UNIT-I

AIRCRAFT GROUND HANDLING AND SUPPORT

EQUIPMENT
 TOPICS

MOORING
JACKING
LEVELLING
TOWING
 MOORING

MOORING is defined as the tie down procedure

Aircraft are to be tied down after each flight to
prevent damage from sudden storms.
 General Procedure

The direction that aircraft are to be parked and tied

down is determined by prevailing or forecast wind
direction.
Aircraft are to be headed into the wind, depending
on the locations of the parking area’s fixed tie-down
points.
Spacing of tie-downs need to allow for ample wingtip
clearance.
After the aircraft is properly located, lock the nose
wheel or the tail wheel in the fore-and-aft position.
 Tie-Down Procedures

For Land Planes

Securing Light Aircraft
Securing Heavy Aircraft
For Ski Planes
For Sea Planes
For Helicopters
Securing Light Aircraft
Light aircraft are most often secured with ropes tied
only at the aircraft tie-down rings provided for
securing purposes.
Rope is never to be tied to a lift strut, since this
practice can bend a strut if the rope slips to a point
where there is no slack.
Since manila rope shrinks when wet, about 1 inch
(1") of slack needs to be provided for movement.
Securing Light Aircraft
Tight tie-down ropes put inverted flight stresses on
the aircraft
A tie-down rope holds no better than the knot.
Aircraft not equipped with tie-down fittings must be
secured in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.
Ropes are to be tied to outer ends of struts on high-
wing monoplanes
Securing Heavy Aircraft
The normal tie-down procedure for heavy aircraft
can be accomplished with rope or cable tie-down.
conditions.
Most heavy aircraft are equipped with surface
control locks that are engaged or installed when the
aircraft is secured.
If high winds are anticipated, control surface battens
can also be installed to prevent damage.
The normal tie-down procedure for heavy
aircraft includes the following:
Head airplane into prevailing wind whenever
possible.
Install control locks, all covers, and guards.
Chock all wheels fore and aft.
Attach tie-down reels to airplane tie-down loops, tie-
down anchors, or tie-down stakes. Use tie-down
stakes for temporary tie-down only. If tie-down reels
are not available, 1⁄4" wire cable or 11⁄2" manila line
may be used.
Tie-Down Procedures for Seaplanes
Seaplanes can be moored to a buoy, weather
permitting, or tied to a dock. Weather causes wave
action, and waves cause the seaplane to bob and roll.
When warning of an impending storm is received
and it is not possible to fly the aircraft out of the
storm area, some compartments of the seaplane can
be flooded, partially sinking the aircraft.
Tie-Down Procedures for Ski Planes
Ski planes are tied down, if the securing means are
available, in the same manner as land planes.
 Ski-equipped airplanes can be secured on ice or in
snow by using a device called a dead-man.
Operators of ski-equipped aircraft sometimes pack
soft snow around the skis, pour water on the snow,
and permit the skis to freeze to the ice.
Tie-Down Procedures for Helicopters
Helicopters, like other aircraft are secured to prevent
structural damage that can occur from high-velocity
surface winds.
Helicopters are to be secured in hangars, when
possible. If not, they must be tied down securely.
Helicopters that are tied down can usually sustain
winds up to approximately 65 mph
 Tie-Down Procedures for Helicopters
 Face the helicopter in the direction that the highest forecast wind or
gusts are anticipated.
 Spot the helicopter slightly more than one rotor span distance from
other aircraft.
 Place wheel chocks ahead of and behind all wheels (where applicable).
 Align the blades and install tie-down assemblies as prescribed by the
helicopter manufacturer. Tie straps snugly without strain, and during
wet weather, provide some slack to avoid the possibility of the straps
shrinking, causing undue stress on the aircraft and/or its rotor
system(s).
 Fasten the tie-down ropes or cables to the forward and aft landing gear
cross tubes and secure to ground stakes or tie-down rings.
Procedures for Securing Powered
Parachutes
When securing powered parachutes, pack the
parachute in a bag to prevent the chute from filling
with air from the wind
and dragging the seat and engine. The engine and
seat can also be secured if needed.
 Levelling

 For general longitudinal leveling,

the cabin door sill edge is parallel within 0.10° relative waterline 100. The door sill
is used in conjunction with a spirit level to determine airplane ground attitude.
 For specific longitudinal leveling,
two forward leveling points are located on either side of the cowl at fuselage
station 99.00. One aft point is located on the tailcone access flange under the
horizontal stabilizer on the right side, at fuselage station 299.00. The leveling
points are used in conjunction with a transit to determine ground attitude.
 For general lateral leveling,
a straight edge may be placed across both cabin door sills. The door sill is used in
conjunction with a spirit level to determine airplane ground pitch.
 For specific lateral leveling,
an alignment brace bar may be placed across the upper engine mount weldment
attach points. The attach points are used in conjunction with a digital level to
determine airplane ground pitch.
 JACKING
 Check the Maintenance Manual for the correct jacking equipment and procedures may be used for jacking the
Aircraft to allow functional check of the undercarriage system.
 Jacking points are located in the wings and fuselage and other points are at the nose and main undercarriages.
 Safety Considerations Safety precautions and restrictions must be noted before and during the process of jacking
as follows:
 1) Check the Maintenance Manual for the position of the C.G. either well behind or in front of the main jacking
points to bring the C.G, within safe limits. This include checking the aircraft fuel state.
 2) Check each jacking point load limit, caution not to exceed them, structural damage could occur.
 3) Stressed panels to be installed as per Maintenance Manual.
 4) Check the aircraft jacks for next servicing due date. Do not use any jack that is due for servicing. An accident,
damage to aircraft and injure someone may occur.
 5) Check the correct type of jack to be used and the serviceability of the jacks before use.
 6) Aircraft jacking area roped off and warning signs or flags posted.
 7) All jacking crews to be fully briefed on jacking procedures.
 8) Enough jacking crews for the task.
 9) All aircraft should normally be jacked inside a hangar. Jacking outside is permitted for larger aircraft provided
they are positioned nose into wind, jacking surface is level and strong to support the weight and any special
instructions stated in the AMM are observed.
 10) Maximum wind speed stated for jacking outside to be observed. Brakes to be released, chocked fore and aft
and undercarriage ground locks installed.
 11) Earth cable connected to the earth point on the aircraft with sufficient length when aircraft is jacked.
 Jacking Procedures
 While the following procedures will generally ensure safe and satisfactory jacking of most
aircraft, precedence must always be given to the procedures and precautions specified in
the relevant Maintenance Manual.
 The jacking team include:
 1) A supervisor to co-ordinate the operation. To observe the whole jacking process
making sure the aircraft is in level at all time. He must be trained, qualified and
authorized.
 2) Jacking personnel: To jack the aircraft evenly and slowly with the same speed and
jacking strokes
 3) Locking collar personnel: To lock down the jacking collar continuously as the jacks are
rising.
 4) Safety Observer: Ensure no one violate or disregard any safety procedures and only
jacking team members are allowed within the safety lines while aircraft is being jacked.
Safety observer should have a safety evaluation checklist carried during the jacking
operation
 Note: All members of the team need to be in radio communication with the co-ordinator.
JACK TYPES
 TOWING

