas in the nearby cells is condensed and has negligible
vapor pressure, the thermal conductivity is greatly reduced by eliminating gaseous conduction in
these regions. However, it should be remarked that the insulating value of such foams seldom
approaches that of ordinary permeable materials such as powder because the solid conducting paths
in the foam are continuous even though they may be tortuous. The foaming gas used in the
manufacture of these foams is often carbon dioxide, which has a small vapor pressure at the
temperature of liquid nitrogen. Thus when the foam is fresh, its thermal conductivity is reduced
considerably by contact with liquid nitrogen. However, after the foam has been stored for several
months, the foaming gas is largely replaced by air owing to slow diffusion, and the reduction of
thermal conductivity by the condensation of the gas is of little consequence if the lowest
temperature is that of liquid nitrogen. If the cold side is at the temperature of liquid hydrogen, the
conductivity will be greatly lowered even if the cells of the foam contain air. However, if such a
foam is left in an atmosphere of hydrogen or helium for a week or more, there will be another
partial substitution by these gases and the thermal conductivity of the foam will be seriously
increased.
Since solid foam insulations are almost impermeable to gases, they may be used to insulate
regions below the condensing temperature of air or nitrogen. One of the applications is simply to
hollow out a block or cylinder of foam and use it as an insulating vessel as shown in Fig. Small
vessels of this type have been quite useful. However, the logical extension of this idea—using a
solid foam to insulate a large vessel made of metal—is attended with considerable difficulty. The
principal cause of the trouble is the relatively high expansivity of the plastic foams.

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In general, the thermal expansion coefficient of such foams is 2–5 times that of aluminum and
4–10 times that of steel. Therefore, it is necessary that the foam be designed and applied to
accommodate for this difference in thermal expansion. It cannot be bonded directly to the metal
surfaces because during cooldown from ambient to cryogenic temperatures the foam will shrink more
than the metal and crack, leaving gaps. Water vapor and air normally enter these gaps and
significantly increase the thermal conductivity of the insulation.
The dominant heat transfer mechanism is conduction through the interstitial gas, though there is
also a small contribution from radiation. Thus, as with powder insulations, if the size of the voids in
the foam is decreased so as to allow only free molecular gas conduction, the overall performance of
the insulation can be significantly improved. Figure shows the variation of the mean effective thermal
conductivity in expanded polyurethane with cell size.

COMPOSITE INSULATIONS
The optimum insulation system should combine maximum insulation effectiveness, minimum
weight, and ease of fabrication. It would be desirable to use only one insulation material, but since

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no single insulation material has all the desirable physical and strength characteristics required in
many applications, composite insulations have been developed. These composite insulations
represent a compromise between thermal effectiveness, handling properties, and adequate service
life. For cryogenic applications, composite insulations consist of a polyurethane foam;
reinforcement for the foam to provide adequate compressive strength; adhesives for sealing and
securing the foam to a tank; enclosures to prevent damage to the foam from mechanical contact,
vibration, and aerodynamic heating; and vapor barriers to maintain a separation between the foam
and atmospheric gases.

1. Honeycomb Foam Insulation

Several external insulation systems use honeycomb structures. Phenolic resin–reinforced fiberglass
cloth honeycomb is most commonly used. The honeycomb is bonded to the tank with a suitable
seal, and a vapor barrier is applied to the exterior of the honeycomb. In such a system, the cells in
the honeycomb can be interconnected and evacuated through external pumping, interconnected and
purged with helium, or sealed and allowed to reach a low pressure within the sealed cells when the
tank is filled with a cryogenic liquid.