Movement of large aircraft about the airport, flight

line, and hangar is usually accomplished by towing
with a tow tractor (sometimes called a “tug)
 In the case of small aircraft, some moving is
accomplished by hand pushing on the correct areas
of the aircraft.
Towing aircraft can be a hazardous operation,
causing damage to the aircraft and injury to
personnel
Before the aircraft to be towed is moved, a qualified
person must be in the flight deck to operate the
brakes in case the tow bar fails or becomes
unhooked. The aircraft can then be stopped,
preventing possible damage., if done recklessly or
carelessly.
When towing the aircraft, the towing vehicle speed
must be reasonable, and all persons involved in the
operation must be alert.
When the aircraft is stopped, do not rely upon the
brakes of the towing vehicle alone to stop the
aircraft.
 The person in the flight deck must coordinate the
use of the aircraft brakes with those of the towing
vehicle.
 The towing vehicle driver is responsible for operating the vehicle in a safe
manner and obeying emergency stop instructions given by any team member.
 The person in charge assigns team personnel as wing walkers. A wing walker is
stationed at each wingtip, in such a position that he or she can ensure adequate
clearance of any obstruction in the path of the aircraft. A tail walker is assigned
when sharp turns are to be made or when the aircraft is to be backed into
position.
 A qualified person occupies the pilot’s seat of the towed aircraft to observe and
operate the brakes as required. When necessary, another qualified person is
stationed to watch and maintain aircraft hydraulic system pressure.
 The person in charge of the towing operation verifies that, on aircraft with a
steerable nosewheel, the locking scissors are set to full swivel for towing. The
locking device must be reset after the tow bar has been removed from the
aircraft. Persons stationed in the aircraft are not to attempt to steer or turn the
nosewheel when the tow bar is attached to the aircraft.
 Under no circumstances is anyone permitted to walk or to ride between the
nosewheel of an aircraft and the towing vehicle, nor ride on the outside of a
moving aircraft or on the towing vehicle. In the interest of safety, no attempt to
board or leave a moving aircraft or towing vehicle is permitted.
 The towing speed of the aircraft is not to exceed that of the walking team
members. The aircraft’s engines usually are not operated when the aircraft is
being towed into position.
 The aircraft brake system is to be charged before each towing operation.
Aircraft with faulty brakes are towed into position only for repair of brake
systems, and then personnel must be standing by ready with chocks for
emergency use. Chocks must be immediately available in case of an emergency
throughout any towing operation.
 To avoid possible personal injury and aircraft damage during towing
operations, entrance doors are closed, ladders retracted, and gear-down locks
installed.
 Prior to towing any aircraft, check all tires and landing gear struts for proper
inflation. (Inflation of landing gear struts of aircraft in overhaul and storage is
excluded.)
 When moving aircraft, do not start and stop suddenly. For added
safety, aircraft brakes must never be applied during towing, except
upon command by one of the tow team members in an emergency
situation.
 Aircraft are parked in specified areas. Generally, the distance between
rows of parked aircraft is great enough to allow immediate access of
emergency vehicles in case of fire, as well as free movement of
equipment and materials.
 Wheel chocks are placed fore and aft of the main landing gear of the
parked aircraft.
 Internal or external control locks (gust locks or blocks) are used while
the aircraft is parked.
 Prior to any movement of aircraft across runways or taxiways, contact
the airport control tower on the appropriate frequency for clearance to
proceed.
 An aircraft parked in a hangar must be statically grounded
immediately.
 Taxiing Aircraft

As a general rule, only rated pilots and qualified

airframe and powerplant (A&P) technicians are
authorized to start, run up, and taxi aircraft. All
taxiing operations are performed in accordance with
applicable local regulations.
 Ground Support Equipment

Electric Ground Power Units

Hydraulic Ground Power Units
Ground Support Air Units
Ground Air Heating and Air Conditioning
Oxygen Servicing Equipment
Fuel Servicing of Aircraft
 Electric Ground Power Units

 Ground support electrical APUs vary widely in size and type.

However, they can be generally classified by towed, stationary,
or self-propelled items of equipment.
 Some units are mainly for in-hangar use during maintenance.
Others are designed for use on the flight line, either at a
stationary gate area or towed from aircraft to aircraft.
 The stationary type can be powered from the electrical service
of the facility. The movable type ground power unit (GPU)
generally has an onboard engine that turns a generator to
produce power
 Some smaller units use a series of batteries. The towed power
units vary in size and range of available power.
Electric Ground Power Units
 Hydraulic Ground Power Units

Portable hydraulic test stands are manufactured in

many sizes and cost ranges.Some have a limited
range of operation, while others can be used to
perform all the system tests that fixed-shop test
stands are designed to perform.
Hydraulic power units, sometimes called a hydraulic
mule, provide hydraulic pressure to operate the
aircraft systems during maintenance.
 Hydraulic Ground Power Units

They can be used to:

• Drain the aircraft hydraulic systems.
• Filter the aircraft system hydraulic fluid
• Refill the aircraft system with clean fluid.
• Check the aircraft hydraulic
systems for operation and Leaks
 Ground Support Air Units

Air carts are used to provide low-pressure (up to 50

psi high volume flow) air that can be used for
starting the engines and heating and cooling the
aircraft on the ground (using the onboard aircraft
systems).
It generally consists of an APU built into the cart that
provides bleed air from the APU’s compressor for
operating aircraft systems or starting engines.
 Ground Air Heating and Air Conditioning

Most airport gates have facilities that can provide

heated or cold air. The units that cool or heat the air
are permanent installations that connect to the
aircraft’s ventilation m by use of a large hose.
Portable heating and air conditioning units can also
be moved close to the aircraft and connected by a
duct that provides air to keep the cabin temperature
comfortable.
 Oxygen Servicing Equipment

Before servicing any aircraft, consult the specific

aircraft maintenance manual to determine the
proper types of servicing equipment to be used.
Two personnel are required to service an aircraft
with gaseous oxygen. One person is stationed at the
control valves of the servicing equipment, and one
person is stationed where he or she can observe the
pressure in the aircraft system.
Communication between the two people is required
in the event of an emergency.
 Details of Starting the Engine-P.E
Before starting an aircraft engine:
Position the aircraft to head into the
prevailing wind to ensure adequate airflow
over the engine for cooling purposes.
Make sure that no property damage or
personal injury occurs from the propeller blast
If external electrical power is used for
starting, ensure that it can be removed safely,
and it is sufficient for the total starting
sequence.
During any and all starting procedures, a
“fireguard” equipped with a suitable fire
extinguisher shall be stationed in an appropriate
place.
If the aircraft is turbine-engine powered, the
area in front of the jet inlet must be kept clear
of personnel, property, and/or debris (FOD).
These “before starting” procedures apply to
all aircraft powerplants.
Follow manufacturer’s checklists for start
procedures and shutdown procedures.
Reciprocating Engines

The following procedures are typical of those used to

start reciprocating engines.
The various covers (wing, tail, flight deck, wheel, and
so forth) protecting the aircraft must be removed before
attempting to turn the engine
Before starting a radial engine that has been shut down
for more than 30 minutes, check the ignition switch for
off. Turn the propeller three or four complete revolutions
by hand to detect a hydraulic lock,
To start the engine, proceed as follows:
Turn the auxiliary fuel pump on, if the aircraft is so
equipped.
Place the mixture control to the position
recommended for the engine and carburetor
combination being started.
Open the throttle to a position that provides
1,000 to 1,200 rpm (approximately 1⁄8" to 1⁄2"
from the “closed” position).
Leave the pre-heat or alternate air (carburetor
air) control in the “cold” position to prevent
damage and fire in case of backfire
Move the primer switch to “on” intermittently
Energize the starter and after the propeller has made at
least two complete revolutions, turn the ignition switch
on.
After the engine is operating smoothly, move the
mixture control to the “full rich” position if started in the
“idle cutoff” position. Carbureted engines are already in
the rich mixture position. Check for oil pressure gauge,
exhaust gas temperature gauge, and fuel flow gauge.
 Turboprop Engine

While starting an engine, always observe the following:

Always observe the starter duty cycle. Otherwise, the
starter can overheat and be damaged.
Assure that there is enough air pressure or electrical
capacity before attempting a start.
Do not perform a ground start if turbine inlet
temperature (residual temperature) is above that
specified by the manufacturer.
Provide fuel under low pressure to the engine’s fuel
pump.
 Starting Procedures
To start an engine on the ground, perform the following operations:
 Turn the aircraft boost pumps on.
 Make sure that the power lever is in the “start”
 position.
 Place the start switch in the “start” position. This starts
 the engine turning.
 Place the ignition switch on. (On some engines, the
 ignition is activated by moving the fuel lever.)
 The fuel is now turned on. This is accomplished by
 moving the condition lever to the “on” position.
 Monitor the engine lights of the exhaust temperature. If it exceeds the
limits, shut the engine down.
 Check the oil pressure and temperature.
 After the engine reaches a self-sustaining speed, the
 starter is disengaged.
 The engine continues to accelerate up to idle.
 Maintain the power lever at the “start” position until the specified
minimum oil temperature is reached.
 Disconnect the ground power supply, if used.
 If any of the following conditions occur during the starting sequence,
turn off the fuel and ignition switch, discontinue the start immediately,
make an investigation, and record
 Turbine inlet temperature exceeds the specified maximum. Record the
observed peak temperature.
 Acceleration time from start of propeller rotation to stabilized rpm
exceeds the specified time.
 There is no oil pressure indication at 5,000 rpm for either the reduction
gear or the power unit.
 Torching (visible burning in the exhaust nozzle).
 The engine fails to ignite by 4,500 rpm or maximum motoring rpm.
 Abnormal vibration is noted or compressor surge occurs (indicated by
backfiring).
 Fire warning bell rings. (This may be due to either an engine fire or
overheat.)
 Turbofan Engines

1. If the engine is so equipped, place the power lever in the “idle” position.
2.Turn the fuel boost pump(s) switch on.
3.A fuel inlet pressure indicator reading ensures fuel is being delivered to engine fuel
pump inlet.
4.Turn engine starter switch on. Note that the engine rotates to a preset limit. Check
for oil pressure.
5.Turn ignition switch on. (This is usually accomplished by moving the start lever
toward the “on” position. A micro switch connected to the leveler turns on the
ignition.)
6.Move the start lever to “idle” or “start” position, this starts fuel flow into the
engine.
7.Engine start (light off) is indicated by a rise in exhaust gas temperature.
8.If a two-spool engine, check rotation of fan or N1.
9.Check for proper oil pressure.
10.Turn engine starter switch off at proper speeds.
11.After engine stabilizes at idle, ensure that none of the engine limits are exceeded.
12.Newer aircraft drop off the starter automatically.
 UNIT II

GROUND SERVICING OF VARIOUS

SUB SYSTEMS
 TOPICS

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

PRESURISATION SYSTEM
OXYGEN SYSTEM
OIL SYSTEM
GROUND UNITS
MAINTENANCE
 Air Conditioning Systems

Temperature and Altitude

Temperature variations in the atmosphere are of
concern to aviators.
Weather systems produce changes in temperature
near the earth’s surface.
 Temperature also changes as altitude is increased.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the
atmosphere.
On average, it ranges from the earth’s surface to
about 38,000 feet above it.
 Over the poles, the troposphere extends to only
25,000–30,000 feet and,
at the equator, may extend to
around 60,000 feet.
Most civilian aviation takes place in the troposphere
in which temperature decreases as altitude increases.
 The rate of change is somewhat constant at about –2
°C or –3.5 °F for every 1,000 feet of increase in
altitude.
The upper boundary of the troposphere is the
tropopause. It is characterized as a zone of relatively
constant temperature of –57 °C or –69 °F.
 Air Conditioning Systems

There are two types of air conditioning systems

commonly used on aircraft.
Air cycle air conditioning
used on most turbine-powered aircraft.
Vapor cycle air conditioning systems
often used on reciprocating aircraft.
 Air Cycle Air Conditioning

Air cycle air conditioning prepares engine bleed air

to pressurize the aircraft cabin.
The temperature and quantity of the air must be
controlled to maintain a comfortable cabin
environment at all altitudes and on the ground.
The air cycle system is often called the air
conditioning package or pack.
It is usually located in the lower half of the fuselage
or in the tail section of turbine-powered aircraft.
 System Operation

Even with the frigid temperatures experienced at

high altitudes, bleed air is too hot to be used in the
cabin without being cooled.
 It is let into the air cycle system and routed
through a heat exchanger where ram air cools the
bleed air.
This cooled bleed air is directed into an air cycle
machine.
There, it is compressed before flowing through
a secondary heat exchange that cools the air
again with ram air.
The bleed air then flows back into the air cycle
machine where it drives an expansion turbine and
cools even further.
 Water is then removed, and the air is mixed with
bypassed bleed air for final temperature adjustment.
It is sent to the cabin through the air distribution
system.
 Component Operation

 Pack Valve
The pack valve is the valve that regulates bleed air
from the pneumatic manifold into the air cycle air
conditioning system.
 Bleed Air Bypass
A means for bypassing some of the pneumatic air
supplied to the air cycle air conditioning system
around the system is present on all aircraft.
 Component Operation

 Primary Heat Exchanger

Generally, the warm air dedicated to pass through
the air cycle system first passes through a primary
heat exchanger.
It acts similarly to the radiator in an automobile.
A controlled flow of ram air is ducted over and
through the exchanger, which reduces the
temperature of the air inside the system.
 Component Operation

 Refrigeration Turbine Unit or Air Cycle

Machine
The heart of the air cycle air conditioning system is
the refrigeration turbine unit, also known as the air
cycle machine (ACM).
 It is comprised of a compressor that is driven by a
turbine on a common shaft.
System air flows from the primary heat exchanger
into the compressor side of the ACM
 Component Operation

 Secondary Heat Exchanger

As the air is compressed, its temperature rises. It is
then sent to a secondary heat exchanger, similar to
the primary heat exchanger located in the ram air
duct.
The elevated temperature of the ACM compressed
air facilitates an easy exchange of heat energy to the
ram air.
 Component Operation

 Water Separator
The cool air from the air cycle machine can no longer
hold the quantity of water it could when it was warm.
A water separator is used to remove the water from
the saturated air before it is sent to the aircraft cabin.
The separator operates with no moving parts
 Component Operation

 Refrigeration Bypass Valve

As mentioned, air exiting the ACM turbine expands
and cools.
It becomes so cold, it could freeze the water in the
water separator, thus inhibiting or blocking airflow.
A temperature sensor in the separator controls a
refrigeration bypass valve designed to keep the air
flowing through the water separator above freezing
temperature.
 Component Operation