i) Foam-Filled Honeycomb
The effectiveness of a honeycomb insulation can be considerably improved if its cells are filled with a
low-density polyurethane foam. Several techniques have been used for preparing foam-filled
honeycomb. For example, the liquid components can be foamed in place to fill the honeycomb cells.
This system has not proved effective, however, because of large waste, nonuniform cell structure in
the foam, and nonuniform filling of the honeycomb cells. The most common method of preparing
foamfilled honeycomb is to press the rigid, phenolic resin-reinforced fiberglass honeycomb into a
preformed sheet of low-density foam. The thin honeycomb walls cleanly cut through the foam so that
it fills each cell. However, the foam is not sealed or bonded into the cells; it simply lies within them.
This lack of bonding has certain disadvantages because atmospheric gases or helium can diffuse
through the insulation. In this, as in other honeycomb insulations, the honeycomb provides
compressive strength and allows the insulation to absorb stresses created by differential expansion
between the insulating materials and the tank during chilldown. A sealed foam-filled system,

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however, is not completely reliable. Therefore, a helium-purged, externally sealed honeycomb

system, was developed for the Saturn S-II insulation system.

ii) The Saturn S-II Insulation System

The S-II booster is the second stage of the Saturn C-5 launch vehicle. Overall, it is 33 ft in diameter
and 85 ft long. The liquid hydrogen tank occupies the largest portion of the second stage’s volume.
The total insulated tank area is 6000 ft 2 exclusive of the bulkhead, which is common to the liquid
hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks. In addition to limiting heat flow during launch and preload, the
insulation was designed to be self-snuffing when ignited, to prevent significant air condensation in
the insulation, and to provide a means for identifying structural flaws in the tank during fabrication.
The insulation system consists of a foam-filled honeycomb having an overall thickness of 1.6 in. on
the tank side wall and 0.5 in. on the bulkhead. The foam is an open-cell polyurethane of 2.2 lb/ft 3
(0.035 g/cm3) density that is pressed into the honeycomb. This composite is bonded to the tank wall
with an adhesive. The vapor barrier on the warm side of the insulation is made up of nylon-phenolic
laminate impregnated with a 0.0015 in. (38.1 μm) seal coating of polyvinyl fluoride, as shown in Fig.
The cold side of the insulation is grooved to provide gas flow channels for helium-purging the
insulation during prelaunch and for evaluating the insulation during launch. The weight of the
composite 1.6 in. thick insulation structure is about 0.85 lb/ft2 (4.15 kg/m2).
The cylindrical section of the tank is made up of quadrant sections 27 ft wide by about 9 ft high that
are welded into rings. The rings are welded together vertically. The insulation slab is applied to the
quadrant sections except at the panel edges, where it is recessed from the weld areas to permit
clearance for the weld tools and separation from the heat-affected zone. When the tank fabrication
and hydrostatic tests have been completed, the gaps between insulation panels are filled with foam
sections and bonded over with adhesives that cure at room temperature. The manufacturing process is
depicted in Fig. Thermal conductivity values of 0.6–0.75 Btu in (h ft 2 0F) [0.86–1.1mW/ (cm 0C)]
were obtained for the helium-purged insulation at a mean temperature of -200 0F (-129 0C). A
comparison of the results is presented in Fig.. The measured foam conductivities are comparable to
the thermal conductivity of helium. Evaluation of purged honeycomb foam insulation indicated that
the foam was not fully effective because in reducing thermal conductivity the composite insulation
rapidly reached the thermal conductivity of the helium purge gas. To improve the insulation’s
effectiveness, the foam was cut to the proper size by pressing it into a slice of honeycomb. The foam

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was then punched out, and each piece of foam was sealed with a polyurethane resin and reinserted
into the honeycomb cell. However, the thermal conductivity of the insulation containing the
individually coated foam pieces was the same as if the pieces had not been coated, indicating that
helium readily permeated the sealing resin. Composite insulation, which is first purged with helium
and then evacuated, was also considered. However, if the vapor barrier is not leakproof, air can leak
into the cold evacuated insulation and condense. In addition to the basic hexagonal core honeycomb,
modified honeycombs filled with rigid urethane foam have been evaluated for use in insulation
systems.

Saturn S-II basic insulation configuration.

Manufacturing process for Saturn S-II insulation system.