 Cabin Temperature Control System

Most cabin temperature control systems operate in a
similar manner.
Temperature is monitored in the cabin, cockpit,
conditioned air ducts, and distribution air ducts.
These values are input into a temperature controller,
or temperature control regulator, normally located in
the electronics bay.
 A temperature selector in the cockpit can be
adjusted to input the desired temperature
 Vapor Cycle Air Conditioning

Vapor cycle air conditioning is used on most non

turbine aircraft that are equipped with air
conditioning.
 However, it is not a source of pressurizing air as the
air cycle system conditioned air is on turbine
powered aircraft.
The vapor cycle system only cools the cabin.
 If an aircraft equipped with a vapor cycle air
conditioning system is pressurized,
 Theory of Refrigeration

Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; however, it

can be transformed and moved.
This is what occurs during vapor cycle air conditioning.
 Heat energy is moved from the cabin air into a liquid
refrigerant.
Due to the additional energy, the liquid changes into a
vapor.
The vapor is compressed and becomes very hot.
It is removed from the cabin where the very hot vapor
refrigerant transfers its heat energy to the outside air.
In doing so, the refrigerant cools and condenses back into
a liquid.
The refrigerant returns to the cabin to repeat the cycle of
energy transfer.
 Vapor Cycle Air Conditioning System
Components

Refrigerant
dichlorodifluoromethane (R12) was the standard
refrigerant used in aircraft vapor cycle air
conditioning systems.
Some of these systems remain in use today.
R12 was found to have a negative effect on the
environment; in particular, it degraded the earth’s
protective ozone layer.
In most cases, it has been replaced by
tetrafluoroethane (R134a), which is safer for the
environment.
Receiver Dryer
The receiver dryer acts as the reservoir of the
vapor cycle system.
It is located downstream of the condenser and
upstream of the expansion valve.
When it is very hot, more refrigerant is used by
the system than when temperatures are
moderate.
Extra refrigerant is stored in the receiver dryer
for this purpose.
Expansion Valve
Refrigerant exits the receiver dryer and flows to
the expansion valve.
The thermostatic expansion valve has an
adjustable orifice through which the correct
amount of refrigerant is metered to obtain optimal
cooling.
This is accomplished by monitoring the
temperature of the gaseous refrigerant at the outlet
of the next component in the cycle
Evaporator
 Most evaporators are constructed of copper or aluminum
tubing coiled into a compact unit.
 Fins are attached to increase surface area, facilitating rapid
heat transfer between the cabin air blown over the outside of
the evaporator with a fan and the refrigerant inside.
 The expansion valve located at the evaporator inlet releases
high-pressure, high-temperature liquid refrigerant into the
evaporator.
 As the refrigerant absorbs heat from the cabin air, it
changes into a low-pressure vapor.
 This is discharged from the evaporator outlet to the next
component in the vapor cycle system, the compressor
Compressor
The compressor is the heart of the vapor cycle air
conditioning system.
It circulates the refrigerant around the vapor cycle
system. It receives low-pressure, low-temperature
refrigerant vapor from the outlet of the evaporator
and compresses it.
As the pressure is increased, the temperature also
increases.
 The refrigerant temperature is raised above that of
the outside air temperature.
 The refrigerant then flows out of the compressor to
the condenser where it gives off the heat to the
outside air.
Condenser
The condenser is the final component in the vapor
cycle.
It is a radiator-like heat exchanger situated so that
outside air flows over it and absorbs heat from the
high-pressure, high temperature refrigerant received
from the compressor.
A fan is usually included to draw the air through the
compressor during ground operation.
Service Valves
All vapor cycle air conditioning systems are closed
systems; however, access is required for servicing.
 This is accomplished through the use of two service
valves.
 One valve is located in the high side of the system
and the other in the low side.
A common type of valve used on vapor cycle systems
that operate with R12 refrigerant is the Schrader
valve.
 Air Conditioning Servicing Equipment

Manifold Set, Gauges, Hoses, and Fittings

the main servicing device for vapor cycle air
conditioning systems was the manifold set.
It contains three hose fittings, two O-ring sealed
valves, and two gauges.
It is essentially a manifold into which the gauges,
fittings, and valves are attached.
The valves are positioned to connect or isolate the
center hose with either fitting.
 System Servicing

Vapor cycle air conditioning systems can give many

hours of reliable, maintenance-free service.
Visual Inspection
Leak Test
Performance Test
Feel Test
Purging the System
Checking Compressor Oil
Evacuating the System
Charging the System
Aircraft Pressurization Systems
 Pressurization Terms

1. Cabin altitude—given the air pressure inside the

cabin, the altitude on a standard day that has the
same pressure as that in the cabin. Rather than
saying the pressure inside the cabin is 10.92 psi, it
can be said that the cabin altitude is 8,000 feet
(MSL).
2. Cabin differential pressure—the difference between
the air pressure inside the cabin and the air
pressure outside the cabin. Cabin pressure (psi) –
ambient pressure (psi) = cabin differential pressure
(psid or Δ psi).
3. Cabin rate of climb—the rate of change of air
pressure inside the cabin, expressed in feet per
minute (fpm) of cabin altitude change.
 Sources of Pressurized Air

The source of air to pressurize an

aircraft varies mainly with engine type.
Reciprocating aircraft have
pressurization sources different from
those of turbine-powered aircraft.
Note that the compression of air raises
its temperature.
 Reciprocating Engine Aircraft

There are three typical sources of air used to

pressurize reciprocating aircraft:
 supercharger
 turbocharger
engine-driven compressor.
 Turbine Engine Aircraft

The main principle of operation of a turbine engine

involves the compression of large amounts of air to
be mixed with fuel and burned.
Bleed air from the compressor section of the engine
is relatively free of contaminants.
Superchargers and turbochargers are installed on
reciprocating engines to permit better performance
at high altitude by increasing the quantity and
pressure of the air in the induction system.
Some of the air produced by each of these can be
routed into the cabin to pressurize it
 Supercharger

A supercharger is mechanically driven by the engine.

Despite engine performance increases due to higher
induction system pressure, some of the engine output is
utilized by the supercharger.
 Furthermore, superchargers have limited capability to
increase engine performance.
If supplying both the intake and the cabin with air, the
engine performance ceiling is lower than if the aircraft
were not pressurized.
Superchargers must be located upstream of the fuel
delivery to be used for pressurization. They are found on
older reciprocating engine aircraft, including those with
radial engines.
Turbochargers, sometimes known as turbosuperchargers,
are driven by engine exhaust gases.
 They are the most common source of pressurization on
modern reciprocating engine aircraft.
The turbocharger impeller shaft extends through the
bearing housing to support a compression impeller in a
separate housing.
By using some of the turbocharger compressed air for
cabin pressurization, less is available for the intake
charge, resulting in lower overall engine performance.
The roots blower is used on older, large reciprocating
engine aircraft.
The two lobes in this compressor do not touch each
other or the compressor housing.
As they rotate, air enters the space between the lobes
and is compressed and delivered to the cabin for
pressurization.
Turbine Engine Aircraft
 Cabin Pressurization Troubleshooting

While pressurization systems on different aircraft

operate similarly with similar components, it cannot
be assumed that they are the same.
Even those systems constructed by a single
manufacturer likely have differences when installed
on different aircraft.
 It is important to check the aircraft manufacture’s
service information when troubleshooting the
pressurization system.
 A fault, such as failure to pressurize or failure to
maintain pressurization, can have many different
causes.
Adherence to the steps in a manufacturer’s
troubleshooting procedures is highly recommended
to sequentially evaluate possible causes.
Pressurization system test kits are available, or the
aircraft can be pressurized by its normal sources
during troubleshooting.
 A test flight may be required after maintenance.
 OXYGEN SYSTEMS

The negative effects of reduced atmospheric pressure

at flight altitudes, forcing less oxygen into the blood,
can be overcome.
There are two ways this is commonly done:
 increase the pressure of the oxygen
 increase the quantity of oxygen in the air mixture.
 FORMS OF O2

Gaseous Oxygen
Liquid Oxygen
Chemical or Solid Oxygen
Onboard Oxygen Generating Systems (OBOGS)
 Properties of O2

Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas at

normal atmospheric temperatures and pressures.
It transforms into a liquid at –183 °C (its boiling point).
Pure gaseous oxygen, or nearly pure gaseous oxygen, is
stored and transported in high-pressure cylinders that
are typically painted green.
 Technicians should be cautious to keep pure oxygen
away from fuel, oil, and grease to prevent unwanted
combustion.
Not all oxygen in containers is the same. Aviator’s
breathing oxygen is tested for the presence of water.
The words “Aviator’s Breathing Oxygen” should be
marked clearly on any cylinders containing oxygen
for this purpose.
Liquid oxygen (LOX) is a pale blue, transparent
liquid. Oxygen can be made liquid by lowering the
temperature to below –183 °C or by placing gaseous
oxygen under pressure.
 Sodium chlorate has a unique characteristic. When
ignited, it produces oxygen as it burns.
 Oxygen Systems

Continuous-Flow Systems
Demand-Flow Systems
Chemical Oxygen Systems
LOX Systems
Solid Oxygen System
LOX
OBOGS
Gaseous oxygen system
 Oxygen Systems

Continuous-Flow Systems
Demand-Flow Systems
Chemical Oxygen Systems
LOX Systems
Continuous-Flow Systems
Demand Flow Systems
 Oxygen System Servicing

Servicing Gaseous Oxygen

 Gaseous oxygen systems are prevalent in general,
corporate, and airline aviation.
 The use of lightweight aluminum and composite
storage cylinders has improved these simple and
reliable life support systems.
 All gaseous oxygen systems require servicing and
maintenance.
Leak Testing Gaseous Oxygen Systems
Draining an Oxygen System
Filling an Oxygen System
Purging an Oxygen System
Inspection of Masks and Hoses
Replacing Tubing, Valves, and Fittings
1. Check hydrostatic dates on all cylinders, especially
those that are to be filled on the aircraft. If a cylinder
is out of date, remove and replace it with a specified
unit that is serviceable.
2. Check pressures on all cylinders on the cart and in
the aircraft. If pressure is below 50 psi, replace the
cylinder(s). On the aircraft, this may require purging
the system with oxygen when completed. Best
practices dictate that any low-pressure or empty
cylinder(s) on the cart should also be removed and
replaced when discovered.
3. Take all oxygen handling precautions to ensure a
safe environment around the aircraft.
4. Ground the refill cart to the aircraft.
5. Connect the cart hose from the cart manifold to
the aircraft fill port. Purge the air from the refill hose
with oxygen before opening the refill valve on the
aircraft. Some hoses are equipped with purge valves
to do this while the hose is securely attached to the
aircraft. Other hoses need to be purged while
attached to the refill fitting but not fully tightened.
6. Observe the pressure on the aircraft bottle to be filled.
Open it. On the refill cart, open the cylinder with the
closest pressure to the aircraft cylinder that exceeds it.
7. Open the aircraft oxygen system refill valve. Oxygen
will flow from cart cylinder (manifold) into the aircraft
cylinder.
8. When the cylinder pressures equalize, close the
cylinder on the cart, and open the cart cylinder with the
next highest pressure. Allow it to flow into the aircraft
cylinder until the pressures equalize and flow ceases.
Close the cart cylinder and proceed to the cart cylinder
with the next highest pressure.
9. Continue the procedure in step 8 until the desired
pressure in the aircraft cylinder is achieved.
10. Close the aircraft refill valve and close all
cylinders on the cart.
11. The aircraft oxygen cylinder valve(s) should be
left in the proper position for normal operations.
Remotely mounted cylinders are usually left open.
12. Disconnect the refill line from the refill port on
the aircraft. Cap or cover both.
13. Remove the grounding strap.
 Filling LOX Systems

The use of LOX in civilian aviation is rare. The most

common and safest way to fill a LOX system is to
simply exchange the storage unit for one that is full.
However, filling LOX on the aircraft is possible.
Oxygen System Inspection and Maintenance

When working around oxygen and oxygen systems,

cleanliness enhances safety.
Clean, grease-free hands, clothes, and tools are essential.
A good practice is to use only tools dedicated for work on
oxygen systems.
 There should be absolutely no smoking or open flames
within a minimum of 50 feet of the work area.
Always use protective caps and plugs when working with
oxygen cylinders, system components, or plumbing.
Do not use any kind of adhesive tape.
Oxygen cylinders should be stored in a designated, cool,
ventilated area in the hangar away from petroleum
products or heat sources.


 Oxygen system maintenance should not be accomplished until the

valve on the oxygen supply cylinder is closed and pressure is
released from the system.
 Fittings should be unscrewed slowly to allow any residual pressure
to dissipate.
 All oxygen lines should be marked and should have at least 2
inches of clearance from moving parts, electrical wiring, and all
fluid lines.
 Adequate clearance must also be provided from hot ducts and
other sources that might heat the oxygen.
 A pressure and leak check must be performed each time the
system is opened for maintenance.
 Do not use any lubricants, sealers, cleaners, etc., unless
specifically approved for oxygen system use.
 OIL SYSTEMS

The engine oil system performs several important

functions:
• Lubrication of the engine’s moving parts
• Cooling of the engine by reducing friction
• Removing heat from the cylinders
• Providing a seal between the cylinder walls and
pistons
• Carrying away contaminants
 Reciprocating engines use either a
 wet-sump or a dry-sump oil system.
 In a wet-sump system, the oil is located in a sump
that is an integral part of the engine.
 In a dry-sump system, the oil is contained in a
separate tank and circulated through the engine by
pumps.
Wet Sump System
Dry Sump System
Lubrication System Maintenance Practices
 Turbine Lubrication System Components

Oil Tank
Oil Pump
Turbine Oil Filters
Oil Pressure Relief Valve
Oil Jets
Oil Pressure Regulating Valve
Lubrication System Breather Systems (Vents)
Lubrication System Check Valve
Lubrication System Thermostatic Bypass Valves
Air Oil Coolers
Magnetic Chip Detectors
Dry Sump pressure regulated System-
Turbine Engine
Typical Dry-Sump Variable Pressure
Lubrication System
 Turbine Engine Oil System Maintenance