Topic : Instrumentation in Cryogenics

Need of Cryogenic Instrumentation

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Measurement of Thermophysical Properties

Various Sensorswe have seen that the cryogenic vessels are

insulated, closed containers.

Instrumentation is needed To monitor the vacuum in insulation,

as there is a continuous gas in leak
To monitor the liquid level so as to avoid any over flow of the cryogen.

To monitor a sample’s temperature.This justifies the of instrumentation for

a safe Cryogenic operation.

It is clear that conventional methods like bourdon pressure gauge or

thermometer cannot be used due to the following reasons.

Working at extremely low temperatures.

Sustainability to thermal and mechanical fatigues.

Calibration at low temperatures

Special Requirements
There are a few special requirements that are to be qualified by the sensors, to
use them in Cryogenic Technology. They are

Remote Arrangements : Cryogenic vessels are closed containers. The sensors

should be capable of remote operation from outside.

Vacuum : The sensors should be able to withstand low pressures prevalent in

vacuum.

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Cryogen : The sensors should be chemically inert towards the cryogen under
useThere are a few special requirements that are to be qualified by the sensors, to
use them in Cryogenic Technology. They are

Remote Arrangements : Cryogenic vessels are closed containers. The sensors

should be capable of remote operation from outside.

Vacuum : The sensors should be able to withstand low pressures prevalent in

vacuum

The sensors should be chemically inert towards the cryogen under

useThermophysical properties

Temperature
Liquid Level
Pressure
Mass Flow Rate
Viscosity and Density
Electrical and Thermal Conductivity covered, which are very important
The various measuring units of temperature are Kelvin, degree Centigrade, degree
Fahrenheit etc.

The measurement of temperature is based on zeroth law of thermodynamics. It

states that when two bodies are in thermal equilibrium, they are at
the same temperature.

Temperature is measured to monitor thermal expansion and most importantly

pressure rise.

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The calibration of a temperature sensor is done using some fixed points

The international temperature scale is defined up to the triple point of H2. Its
value is 13.84 K.

Recently, various scales are developed to measure much lower temperatures.

Germanium Resistance Thermometer – 4.2 K to 13.84 K.

He4 Vapor Pressure Scale – 1.5 K to 4.24 K. It was invented in 1958 and it is
often called as T58 (He4)He3 Vapor Pressure Scale – 0.8 K to 1.5 K. This
scale is also called as T62 (He3).

For the temperatures between 0.006 K to 0.8 K, the scale is based on the
properties of Cerium magnesium nitrate (salt).

The variations in magnetic susceptibility of this salt are calibrated in

terms of temperatureVarious sensors that are often used in Cryogenics
to measure temperature are

Thermocouples

Metallic Resistance Thermometer

Semiconductor Resistance Thermometer

Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

Vapor Pressure Thermometer

Magnetic ThermometerConsider two conducting wires of different

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materials, A and B.These metal wires are joined together as shown

above.
The left and right joints are LJ and RJ respectively. A voltmeter V is in series with
wire B .Consider two conducting wires of different materials, A and B.

These metal wires are joined together as shown above.

The left and right joints are LJ and RJ respectively. A voltmeter V is in series with
wire B .The voltage (e, mV) is directly proportional to the temperature difference
(t, degreeC).Some approximate values for different types of
thermocouples are as given below.

T type

Cu and Cu – Ni alloy (Copper – Constantan).

Range : 3 K to 673 K.

Sensitivity : 4.6 µV/K at 20 K.

K type

Ni – Cr and Ni – Al alloys (Chromel – Alumel).

Range : 3 K to 1543 K.
Sensitivity : 4.1 μV/K at 20 K.
The different types of thermocouples in use are

E type

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Ni – Cr and Cu –
Ni alloys (Chromel – Constantan).

Range : 3 K to 953 K.

Sensitivity : 68 μV/K at 20 K.

This combination produces the highest Seebeck effect.

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