 Maintenance of gas turbine lubrication systems consists

mainly of adjusting, removing, cleaning, and replacing various
components.
 Oil filter maintenance and oil change intervals for turbine
engines vary widely from model to model, depending on the
severity of the oil temperature conditions imposed by the
specific airframe installation and engine configuration.
 The applicable manufacturer’s instructions should be followed.
 The oil filter should be removed at every regular inspection.
 It should be disassembled, cleaned, and any worn or damaged
filter elements replaced.
 The following steps illustrate typical oil filter removal cleaning
and replacement procedures:
1. Provide a suitable container for collecting the drained oil, if
needed.
2. Remove the filter housing and withdraw the filter
assembly.Discard the old seals.
3. Immerse the screen or filter in an approved carbon remover
at room temperature for a few minutes. Rinse them in a
degreaser fluid or cleaning solvent. Then, blow them dry with
an air jet.
4. Then, install the filter in the filter housing assembly. Place a
new seal and tightened to the torque prescribed in the
manufacturer’s instructions.
5. Secure with lock wire.
 UNIT III
MAINTENANCE OF SAFETY

SHOP SAFETY
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
FIRE SAFETY
FLIGHT LINE SAFETY
SAFETY AROUND VARIUOS FACTORS
ENVIRONMENTAL CLEANLINESS
 Shop safety

Keeping the shop, hangars, and flight line clean is

essential to safety and efficient maintenance.
The highest standards of orderly work arrangements
and cleanliness must be observed during the
maintenance of aircraft.
Where continuous work shifts are established, the
outgoing shift removes and properly stores personal
tools, rollaway boxes, work stands, maintenance
stands, hoses, electrical cords, hoists, crates, and
boxes that were needed for the work to be
accomplished.
Signs are posted to indicate dangerous equipment or
hazardous conditions. Additionally, there are signs
that provide the location of first aid and fire
equipment.
Safety lanes, pedestrian walkways, and fire lanes are
painted around the perimeter inside the hangars.
This is a safety measure to prevent accidents and to
keep pedestrian traffic out of work areas.
Safety is everyone’s business.
However, technicians and supervisors must watch
for their own safety and for the safety of others
working around them.
 Communication is key to ensuring everyone’s safety.
If other personnel are conducting their actions in an
unsafe manner, communicate with them, reminding
them of their safety and that of others around them.
 Electrical Safety

Physiological Safety
Working with electrical equipment poses certain
physiological safety hazards.
When electricity is applied to the human body, it can
create severe burns in the area of entrance and at the
point of exit from the body.
In addition, the nervous system is affected and can be
damaged or destroyed.
 To safely deal with electricity, the technician must have a
working knowledge of the principles of electricity and a
healthy respect for its capability to do both work and
damage.
Wearing or use of proper safety equipment can provide a
psychological assurance and physically protect the user
at the same time.
The use of rubber gloves, safety glasses, rubber or
grounded safety mats, and other safety equipment
contributes to the overall safety of the technician working
on or with electrical equipment.
Two factors that affect safety when dealing with
electricity are fear and overconfidence.
These two factors are major causes of accidents involving
electricity. While a certain amount of respect for
electrical equipment is healthy and a certain level of
confidence is necessary, extremes of either can be deadly.
Lack of respect is often due to lack of knowledge.
Personnel who attempt to work with electrical
equipment and have no knowledge of the principles
of electricity lack the skills to deal with electrical
equipment safely.
Overconfidence leads to risk taking.
The technician who does not respect the capabilities
of electricity will, sooner or later, become a victim of
electricity’s power.
Fire Safety
Anytime current flows, whether during generation or
transmission, a by-product is heat.
The greater the current flow, the greater the amount
of heat created. When this heat becomes too great,
protective coatings on wiring and other electrical
devices can melt, causing shorting.
That in turn leads to more current flow and greater
heat. This heat can become so great that metals can
melt, liquids vaporize, and flammable substances
ignite.
 An important factor in preventing electrical fires is to keep the
area around electrical work or electrical equipment clean,
uncluttered, and free of all unnecessary flammable
substances.
 Ensure that all power cords, wires, and lines are free of kinks
and bends that can damage the wire.
 Never place wires or cords where they may be walked on or
run over by other equipment.
 When several wires inside a power cord are broken, the
current passing through the remaining wires increases.
 This generates more heat than the insulation coatings on the
wire are designed to withstand and can lead to a fire.
 Closely monitor the condition of electrical equipment. Repair
or replace damaged equipment before further use.
 Requirements for Fire to Occur

Fuel—combines with oxygen in the presence of heat,

releasing more heat. As a result, it reduces itself to
other chemical compounds.
Heat—accelerates the combining of oxygen with fuel,
in turn releasing more heat.
Oxygen—the element that combines chemically with
another substance through the process of oxidation.
Rapid oxidation, accompanied by a noticeable
release of heat and light, is called combustion or
burning.
 Classification of Fires

For commercial purposes, the National Fire

Protection Association (NFPA) has classified
fires into three basic types:
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 Class D
 1. Class A fires involve ordinary combustible materials, such

as wood, cloth, paper, upholstery materials, and so forth.

 2. Class B fires involve flammable petroleum products or

other flammable or combustible liquids, greases, solvents,

paints, and so forth.
 3. Class C fires involve energized electrical wiring and

equipment.
4.A fourth class of fire, the Class D fire, involves

flammable metal.
Class D fires are not commercially considered by the NFPA

to be a basic type of fire since they are caused by a Class A,

B, or C fire.
Usually Class D fires involve magnesium in the shop, or in

aircraft wheels and brakes, or are the result of improper

welding operations.
 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Water extinguishers are the best type to use on Class

A fires.Water has two effects on fire. It deprives fire
of oxygen and cools the material being burned.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguishers are used for
Class A, B, and C fires, extinguishing the fire by
depriving it of oxygen. Additionally, like water-type
extinguishers, CO2 cools the burning material.
Halogenated hydrocarbon extinguishers are most
effective on Class B and C fires. They can be used on
Class A and D fires, but they are less effective.
TYPES OF FIRES
 Inspection of Fire Extinguishers

Fire extinguishers need to be checked periodically

utilizing a checklist. If a checklist is unavailable, check
the following as a minimum:
Proper location of appropriate extinguisher
Safety seals unbroken
All external dirt and rust removed
Gauge or indicator in operable range
Proper weight
No nozzle obstruction
No obvious damage
 Flight Line Safety

Hearing Protection
Foreign Object Damage (FOD)
Safety Around Airplanes
Safety Around Helicopters

 Hearing Protection

The flight line is a place of dangerous activity.

Technicians who perform maintenance on the flight line
must constantly be aware of what is going on around
them.
The noise on a flight line comes from many places.
 Aircraft are only one source of noise.
There are auxiliary power units (APUs), fuel while the
blades are turning, adhere to the following trucks,
baggage handling equipment, and so forth. Each has its
own frequency of sound. Combined all together, the noise
on the ramp or flight line can cause hearing loss.
There are many types of hearing protection available.
Hearing protection can be external or internal. Earmuffs
or headphones are considered external protection. The
internal type of hearing protection fits into the auditory
canal.
Both types reduce the sound level reaching the eardrum
and reduce the chances of hearing loss.
Hearing protection is essential when working with
pneumatic drills, rivet guns, or other loud tools.
Even short duration exposure to these sounds can cause
hearing loss because of their high frequency.
 Continued exposure will cause hearing loss.
 Foreign Object Damage (FOD)

Foreign object damage (FOD) is any damage to

aircraft, personnel, or equipment caused by any
loose object. These loose objects can be anything,
such as broken runway concrete, shop towels, safety
wire, etc. To control FOD, keep ramp and operation
areas clean, have a tool control program, and provide
convenient receptacles for used hardware, shop
towels, and other consumables.
 Safety Around Airplanes

As with the previously mentioned items, it is

important to be aware of propellers.
Technicians cannot assume the pilot of a taxiing
aircraft can see them and must stay within the pilot’s
view while on the ramp area.
 Turbine engine intakes and exhaust can also be very
hazardous areas.
Smoking or open flames are not permitted anywhere
near an aircraft in operation.
 Be aware of aircraft fluids that can be detrimental to
skin.
 When operating support equipment around aircraft,
be sure to allow space between it and the aircraft,
and secure it so it cannot roll into the aircraft.
 All items in the area of operating aircraft must be
stowed properly.
 Safety Around Helicopters

Every type of helicopter has different features. These

differences must be learned to avoid damaging the
helicopter or injuring the technician.
When approaching a helicopter Observe the rotor
head and blades to see if they are level. This allows
maximum clearance when approaching the
helicopter.
Approach the helicopter in view of the pilot.
Never approach a helicopter carrying anything with
a vertical height that the blades could hit. This could
cause blade damage and injury to the individual.
Never approach a single-rotor helicopter from the
rear. The tail rotor is invisible when operating.
Never go from one side of the helicopter to the other
by going around the tail. Always go around the nose
of the helicopter.
When securing the rotor on helicopters with
elastomeric bearings, check the maintenance manual
for the proper method. Using the wrong method
could damage the bearing.
 Safety Around Compressed Gases

Compressed air, like electricity, is an excellent tool

when it is under control.
The following “dos and don’ts” apply when working
with or around compressed gases:
Inspect air hoses frequently for breaks and worn
spots. Unsafe hoses must be replaced immediately.
Keep all connections in a “no-leak condition.”
Maintain in-line oilers, if installed, in operating
condition.
Ensure the system has water sumps installed and
drained at regular intervals.
Filter air used for paint spraying to remove oil and
water.
Never use compressed air to clean hands or clothing.
Pressure can force debris into the flesh leading to
infection.
Never spray compressed air in the area of other
personnel.
Straighten, coil, and properly store air hoses when
not in use.
Many accidents involving compressed gases occur
during aircraft tire mounting. To prevent possible
personal injury, use tire dollies and other
appropriate devices to mount or remove heavy
aircraft tires.
When inflating tires on any type of aircraft wheels,
always use tire cage guards. Extreme caution is
required to avoid over inflation of high-pressure tires
because of possible personal injury
 Safety Around Hazardous Materials

Material safety diamonds are important with regard to

shop safety.
These diamond-shaped labels are a simple and quick way
to determine the risk of hazardous material within the
associated container and, if used properly with the tags,
indicate what personal safety equipment to use.
The most observable portion of the Safety Data Sheets
(SDSs) (formerly known as Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS)) label is the risk diamond.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
It is a four-color segmented diamond that
represents flammability (red), reactivity (yellow),
health (blue), and special hazard (white).
In the flammability, reactivity, and health blocks,
there is a number from 0 to 4.
Zero represents little or no hazard to the user,
4 means that the material is very hazardous.
The special hazard segment contains a word or
abbreviation to represent the specific hazard.
Some examples are RAD for radiation,
ALK for alkali materials, Acid for acidic materials,
CARC for carcinogenic materials.
The letter W with a line through it stands for high
reactivity to water.
 Safety Around Machine Tools

Hazards in a shop increase when the operation of

lathes, drill presses, grinders, and other types of
machines are used.
Each machine has its own set of safety practices.
The following discussions are necessary to avoid
injury.
The drill press can be used to bore and ream holes,
to do facing, milling, and other similar types of
operations.
The following precautions can reduce the chance of
injury:
Wear eye protection.
Securely clamp all work.
Set the proper revolutions per minute (RPM) for
the material used.
Do not allow the spindle to feed beyond its limit of
travel while drilling.
Stop the machine before adjusting work or
attempting to remove jammed work.
Clean the area when finished.
 Lathes are used in turning work of a cylindrical nature.
 This work may be performed on the inside or outside of the cylinder.
 The work is secured in the chuck to provide the rotary motion, and
the forming is done by contact with a securely mounted tool.
 The following precautions can reduce the chance of injury:
 Wear eye protection.
 Use sharp cutting tools.
 Allow the chuck to stop on its own. Do not attempt to stop the chuck
by hand pressure.
 Examine tools and work for cracks or defects before starting the work.
 Do not set tools on the lathe. Tools may be caught by the work and
thrown.
 Before measuring the work, allow it to stop in the lathe.
 Milling machines are used to shape or dress; cut gear teeth,
slots, or key ways; and similar work.
 The following precautions can reduce the chance of injury:

 Wear eye protection.

 Clean the work bed prior to work.
 Secure the work to the bed to prevent movement during
milling.
 Select the proper tools for the job.
 Do not change the feed speed while working.
 Lower the table before moving under or away from the work.
 Ensure all clamps and bolts are passable under the arbor.
 Grinders are used to sharpen tools, dress metal, and perform other operations
involving the removal of small amounts of metal.
 The following precautions can reduce the chance of injury:

Wear eye protection, even if the grinder has a shield.

Inspect the grinding wheel for defects prior to use.
Do not force grinding wheels onto the spindle. They
fit snugly but do not require force to install them.
Placing side pressure on a wheel could cause it to
explode.
Check the wheel flanges and compression washer.
They should be one-third the diameter of the wheel.
Do not stand in the arc of the grinding wheel while
operating in case the wheel explodes.
Welding must be performed only in designated
areas.
Any part that is to be welded must be removed from
the aircraft, if possible.
Repair would then be accomplished in a controlled
environment, such as a welding shop.
A welding shop must be equipped with proper tables,
ventilation, tool storage, and fire prevention and
extinguishing equipment.
 Welding on an aircraft should be performed outside, if
possible.
 If welding in the hangar is necessary, observe these
precautions:

 During welding operations, open fuel tanks and work on fuel

systems are not permitted.
 Painting is not permitted.
 No aircraft are to be within 35 feet of the welding operation.
 No flammable material is permitted in the area around the
welding operation.
 Only qualified welders are permitted to do the work.
The welding area is to be roped off and placarded.
Fire extinguishing equipment of a minimum rating of
20B must be in the immediate area with 80B rated
equipment as a backup.
Trained fire watches are to be present in the area around
the welding operation.
The aircraft being welded must be in a towable condition,
with a tug attached, and the aircraft parking brakes
released.
A qualified operator must be on the tug and mechanics
available to assist in the towing operation should it
become necessary to tow the aircraft. If the aircraft is in
the hangar, the hangar doors are to be open.
 Maintenance

The process of keeping something in useable

condition by checking or repairing it on regular
basis.
Practice
Actual doing of something rather than ideas
Way of doing something
Doing an activity or training on regular basis
to improve skills
Habit or Custom
 Maintenance Practice

This subject deals with the way of keeping

something in useable/good condition
Safety Precaution
An action taken in advance to
protect against possible
failure, or danger,
injury.

Maintenance Practice-
Workshop
A room or shop where work is
done

It includes
-Aircraft hanger maintenance
bays
-Mechanical and electrical bays
-Machine shops
-Cleaning plants
-Battery rooms
Accident
An unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly
and unintentionally, and may result in injury or
death of people and/or damage to equipments or
facilities
Accident always have a cause.
That cause may be
-unsafe human condition
-unsafe environmental condition (Humans are
responsible for choosing or creating unsafe
condition )
Hazard
anything that has the potential to create danger
and thus harm.

Most hazards are dormant or potential, with only

a theoretical risk of harm; however, once a
hazard becomes "active", it can create
an emergency situation.
Hazard
Hazards occurs as a result of day-to-day
activities in and around the workplace. e.g.
Slippery floor
Defective tools
Spilled chemicals
Overconfidence
Fatigue
Stress
Lack of fitness
Inappropriate or incorrectly worn dresses
Risk
‘risk is the likelihood/chance that a person may be
harmed
or suffers adverse health effects if exposed to a hazard.’
The level of risk is often categorised upon the potential
harm or adverse health effect that the hazard may cause,
the number of times persons are exposed and the number
of persons exposed.
Exposure to airborne asbestos fibres will always be
classified as high because a single exposure may cause
potentially fatal lung disease, whereas the risk associated
watching a television for a short period could be
considered to be very low as the potential harm or
adverse health effects are minimal.
Risk and Hazard
The terms Hazard and Risk are often used
interchangeably but this simple example explains the
difference between the two.

If there was a spill of water in a room then that water

would present a slipping hazard to persons passing
through it. If access to that area was prevented by a
physical barrier then the hazard would remain
though the risk would be minimised.

So, Risk and Hazard collectively leads to Accident.

Risk Assessment for Safety
A risk assessment would involve identifying a
hazard and then evaluating the risk in the light of
precautions to reduce the danger or remove it.

First hazard must be recognized; then they must be

assessed; and finally, if necessary, they must be
controlled.
Recognition of Hazard
Recognition of Hazard
APATHY STRESS
BOREDOM LACK OF FITNESS
NEGLIGENCE INAPPROPRIATE OR
COMPLACENCY INCORRECTLY WORN
DISOBEDIENCE DRESSES
LONG HAIR
TOMFOOLERY
DRUG AND
SHOWING-OFF
ALCOHOL ABUSE
OVER
CONFIDENCE
FATIGUE
Airport
An airport is a location where aircraft such
as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and
blimps take off and land. Aircraft may be
stored or maintained at an airport. An
airport consists of at least one surface such
as a runway for a plane to take off and land,
a helipad, or water for takeoffs and
landings, and often includes buildings such
as control towers, hangars and terminal
buildings.
Airside and Landside
Airports are divided into landside and airside
areas.
Landside areas include parking lots, public
transportation train stations and access roads.
It is the area accessible to normal public.
Airside areas include all areas accessible to
aircraft, including runways, taxiways and
ramps.
Access from landside areas to airside areas is
tightly controlled at most airports.
Airside and Landside
Airside and Landside
APRON
Area that accommodates aircraft for the
purpose of loading/off-loading passengers
and cargo, refueling, parking and

maintenance
.
APRON
APRON
Tarmac: Though commonly used to describe the area
where planes park, tarmac isn’t officially a place. That
word is the name of a product produced by a British
company that produces a surface coating that is
applied to roads and airfields.
 Using tarmac to describe where planes park is
like calling the area outside a building where cars
park “the concrete” instead of calling it the parking
lot. Tarmac® with a capital “T” is a registered
trademark.
APRON
Ramp: It’s a common unofficial term that is very
much in use at airports of some American and Asian
countries.
APRON
Apron: This is in fact the official term used by both the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which
advises on aviation practices worldwide, and the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA), which regulates aviation
in the U.S., to designate the area at the airport where
parked and serviced at airports.

The apron is a busy place. It’s the part of the airport where
vehicles and airplanes share the same space. The many
movements on the apron are not generally controlled by
the air traffic control tower.
 Maneuvering Area
Area other than apron, used for the
movement of the aircraft on the ground and
for the taking-off and landing.
 Movement Area
Comprises both the maneuvering area and
the apron.
 Taxiway

Path connecting the runway to other aircraft

facilities, such as hangers and apron.
 Runway

A strip of land or water from which aircraft can

takeoff and land on airport.
Hanger
An enclosed structure designed to hold the aircraft
in protective storage.
 Points to be Observed
Apron environment is often a busy one and
be aware of the danger.

Aware with airport operations

instructions rules.

Entry to the maneuvering area require clearance

from local air traffic controller.
 Airport Marking
Airport markings are used to mark structures,
and
path so that these can be used by
required personnel or vehicles without
confusion.
Both paint and lightsare used for
marking so that, markings are visible in day as
well as night.

Vehicle routes – white line

Delineation between apron and maneuvering
area
Aircraft routeswhite
– double – yellow line
Pedestrian routes – green line
lines
 Apron
Normally illuminated by an array of overhead
pylon lights.
Vehicles
For driving in the movement area personnel
must require Airfield Driving Permit (ADP).
Aircraft have priority over all vehicles in the
airside.
Fire and rescue vehicles on emergency call out
have priority.
Pedestrian have priority on apron.
Vehicles
All vehicles display a roof mounted yellow
flashing obstruction light in movement area.
Fire and rescue vehicles display a flashing blue
light when emergency callout.
In apron speed of vehicles restricted to 15 mph.
Vehicles use dipped headlight while moving .
Vehicles must not approach aircraft until the
aircraft is choked and engines have been shut
down and anti-collision lights have been switched
off.
Vehicles
Vehicles have to positioned so that they do not have
to reverse in order to leave the zone.
Clothing
Wear approved high visibility anoraks or tabards
at all times.
Noise
Noise from turbine engine can cause temporary
or long-term damage to hearing.
This noise also blankets the sound of approaching
vehicles and will drown out shouted warnings.
Personnel working on airport needs to wear the
ear defenders.
Engine
Personnel must be alert at the time of starting of
engine not to stray in front of engine intakes,
propellers or into the jet-blast.
Even at low power setting hot jet blast can be left
100ft behind the aircraft.
At full power some engines can even pull a full grown
man into intake. And can throw a truck, if is in the
vicinity of engine’s exhaust.
So areas coming directly under the operation of
engine should be avoided.
Engine
Fuel Spill
The source of spill should be shutoff .
All sources of ignition should be removed.
All engines in Ground Power Unit and vehicles in
the area should be turned off.
Task Lighting
Overhead pylon lights are capable of illuminating the
area but this does not help when personnel are
working under aircraft.
Lighting in these area are well below what would
considered adequate for conducting maintenance
task.
Hand torches may seem to be an ideal solution but
their batteries gradually deplete and they do restrict
user to one handed operation.
Task Lighting
Ensure that the light being used during
maintenacne is of approved flameproof type.
Aircraft hangars present a range of human factors
issues. They are generally quite large and are built so
that most of the floor area is unobstructed by
structural support members. This design allows large
aircraft to be moved and parked in the building.
Their vast areas and high ceilings make hangars
difficult to light properly. Their large, unobstructed
volume makes public address systems difficult to
hear.
Large, open doors make controlling temperature and
humidity problematic. The use of elevated work
platforms and scaffolding is common, due to the
height of today's large jet aircraft. Individual
workspaces tend to be clustered around the aircraft
being maintained.